Humans excel at both mirroring others’ actions (imitation) as well as others’ goals and intentions (emulation). Since most research has focused on imitation, here we focus on how social and asocial learning predict the development of goal emulation. We tested 215 preschool children on two social conditions (imitation, emulation) and two asocial conditions (trial-and-error and recall) using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks involved responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). Generalized linear models demonstrated that during the preschool years, Motor-Spatial emulation is associated with social and asocial learning, while Cognitive emulation is associated only with social learning, including Motor-spatial emulation and multiple forms of imitation. This result contrasts with those from a previous study using this same dataset showing that Motor-Spatial and Cognitive imitation were neither associated with one another nor, generally, predicted by other forms of social or asocial learning. Together these results suggests that while developmental changes in imitation are associated with multiple—specialized—mechanisms, developmental changes in emulation are associated with age-related changes and a more unitary, domain-general mechanism that receives input from several different cognitive and learning processes, including some that may not necessarily be specialized for social learning.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
The Ghosts in the Computer: The Role of Agency and Animacy Attributions in “...Francys Subiaul
Three studies evaluated the role of 4-year-old children’s agency- and animacy-attributions when learning from a computerized ghost control (GC). In GCs participants observe events occurring without an apparent agent, as if executed by a “ghost” or unobserved causal forces. Using a touch-screen, children in Experiment 1 responded to three pictures in a specific order under three learning conditions: (i) trial-and-error (Baseline), (ii) imitation and (iii) Ghost Control. Before testing in the GC, children were read one of three scripts that determined agency attributions. Post-test assessments confirmed that all children attributed agency to the computer and learned in all GCs. In Experiment 2, children were not trained on the computer prior to testing, and no scripts were used. Three different GCs, varying in number of agency cues, were used. Children failed to learn in these GCs, yet attributed agency and animacy to the computer. Experiment 3 evaluated whether children could learn from a human model in the absence of training under conditions where the information presented by the model and the computer was either consistent or inconsistent. Children evidenced learning in both of these conditions. Overall, learning in social conditions (Exp. 3) was significantly better than learning in GCs (Exp. 2). These results, together with other published research, suggest that children privilege social over non-social sources of information and are generally more adept at learning novel tasks from a human than from a computer or GC.
Working Memory Constraints on Imitation and EmulationFrancys Subiaul
Does working memory (WM) constrain the amount and type of information children copy from a model? To answer this question, preschool age children (n = 165) were trained and then tested on a touch-screen task that involved touching simultaneously presented pictures. Prior to responding, children saw a model generate two target responses: Order, touching all the pictures on the screen in a target sequence 3 consecutive times and Multi-Tap, consistently touching one of the pictures two times. Children’s accuracy copying Order and Multi-Tap was assessed on two types of sequences: low WM (2 pictures) load and high WM (3 pictures) load. Results showed that more children copied both Order and Multi-Tap on 2- than on 3-picture sequences. Children that copied only one of the two target responses, tended to copy only Order on 2-picture sequences but only Multi-Tap on 3-picture sequences. Instructions to either copy or ignore the multi-tap response did not affect this overall pattern of results. In sum, results are consistent with the hypothesis that WM constrains not just the amount but also the type of information children copy from models; Potentially modulating whether children imitate or emulate in a given task.
Becoming a high-fidelity--Super--Imitator: What are the contributions of soci...Francys Subiaul
In contrast to other primates, human children’s imitation performance goes from low- to high-fidelity soon after infancy. Are such changes associated with the development of other forms of learning? We addressed this question by testing 215 children (26-59 months) on two social conditions (imitation, emulation)—involving a demonstration—and two asocial conditions (recall and trial-and-error)—involving individual learning—using two touchscreen tasks. The tasks required responding to either three different pictures in a specific picture order (Cognitive: Apple→Boy→Cat) or three identical pictures in a specific spatial order (Motor-Spatial Up→Down→Right). There were age-related improvements across all conditions. And imitation, emulation and recall performance were significantly better than trial-and-error learning. Generalized linear models demonstrated that motor-spatial imitation fidelity was associated with age and motor-spatial emulation, but cognitive imitation fidelity was only associated with age. While, this study provides evidence for multiple imitation mechanisms, the development of one of those mechanisms—motor-spatial imitation—may be bootstrapped by the development of another—motor-spatial emulation. Together, these findings provide important clues about the development of what is arguably a distinctive feature of human imitation performance.
The Ghosts in the Computer: The Role of Agency and Animacy Attributions in “...Francys Subiaul
Three studies evaluated the role of 4-year-old children’s agency- and animacy-attributions when learning from a computerized ghost control (GC). In GCs participants observe events occurring without an apparent agent, as if executed by a “ghost” or unobserved causal forces. Using a touch-screen, children in Experiment 1 responded to three pictures in a specific order under three learning conditions: (i) trial-and-error (Baseline), (ii) imitation and (iii) Ghost Control. Before testing in the GC, children were read one of three scripts that determined agency attributions. Post-test assessments confirmed that all children attributed agency to the computer and learned in all GCs. In Experiment 2, children were not trained on the computer prior to testing, and no scripts were used. Three different GCs, varying in number of agency cues, were used. Children failed to learn in these GCs, yet attributed agency and animacy to the computer. Experiment 3 evaluated whether children could learn from a human model in the absence of training under conditions where the information presented by the model and the computer was either consistent or inconsistent. Children evidenced learning in both of these conditions. Overall, learning in social conditions (Exp. 3) was significantly better than learning in GCs (Exp. 2). These results, together with other published research, suggest that children privilege social over non-social sources of information and are generally more adept at learning novel tasks from a human than from a computer or GC.
Working Memory Constraints on Imitation and EmulationFrancys Subiaul
Does working memory (WM) constrain the amount and type of information children copy from a model? To answer this question, preschool age children (n = 165) were trained and then tested on a touch-screen task that involved touching simultaneously presented pictures. Prior to responding, children saw a model generate two target responses: Order, touching all the pictures on the screen in a target sequence 3 consecutive times and Multi-Tap, consistently touching one of the pictures two times. Children’s accuracy copying Order and Multi-Tap was assessed on two types of sequences: low WM (2 pictures) load and high WM (3 pictures) load. Results showed that more children copied both Order and Multi-Tap on 2- than on 3-picture sequences. Children that copied only one of the two target responses, tended to copy only Order on 2-picture sequences but only Multi-Tap on 3-picture sequences. Instructions to either copy or ignore the multi-tap response did not affect this overall pattern of results. In sum, results are consistent with the hypothesis that WM constrains not just the amount but also the type of information children copy from models; Potentially modulating whether children imitate or emulate in a given task.
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether children’s imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year olds’ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., First→Second→Third) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., Up→Down→Right) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with ‘familiar’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Left→Middle→Right) as well as ‘novel’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Right→Up→Down) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
The imitation faculty in monkeys: Evaluating its features, distribution and e...Francys Subiaul
Despite more than 100 years of research, there is no agreement among experts as to whether or not monkeys can imitate. Part of the problem is that there is little agreement as to what constitutes an example of ‘imitation.’ Nevertheless, recent research provides compelling evidence for both continuities and discontinuities in the psychological faculty that mediates imitation performance. A number of studies have shown that monkeys are capable of copying familiar responses but not novel responses that require the use of tools, for example. And, while these studies have been interpreted to mean that monkeys cannot engage in ‘imitation learning’ or novel imitation, research employing a cognitive imitation paradigm—where rhesus monkeys had to copy novel serial rules pertaining to the order of pictures, independently of copying specific motor responses—has provided convincing evidence of novel imitation in monkeys. Rather than suggesting that monkeys are poor imitators, these results suggest that monkeys can learn novel cognitive rules but not novel motor rules, possibly because such skills require derived neural specializations mediating fine and gross motor movements; If true, such evidence represents an important discontinuity between the imitation skills of monkeys and apes with significant implications for human cognitive evolution.
Kimbrilee Schmitz To respond my opinion 8.1Consider the model.docxDIPESH30
Kimbrilee Schmitz: To respond my opinion 8.1
Consider the models of Piaget, Erickson, and others regarding the stages of cognitive developmental. Do these models suggest a correlation between cognitive development and learning development throughout the human lifespan? Why or why not?
Learning development consists of allowing a person to learn at their own pace so they fully understand what is learned and feel accomplished when they master a task. If a person is pushed to learn to fast, they feel defeated because they do not understand the concepts. If a person is learning at a pace that is too slow, they become bored. People also need to have time to learn, reflect, and apply what they have learned (Mayhew, Wolniak & Pascarella, 2008). Although some learning needs to be structured so people learn the correct concepts, there needs to be time for out of the box thinking and hands on applications.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development starts with an infant that cannot recognize that they are separate from the world and ends around age 11 where a child has a good concept of themselves and the world around them (Malerstein and Ahern, 1979). Erickson’s stages of life development stretches from birth to old age. Erickson believed that people had to complete steps in one phase before entering the next stage. These stages go from learning about one’s self and the world and end in reflecting on life and making sure all questions are answered (Ornstein, Cron & Slocum, 1989). Both of these models have a correlation with learning development. People have to learn certain things in each stage of their life. If they do not learn or accomplish certain things it is difficult for them to move forward in their life. Although there are age ranges set up with the models of cognitive development not everyone reaches each stage in the same time period. Just like learning development, people must learn and accomplish things at their own pace.
Resources:
Malerstein, A., & Ahern, M. M. (1979). Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development and Adult Character Structure. American Journal Of Psychotherapy, 33(1), 107. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rlh&AN=5349402&site=eds-live&scope=site
Mayhew, M. J., Wolniak, G. C., & Pascarella, E. T. (2008). How Educational Practices Affect the Development of Life-long Learning Orientations in Traditionally-aged Undergraduate Students. Research in Higher Education, (4). 337. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.25704567&site=eds-live&scope=site
Ornstein, S., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W. (1989). Life stage versus career stage: A comparative test of the theories of Levinson and Super. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 10(2), 117-133. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1989-31344-001&site=eds- ...
Social Learning in Humans and Nonhuman Animals: Theoretical and Empirical Dis...Francys Subiaul
In this special issue, we present a synthesis of work that consolidates what is currently known and provides a platform for
future research. Consequently, we include both new empirical
studies and novel theoretical proposals describing work with both human children and adults and a range of nonhuman animals. In this introduction, we describe the background of this special issue and provide a context for each of the eight articles it contains. We hope such introduction will not only help the reader synthesize the interdisciplinary views that characterize this broad field, but also stimulate development of new methods, concepts, and data.
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development WilheminaRossi174
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development since
how infants undergo these two areas of development play an important role in
determining their cognitive and social capabilities as adults. This essay
examines what is currently known about cognitive and social development,
how these developmental processes may differ in cultural contexts where
breastfeeding is more prevalent, and how studies can be conducted to
determine if these developmental processes occur at an earlier age or in a
different manner in such a cultural context.
Cognitive development focuses on how the processes involved in
acquiring, processing, and organizing information develop in humans (Oakley,
2004). The two most important theories of cognitive development are the
theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Jean Piaget stated that cognitive structures are modified through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process
through which new information is incorporated into an individual’s existing
cognitive structures, whereas accommodation is the process through which
new cognitive structures are formed in order to fit new information that is
encountered (Altman et al., 2017).
Piaget also theorized that there are four stages of cognitive
development. The first stage is the sensorimotor period which starts at birth
and lasts until the age of 2 where infants are learning about the world through
their sensory and motor abilities. The next stage, the preoperational period,
occurs from ages 2 to 7 and it is characterized by increased abilities in
symbolic thinking and language use. The third stage is the concrete
operational period which occurs between the ages of 7 to 12 where a child’s
ability to reason about concrete ideas significantly increases. The final stage
is the formal operational period which occurs after the age of 12,
characterized by the ability to reason about hypothetical problems and the
ability to think abstractly (Altman et al., 2017).
In contrast to Piaget, Lev Vygotsky’s theory focused on the influence
that social interactions have on cognitive development. Vygotsky stated that
there are three factors that shape a child’s cognitive development: culture,
language, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Oakley, 2004).
Vygotsky believed that culture is important in shaping cognitive development
since what knowledge a child acquires and how that knowledge is acquired is
determined by the culture that the child is a part of. Vygotsky stated that
language has an important role in cognitive development since the world is
understood and represented using language (Oakley, 2004). The third factor,
ZPD, is the distance between a child’s abilities on their own and a child’s
potential abilities that can be developed with some guidance and support
(Oakley, 2004).
Social development refers to the development of social understanding
and the acquiring of social skills. Two key areas of social development are the
devel ...
The ecological model of Bronfenbremnner and the Kolb liner theory are considered in this paper.
These models are learning styles’ examples. They have been adopted widely in different systems
of education (Martin & Fabes, 2009). Learning styles refer to consistent ways of enabling
students to respond to any stimuli during the learning process. They are the basis of cognitive,
physiological as well as effective factors which indicate the way learners perceive, interact and
respond to any form of learning. The discussion of this paper focuses on external forces that
differentiate Brofenbrenner’s model from the Kolb’s linear model. The paper also outlines the
crucial Kolb’s model analysis with consideration of Bronfenbrenner’s model. The paper will also
critique Kolb’s model.
The ecological model of Bronfenbremnner and the Kolb liner theory are considered in this paper.
These models are learning styles’ examples. They have been adopted widely in different systems
of education (Martin & Fabes, 2009). Learning styles refer to consistent ways of enabling
students to respond to any stimuli during the learning process. They are the basis of cognitive,
physiological as well as effective factors which indicate the way learners perceive, interact and
respond to any form of learning. The discussion of this paper focuses on external forces that
differentiate Brofenbrenner’s model from the Kolb’s linear model. The paper also outlines the
crucial Kolb’s model analysis with consideration of Bronfenbrenner’s model. The paper will also
critique Kolb’s model.
Differences in Emotional (Affective) Intelligence among Gifted and Ordinary S...inventionjournals
This study aimed at identifying emotional intelligence Levels among gifted and ordinary students as well as finding wether there were differences among these students. The study was conducted on a sample of (100) ordinary and gifted eight graders at thaled bin al-waleed and king Abdullah II excellence schools at Irbid governorate, where (50) students from each school were selected. Data were collected using a researcher based on Goleman (1983) model, developed questionnaire. Results showed that emotional intelligence level among gifted students was high, however, among ordinary students, emotional level was moderate. Results also showed statistically significant differences in emotional intelligence levels between ordinary and gifted students where gifted students outperformed their ordinary partuers in this intelligence. The study also included some suggested recommendation.
Gorillas’ use of the escape response in object choice memory testsFrancys Subiaul
The ability to monitor and control one’s own cognitive states, metacognition, is crucial for effective learning and problem solving. Although the literature on animal metacognition has grown considerably during last 15 years, there have been few studies examining whether great apes share such introspective abilities with humans. Here, we tested whether four gorillas could meet two criteria of animal metacognition, the increase in escape
responses as a function of task difficulty and the chosenforced
performance advantage. During testing, the subjects participated in a series of object choice memory tests in which a preferable reward (two grapes) was placed under one of two or three blue cups. The apes were required to correctly select the baited blue cup in this primary test. Importantly, the subjects also had an escape response (a yellow cup), where they could obtain a secure but smaller reward (one grape) without taking the memory test. Although the gorillas received a relatively small number of
trials and thus experienced little training, three gorillas
significantly declined the memory tests more often in difficult
trials (e.g., when the location of the preferred reward conflicted with side bias) than in easy trials (e.g., when there was no such conflict). Moreover, even when objective cues were eliminated that corresponded to task difficulty, one of the successful gorillas showed evidence suggestive of improved memory performance with the help of escape response by selectively avoiding trials in which he would be likely to err before the memory test actually proceeded. Together, these findings demonstrate that at least some gorillas may be able to make optimal choices on the basis
of their own memory trace strength about the location of the preferred reward.
More Related Content
Similar to The cognitive structure of goal emulation during the preschool years.
Four studies using a computerized paradigm investigated whether children’s imitation performance is content-specific and to what extent dependent on other cognitive processes such as trial-and-error learning, recall and observational learning. Experiment 1 showed that 3-year olds’ could successfully imitate what we refer to as novel cognitive rules (e.g., First→Second→Third) which involved responding to three different pictures whose spatial configuration varied randomly from trial to trial. However, these same children failed to imitate what we refer to as novel motor-spatial rules (e.g., Up→Down→Right) which involved responding to three identical pictures that remained in a fixed spatial configuration from trial to trial. Experiment 2 showed that this dissociation was not due to a general difficulty encoding motor-spatial content as children successfully recalled, following a 30s delay, a new motor-spatial sequence that had been learned by trial and error. Experiment 3 replicated these results and further demonstrated that 3-year olds can infer a novel motor-spatial sequence following the observation of a partially correct and partially incorrect response; a dissociation between imitation and observational learning (or goal emulation). Finally, Experiment 4 presented 3-year olds with ‘familiar’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Left→Middle→Right) as well as ‘novel’ motor-spatial sequences (e.g., Right→Up→Down) used in Experiments 1-3. Three-year olds had no difficulty imitating familiar motor-spatial sequences. But, again, failed to imitate novel motor-spatial sequences. These results suggest that there may be multiple, dissociable imitation learning mechanisms that are content-specific. More importantly, the development of these imitation systems appear to be independent of the operations of other cognitive systems including trial and error learning, recall and observational learning.
The imitation faculty in monkeys: Evaluating its features, distribution and e...Francys Subiaul
Despite more than 100 years of research, there is no agreement among experts as to whether or not monkeys can imitate. Part of the problem is that there is little agreement as to what constitutes an example of ‘imitation.’ Nevertheless, recent research provides compelling evidence for both continuities and discontinuities in the psychological faculty that mediates imitation performance. A number of studies have shown that monkeys are capable of copying familiar responses but not novel responses that require the use of tools, for example. And, while these studies have been interpreted to mean that monkeys cannot engage in ‘imitation learning’ or novel imitation, research employing a cognitive imitation paradigm—where rhesus monkeys had to copy novel serial rules pertaining to the order of pictures, independently of copying specific motor responses—has provided convincing evidence of novel imitation in monkeys. Rather than suggesting that monkeys are poor imitators, these results suggest that monkeys can learn novel cognitive rules but not novel motor rules, possibly because such skills require derived neural specializations mediating fine and gross motor movements; If true, such evidence represents an important discontinuity between the imitation skills of monkeys and apes with significant implications for human cognitive evolution.
Kimbrilee Schmitz To respond my opinion 8.1Consider the model.docxDIPESH30
Kimbrilee Schmitz: To respond my opinion 8.1
Consider the models of Piaget, Erickson, and others regarding the stages of cognitive developmental. Do these models suggest a correlation between cognitive development and learning development throughout the human lifespan? Why or why not?
Learning development consists of allowing a person to learn at their own pace so they fully understand what is learned and feel accomplished when they master a task. If a person is pushed to learn to fast, they feel defeated because they do not understand the concepts. If a person is learning at a pace that is too slow, they become bored. People also need to have time to learn, reflect, and apply what they have learned (Mayhew, Wolniak & Pascarella, 2008). Although some learning needs to be structured so people learn the correct concepts, there needs to be time for out of the box thinking and hands on applications.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development starts with an infant that cannot recognize that they are separate from the world and ends around age 11 where a child has a good concept of themselves and the world around them (Malerstein and Ahern, 1979). Erickson’s stages of life development stretches from birth to old age. Erickson believed that people had to complete steps in one phase before entering the next stage. These stages go from learning about one’s self and the world and end in reflecting on life and making sure all questions are answered (Ornstein, Cron & Slocum, 1989). Both of these models have a correlation with learning development. People have to learn certain things in each stage of their life. If they do not learn or accomplish certain things it is difficult for them to move forward in their life. Although there are age ranges set up with the models of cognitive development not everyone reaches each stage in the same time period. Just like learning development, people must learn and accomplish things at their own pace.
Resources:
Malerstein, A., & Ahern, M. M. (1979). Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development and Adult Character Structure. American Journal Of Psychotherapy, 33(1), 107. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rlh&AN=5349402&site=eds-live&scope=site
Mayhew, M. J., Wolniak, G. C., & Pascarella, E. T. (2008). How Educational Practices Affect the Development of Life-long Learning Orientations in Traditionally-aged Undergraduate Students. Research in Higher Education, (4). 337. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.25704567&site=eds-live&scope=site
Ornstein, S., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W. (1989). Life stage versus career stage: A comparative test of the theories of Levinson and Super. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 10(2), 117-133. Retrieved from: https://lopes.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=1989-31344-001&site=eds- ...
Social Learning in Humans and Nonhuman Animals: Theoretical and Empirical Dis...Francys Subiaul
In this special issue, we present a synthesis of work that consolidates what is currently known and provides a platform for
future research. Consequently, we include both new empirical
studies and novel theoretical proposals describing work with both human children and adults and a range of nonhuman animals. In this introduction, we describe the background of this special issue and provide a context for each of the eight articles it contains. We hope such introduction will not only help the reader synthesize the interdisciplinary views that characterize this broad field, but also stimulate development of new methods, concepts, and data.
Carryover effects of joint attention to repeated events in chimpanzees and yo...Francys Subiaul
Gaze following is a fundamental component of triadic social interaction which includes events and an object shared with other
individuals and is found in both human and nonhuman primates. Most previous work has focused only on the immediate reaction
after following another’s gaze. In contrast, this study investigated whether gaze following is retained after the observation of the
other’s gaze shift, whether this retainment differs between species and age groups, and whether the retainment depends on the nature of the preceding events. In the social condition, subjects (1- and 2-year-old human children and chimpanzees) witnessed an experimenter who looked and pointed in the direction of a target lamp. In the physical condition, the target lamp blinked but the experimenter did not provide any cues. After a brief delay, we presented the same stimulus again without any cues. All subjects looked again to the target location after experiencing the social condition and thus showed a carryover effect. However, only 2-year-olds showed a carryover effect in the physical condition; 1-year-olds and chimpanzees did not. Additionally, only human children showed spontaneous interactive actions such as pointing. Our results suggest that the difference between the two age groups and chimpanzees is conceptual and not only quantitative.
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development WilheminaRossi174
Cognitive and social development are key areas of development since
how infants undergo these two areas of development play an important role in
determining their cognitive and social capabilities as adults. This essay
examines what is currently known about cognitive and social development,
how these developmental processes may differ in cultural contexts where
breastfeeding is more prevalent, and how studies can be conducted to
determine if these developmental processes occur at an earlier age or in a
different manner in such a cultural context.
Cognitive development focuses on how the processes involved in
acquiring, processing, and organizing information develop in humans (Oakley,
2004). The two most important theories of cognitive development are the
theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Jean Piaget stated that cognitive structures are modified through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is the process
through which new information is incorporated into an individual’s existing
cognitive structures, whereas accommodation is the process through which
new cognitive structures are formed in order to fit new information that is
encountered (Altman et al., 2017).
Piaget also theorized that there are four stages of cognitive
development. The first stage is the sensorimotor period which starts at birth
and lasts until the age of 2 where infants are learning about the world through
their sensory and motor abilities. The next stage, the preoperational period,
occurs from ages 2 to 7 and it is characterized by increased abilities in
symbolic thinking and language use. The third stage is the concrete
operational period which occurs between the ages of 7 to 12 where a child’s
ability to reason about concrete ideas significantly increases. The final stage
is the formal operational period which occurs after the age of 12,
characterized by the ability to reason about hypothetical problems and the
ability to think abstractly (Altman et al., 2017).
In contrast to Piaget, Lev Vygotsky’s theory focused on the influence
that social interactions have on cognitive development. Vygotsky stated that
there are three factors that shape a child’s cognitive development: culture,
language, and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Oakley, 2004).
Vygotsky believed that culture is important in shaping cognitive development
since what knowledge a child acquires and how that knowledge is acquired is
determined by the culture that the child is a part of. Vygotsky stated that
language has an important role in cognitive development since the world is
understood and represented using language (Oakley, 2004). The third factor,
ZPD, is the distance between a child’s abilities on their own and a child’s
potential abilities that can be developed with some guidance and support
(Oakley, 2004).
Social development refers to the development of social understanding
and the acquiring of social skills. Two key areas of social development are the
devel ...
The ecological model of Bronfenbremnner and the Kolb liner theory are considered in this paper.
These models are learning styles’ examples. They have been adopted widely in different systems
of education (Martin & Fabes, 2009). Learning styles refer to consistent ways of enabling
students to respond to any stimuli during the learning process. They are the basis of cognitive,
physiological as well as effective factors which indicate the way learners perceive, interact and
respond to any form of learning. The discussion of this paper focuses on external forces that
differentiate Brofenbrenner’s model from the Kolb’s linear model. The paper also outlines the
crucial Kolb’s model analysis with consideration of Bronfenbrenner’s model. The paper will also
critique Kolb’s model.
The ecological model of Bronfenbremnner and the Kolb liner theory are considered in this paper.
These models are learning styles’ examples. They have been adopted widely in different systems
of education (Martin & Fabes, 2009). Learning styles refer to consistent ways of enabling
students to respond to any stimuli during the learning process. They are the basis of cognitive,
physiological as well as effective factors which indicate the way learners perceive, interact and
respond to any form of learning. The discussion of this paper focuses on external forces that
differentiate Brofenbrenner’s model from the Kolb’s linear model. The paper also outlines the
crucial Kolb’s model analysis with consideration of Bronfenbrenner’s model. The paper will also
critique Kolb’s model.
Differences in Emotional (Affective) Intelligence among Gifted and Ordinary S...inventionjournals
This study aimed at identifying emotional intelligence Levels among gifted and ordinary students as well as finding wether there were differences among these students. The study was conducted on a sample of (100) ordinary and gifted eight graders at thaled bin al-waleed and king Abdullah II excellence schools at Irbid governorate, where (50) students from each school were selected. Data were collected using a researcher based on Goleman (1983) model, developed questionnaire. Results showed that emotional intelligence level among gifted students was high, however, among ordinary students, emotional level was moderate. Results also showed statistically significant differences in emotional intelligence levels between ordinary and gifted students where gifted students outperformed their ordinary partuers in this intelligence. The study also included some suggested recommendation.
Gorillas’ use of the escape response in object choice memory testsFrancys Subiaul
The ability to monitor and control one’s own cognitive states, metacognition, is crucial for effective learning and problem solving. Although the literature on animal metacognition has grown considerably during last 15 years, there have been few studies examining whether great apes share such introspective abilities with humans. Here, we tested whether four gorillas could meet two criteria of animal metacognition, the increase in escape
responses as a function of task difficulty and the chosenforced
performance advantage. During testing, the subjects participated in a series of object choice memory tests in which a preferable reward (two grapes) was placed under one of two or three blue cups. The apes were required to correctly select the baited blue cup in this primary test. Importantly, the subjects also had an escape response (a yellow cup), where they could obtain a secure but smaller reward (one grape) without taking the memory test. Although the gorillas received a relatively small number of
trials and thus experienced little training, three gorillas
significantly declined the memory tests more often in difficult
trials (e.g., when the location of the preferred reward conflicted with side bias) than in easy trials (e.g., when there was no such conflict). Moreover, even when objective cues were eliminated that corresponded to task difficulty, one of the successful gorillas showed evidence suggestive of improved memory performance with the help of escape response by selectively avoiding trials in which he would be likely to err before the memory test actually proceeded. Together, these findings demonstrate that at least some gorillas may be able to make optimal choices on the basis
of their own memory trace strength about the location of the preferred reward.
Curious monkeys have increased gray matter density in the precuneusFrancys Subiaul
Curiosity is a cornerstone of cognition that has the potential to lead to innovations and increase the behavioral repertoire of individuals. A defining characteristic of curiosity is inquisitiveness directed toward novel objects. Species differences in innovative behavior and inquisitiveness have been linked to social complexity and neocortical size. In this study, we observed behavioral actions among nine socially reared and socially housed capuchin monkeys in response to an unfamiliar object, a paradigm widely employed as a means to assess curiosity. K-means hierarchical clustering analysis of the behavioral
responses revealed three monkeys engaged in significantly more exploratory behavior of the novel object than other monkeys. Using voxel-based-morphometry analysis of MRIs obtained from these same subjects, we demonstrated that the more curious monkeys had significantly greater gray matter density in the precuneus, a cortical region involved in highly integrated processes including memory and self-awareness. These results linking variation in precuneus gray matter volume to exploratory behavior suggest that monitoring states of self-awareness may play a role in cognitive processes mediating individual curiosity.
Dissecting the Imitation Faculty: The Multiple Imitation Mechanisms (MIM) Hyp...Francys Subiaul
Is the imitation faculty one self-contained domain-general mechanism or an amalgamation of multiple content-specific systems? The Multiple Imitation Mechanisms (MIM) Hypothesis posits that the imitation faculty consists of distinct content-specific psychological systems that are dissociable both structurally and functionally. This hypothesis is supported by research in the developmental, cognitive, comparative and neural sciences. This body of work suggests that there are dissociable imitation systems that may be distinguished by unique behavioral and neurobiological profiles. The distribution of these different imitation skills in the animal kingdom further suggests a phylogenetic dissociation, whereby some animals specialized in some (but not all possible) imitation types; a reflection of specific selection pressures favoring certain imitation systems. The MIM hypothesis attempts to bring together these different areas of research into one theoretical framework that defines imitation both functionally and structurally.
Since the last common ancestor shared by modern humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, the lineage leading to Homo sapiens
has undergone a substantial change in brain size and organization. As a result, modern humans display striking differences from the living apes in the realm of cognition and linguistic expression. In this article, we review the evolutionary changes that occurred in the descent of Homo sapiens by reconstructing the neural and cognitive traits that would have characterized the last common ancestor and comparing these with the modern human condition. The last common ancestor can be reconstructed to have had a brain of approximately 300–400 g that displayed several unique phylogenetic specializations of development, anatomical organization, and biochemical function. These neuroanatomical substrates contributed to the enhancement of behavioral flexibility and social cognition. With this evolutionary history as precursor, the modern human mind may be conceived as a mosaic of traits inherited from a common ancestry with our close relatives, along with the addition of volutionary specializations within particular domains. These modern human-specific cognitive and linguistic adaptations
appear to be correlated with enlargement of the neocortex and related structures. Accompanying this general neocortical expansion, certain higher-order unimodal and multimodal cortical areas have grown disproportionately relative to primary cortical areas. Anatomical and molecular changes have also been identified that might relate to the greater metabolic demand and enhanced synaptic plasticity of modern human brain’s. Finally, the unique brain growth trajectory of modern humans has made a significant contribution to our species’ cognitive and linguistic abilities.
Do Chimpanzees Learn Reputation by Observation? Evidence from Direct and Ind...Francys Subiaul
Can chimpanzees learn the reputation of strangers indirectly by observation? Or are such stable behavioral attributions made exclusively by first-person interactions? To address this question, we let seven chimpanzees observe unfamiliar humans either consistently give (generous donor) or refuse to give (selfish donor) food to a familiar human recipient (Exps. 1 and 2) and a conspecific (Exp 3). While chimpanzees did not initially prefer to beg for food from the generous donor (Exp 1), after continued opportunities to observe the same behavioral exchanges, four chimpanzees developed a preference for gesturing to the generous donor (Exp 2), and transferred this preference to novel unfamiliar donor pairs, significantly preferring to beg from the novel generous donors on the first opportunity to do so. In Experiment Three, four chimpanzees observed novel selfish and generous acts directed toward other chimpanzees by human experimenters. During the first half of testing, three chimpanzees exhibited a preference for the novel generous donor on the first trial. These results demonstrate that chimpanzees can infer the reputation of strangers by eavesdropping on third-party interactions.
Cognitive Imitation in 2-Year Old Children (Homo sapiens): A comparison with...Francys Subiaul
Here we compare the performance of two-year old human children with that of adult rhesus macaques on a cognitive imitation task. The task was to respond, in a particular order, to arbitrary sets of photographs that were presented simultaneously on a touch sensitive video monitor. Because the spatial position of list items was varied from trial to trial, subjects could not learn this task as a series of specific motor responses. On some lists, subjects with no knowledge of the ordinal position of the list items were given the opportunity to learn the order of those items by observing an expert model. Children, like monkeys, learned new lists more rapidly in a social condition where they had the opportunity to observe an experienced model perform the list in question, than under a baseline condition in which they had to learn new lists entirely by trial and error. No differences were observed between the accuracy of each species’ responses to individual items or in the frequencies with which they made different types of errors. These results provide clear evidence that monkeys and humans share the ability to imitate novel cognitive rules (cognitive imitation).
What makes the human mind different from the minds of other animals? Here, the cognitive abilities of human and non-human primates are compared and contrasted in three general domains (a) self-awareness, (b) social cognition, and (c) physical cognition. Our analysis of the data is framed in terms of an overarching theory of human cognitive specialization. We postulate that many aspects of the human and the non-human primate mind are remarkably conserved. As a result, human and non-human primates share many cognitive and behavioral capabilities. However, we will argue that despite the many similarities between the human and non-human mind, one fundamental feature of our species’ psychology is its ability to interpret observable variables in terms of unobservable (causal) forces. Consequently, while animals can develop rules premised on observable causes, humans can reason about both observable and unobservable causes, resulting in the kind of cognitive and behavioral flexibility that characterizes our species.
Experiments on imitation typically evaluate a student’s ability to copy some feature of an expert’s motor behavior. Here we describe a type of observational learning in which a student copies a cognitive rule, rather than a specific motor actions. Two rhesus macaques were trained to respond, in a prescribed order, to different sets of photographs that were displayed on a touch-sensitive monitor. Because the position of the photographs varied randomly from trial to trial, sequences could not be learned by motor imitation. Both monkeys learned new sequences more rapidly after observing an expert execute those sequences than when they had to learn new sequences entirely by trial and error.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
2. Compared to most animals, humans are super imitators, mirroring others’ actions across
diverse domains with incredible fidelity (Subiaul, Patterson, Renner, Schilder, & Barr,
2015; Whiten, 2011).1
These imitative abilities have been linked to humanity’s prowess in
the artefact domain, and our ability to develop and sustain language and culture (Boyd,
Richerson, & Henrich, 2011; Lewis & Laland, 2012). Equally important is our remarkable
ability to mirror others’ goals and intentions, a behavioural response referred to as
emulation. Like imitation, emulation has been linked to the development of critical
cognitive skills including theory of mind (Bellagamba, Camaioni, & Colonnesi, 2006;
Meltzoff, 1988, 1995) and causal reasoning (Want & Harris, 2001). Yet, social
neuroscientists have, generally, failed to make a distinction between these different
mirroring phenomena or social learning behaviours such as emulation and imitation that
involve copying others’ responses. The conflation of imitation and emulation may be due
to the assumption that all mirroring (being actions and/or intentions) is the product of the
same neural machinery, mirror neurons, a population of neurons in the inferior frontal and
parietal lobe of monkeys and humans. For instance, according the Direct-Matching (DM)
hypothesis, to mirror actions is to mirror intentions (Iacoboni et al., 2005; Rizzolatti &
Fabbri-Destro, 2008).
This approach stands in contrast to that in the comparative and, more recently, the
developmental sciences, which have differentiated between action (imitation) and
intention (emulation) mirroring. Researchers have focused on when (developmentally)
and why (contextually/motivationally) children emulate rather than imitate and the
contexts or effects of different mirroring processes resulting in emulation or imitation (for
reviews, see Lyons, 2009; Over & Carpenter, 2012). However, research has not addressed
whether during development performance on mirroring behaviours (imitation and
emulation) is related to one another, as well as other types of learning. One difficulty in
addressing this relationship is definitional (Nielsen, Subiaul, Galef, Zentall, & Whiten,
2012; Want & Harris, 2002; Whiten, McGuigan, Marshall-Pescini, & Hopper, 2009). Until
recently, emulation has been poorly characterized. For instance, Whiten et al. (2009)
have distinguished between multiple varieties of emulation all of which are characterized
by selectively copying some aspect of a demonstrated behaviour while ignoring others
(Table 1). This broad conceptualization of emulation as selective and/or idiosyncratic
copying aspects of demonstrated events is consistent with terms such as ‘rational
imitation’ (Gergely, Bekkering, & Kiraly, 2002), ‘behavioural re-enactment’ (Meltzoff,
1995), ‘under-imitation’ (Heyes, 2012a), and ‘generalized’ or ‘selective’ imitation
(Gewirtz & Stingle, 1968).
One form of emulation, goal emulation, in which an individual mirrors a model’s
intended goal but not the model’s actions (Whiten & Ham, 1992), has been studied
extensively by developmental scientists. Across these studies, participants are provided
with an unintended or incomplete response sometimes marked by a language cue, like
‘Whoops’ (Carpenter, Akhtar, & Tomasello, 1998). The individual then copies some of the
model’s responses but not others. Various researchers have argued that in such
conditions, children are more likely to generate the ‘intended’ (but unobserved) response
than the ‘unintended’ (and observed) response (Bellagamba et al., 2006; Meltzoff, 1995;
Subiaul, Anderson, Brandt, & Elkins, 2012). While some have questioned whether
children emulate in these conditions by attributing intentions and goals to the model or
1
Unless stated otherwise, action mirroring is used synonymously with imitation and goal/intention mirroring is used synonymously
with emulation.
2 Francys Subiaul et al.
3. whether they are solving such problems using causal (Huang & Charman, 2005; Huang,
Heyes, & Charman, 2002), contextual, or rational reasoning (Gergely et al., 2002), there is
no doubt that children can learn from incomplete and incorrect information (Hopper,
2010).
Although these studies demonstrate that children are versatile and robust learners,
they raise important conceptual questions regarding the relationship between potentially
different mirroring responses and their underlying mechanisms. If children are emulating
and imitating using the same cognitive (e.g., attributing goals and causal reasoning) or
neural mechanisms (e.g., mirror neurons), then distinctions between different mirroring
responses such as imitation and emulation may be invalid. For instance, both Heyes’
(2012a,b) Associative Sequence Learning hypothesis and Paulus’ (Paulus, 2014; Paulus,
Hunnius, Vissers, & Bekkering, 2011) Idedomotor Imitation Learning (IMAIL) hypothesis
propose that the ‘core’ mechanism for all forms of social learning including imitation and
emulation is associative learning, the same mechanism mediating asocial (individual)
learning. According to these associative accounts, children imitate or emulate as a
function of matching the effects of their own motor output to that of others’ actions.
These representations expand with the child’s motor development (Paulus, 2014).
Importantly, in these associative accounts what underlies these different mirroring
responses is not a specialized mechanism for social learning, but domain-general ‘input
mechanisms’ including perceptual, attentional, and motivational processes that differen-
tially ‘ingest’ information for learning (Heyes, 2012a).
Table 1. Varieties of Emulation. Different categories of emulation proposed by a number of authors
including their definitions and experimental examples. While many other distinctions are possible, we
identify two types of goal emulation: Goal emulation as rational imitation or selective imitation (where the
goal is observed) and goal emulation as behavioural re-enactment (where the goal is unobserved and must
be inferred)
Varieties of emulation Definition Example
Emulation sensu
affordance learning
‘. . .[observer] learns from its
observation various functional
relations in the task. . .’ (Nagell
et al., 1993, p. 175)
Learning that a tool can be used to
achieve a result while failing to learn the
necessary actions (e.g., Tomasello
et al., 1987; Nagell et al., 1993)
Object movement re-
enactment
‘Copying what the object does. . .
[or] what a model does with an
object’ (Whiten et al., 2004,
p. 39)
Observer reproduces the functional
movements of objects (e.g., removing
ends of dumb-bells) without a live
model (e.g., Huang et al., 2002)
End-state emulation ‘Copying only the end or
outcome of an action sequence’
(Whiten et al., 2004, p. 39)
Upon seeing an opened box, the
observer learns that the door must be
opened to reveal what is inside (e.g.,
Carpenter, Call, & Tomasello, 2002)
Goal emulation sensu
behavioural
re-enactment
‘. . .go beyond duplicating what
was actually done and. . .instead
enact what the adult intended to
do’ (Meltzoff, 1995)
After observing a model attempting but
failing to open a container, the child
opens the container (e.g., Meltzoff,
1995)
Goal emulation sensu
rational imitation
‘. . .the emulator copies not all
results just those that are the
goals of the model’ (Whiten,
2000, p. 482)
Turning on a lamp with one’s hand after
observing someone turning on a similar
lamp with one’s head (e.g., Gergely
et al., 2002)
Cognitive structure of emulation 3
4. Similarly, Rizzolatti and colleagues’ (Iacoboni et al., 2005; Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Fogassi, &
Gallese, 1999) DM hypothesis proposes that mirror neurons mediate action understand-
ing by directly associating action and perception. Accordingly, observing a model’s
actions automatically causes corresponding parts of our own motor system to become
active and ‘resonate’ (Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese, 2001). Any outcome (i.e., ‘goal’)
associated with the activated actions is automatically projected onto the model’s actions.
Not only do the actions resonate but the goals associated with those actions resonate as
well, allowing observers to understand others’ behaviour.
While some have challenged the link between mirror neurons and mentalistic ‘goals’
among other higher order mental-state attributions like intentions or empathy (Heyes,
2010), others have explicitly made this link (Falck-Ytter, Gredeback, & von Hofsten, 2006;
Sommerville & Woodward, 2005). For example, Meltzoff’s (2007) Like Me Hypothesis
proposes that mirroring others’ actions results in the personal simulation of others’ motor
responses and mental states serving as the foundation for a mature theory of mind.
Other prominent social learning theorists such as Whiten & Ham (1992; Whiten,
Horner, Litchfield, & Marshall-Pescini, 2004) reject that social learning is mediated by
associative processes and is devoid of mental-state reasoning but, nonetheless, ‘interpret
some of the varieties of what has been called emulation as overlapping with imitation in
important ways, rather than as offering a neat dichotomy’ (Whiten et al., 2004, p. 38). For
instance, according to goal-mediated (Bekkering, Wohlschlager, & Gattis, 2000; Carpen-
ter et al., 1998) or rational theories (Gergely et al., 2002; Kiraly, Csibra, & Gergely, 2013)
of social learning, different forms of mirroring (imitation and emulation) are mediated by a
common social cognitive process rather than common associative learning mechanisms
or mirror neurons alone. Specifically, social learning is the product of reasoning about
others’ intentions (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1998; Meltzoff, 1995) and/or the physical
constraints of a task (Gergely et al., 2002; Kiraly et al., 2013). According to these goal-
mediated or rational models of imitation, individuals copy first and foremost others’ goals.
Context dictates whether the goal is to reproduce the model’s effects (end-state
emulation) or intentions (goal emulation) using idiosyncratic responses or using the
model’s same actions (imitation). In effect, goal-mediated theories turn the DM
Hypothesis on its head: We mirror goals and intentions first and then mirror actions.
Finally, other researchers argue that imitation and emulation are mediated by distinct –
specialized – cognitive processes (Bellagamba et al., 2006; Subiaul et al., 2012, 2015,
in press). Subiaul’s (2010a,b) Multiple Imitation Mechanisms (MIM) hypothesis is a
framework that proposes that the cognitive architecture of imitation does not consist of a
single domain-general (e.g., associative) or domain-specific (e.g., goal, rational inference)
mechanism. Rather, MIM proposes that a variety of mechanisms (including, but not
limited to, associative, goal, and rational inference) underlie different forms of imitation
depending on the task or domain. However, this original framework did not, specifically,
address the cognitive architecture of emulation. Extending the reasoning of MIM to
emulation, we hypothesize here that like imitation, there are multiple emulation
mechanisms (MEM), and predict that the cognitive architecture of emulation, like that of
imitation (i.e., Subiaul et al., 2015), consists of domain-specific mechanisms that are
independent of other social and asocial learning processes.
Here, we use the same data set and procedures used by Subiaul et al. (2015) to study
the cognitive structure of imitation to now study the cognitive structure of goal emulation
(c.f., Table 1). We define cognitive structure as the association, organization, or grouping
of different learning or cognitive processes. Here, we focus on how different learning
processes differentially predict the development of goal emulation. Subiaul et al. (2015)
4 Francys Subiaul et al.
5. showed that cognitive and motor-spatial imitation development was predicted by few to
no other types of learning (see Figure 2). In this study, we examined whether there are
developmental changes in goal emulation across the preschool years and whether other
forms of learning predict these changes. We tested preschoolers as there are significant
developmental changes in social learning during this time (e.g., Dickerson et al., 2013;
Subiaul et al., 2015). To test goal emulation, children observed an incomplete and
incorrect response and had to infer from the model’s errors the correct (unobserved)
responses necessary to achieve a goal.
Predictions
Although previous work demonstrated that imitation development was not associated
with asocial (individual) learning (Subiaul et al., 2015), the development of goal
emulation might, nonetheless, be broadly associated with both social and asocial learning.
Such a result would be consistent with associative accounts (Heyes, 2012b; Paulus, 2014).
Alternatively, if emulation is goal- or context-mediated, then there should only be
associations between cognitive and motor-spatial emulation as well as between emulation
and cognitive and motor-spatial imitation (Bekkering et al., 2000; Gergely et al., 2002;
Wohlschlager, Gattis, & Bekkering, 2003). Finally, according to the MEM framework, an
extension of the MIM framework (Subiaul, 2010b) cognitive and motor-spatial emulation
should be independent of one another as well as other social (imitation) and asocial
(recall) learning processes.
Methods
Participants
A total of 215 children ranging in age from 26 to 59 months (M = 42.13 months,
SD = 7.73, females = 105, males = 110) of racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds
completed training and testing in a museum using IRB-approved protocols from The
George Washington University and the Smithsonian Institution.
Materials and apparatus
A 54.61-cm Apple Macintosh computer with a detachable Keytechâ
MagicTouch (Keytec,
Garland, TX, USA) touch screen was used to assess social and asocial learning. During the
delay between Trial-and-error and recall test, children were provided with an assortment
of stickers that varied in size, shape, and colour and were encouraged to place them on a
12.7 cm 9 17.78 cm inches white printing paper. This was done to both distract and
maintain children’s motivation.
Design
There were two tasks: Cognitive and Motor-Spatial. Because the sequences and images
presented differed from trial to trial, researchers were able to assess different forms of
learning (imitation, emulation, and recall) within subjects, without carryover effects
(e.g., Subiaul et al., 2012, 2015, in press). There were four learning conditions: Baseline
(Trial-and-Error), Recall, Emulation, and Imitation. However, Baseline and Recall
conditions are yoked as Recall tests an individual’s ability to recall a sequence learned
Cognitive structure of emulation 5
6. during Baseline, making the final design 2 (Tasks: Cognitive, Motor-Spatial) 9 3
(Conditions: Recall, Emulation, Imitation). To avoid confusion or interference, tasks
were blocked with half of the children being tested first on the Motor-Spatial Task. For
each task, all children completed training followed by the four learning conditions. To
avoid carryover effects, conditions were presented to children using six unique
sequences (three for each task, one sequence was used for Trial-and-Error and Recall).
Each of the six sequences consisted of three unique pictures (3.18 cm 9 3.18 cm).
These pictures varied randomly in content and consisted of different animals, faces,
artefacts, and landscapes. The order in which the children were tested on each
condition was counterbalanced such that all possible orders were given an equal
number of times, with one exception: The Trial-and-Error condition always preceded
the Recall condition as participants needed to learn the object- (Cognitive Task) or
spatial-based rule (Motor-Spatial Task) before individually recalling that specific rule.
Such counterbalancing ensured that our results were not affected by the order in which
children experienced the different conditions as all possible orders are equally
represented in the final data set.2
Table 2 shows an example session for a child in the
study.
Procedures
Training and testing occurred during a single session lasting 10–15 min per child.
Experimental tasks
Children were presented with two tasks using the same computer (c.f., Figure 1). In the
Cognitive Task, children were required to press three different pictures in the correct
order regardless of the spatial location.3
The identity of the pictures differed, and their
spatial arrangement varied randomly from trial to trial (Figure 1a). This assessed children’s
ability to learn an object-based rule. In the Motor-Spatial Task, children were required to
press three identical pictures in a target spatial configuration. From trial to trial, the
identity of the pictures changed (i.e., three identical pictures, different from the three in
the previous trial), but their position remained the same (Figure 1b).4
This assessed
children’s ability to learn a spatial-based rule.
Table 2. Sample session for a child participating in the study. The order of conditions presented here
represents an example of possible order, which were counterbalanced so that in the final data set, all
orders of conditions were equally represented
Block Training Experimental conditions
Block 1: Cognitive Task Training Imitation Baseline/Recall Emulation
Block 2: Motor-Spatial Task Training Baseline/Recall Emulation Imitation
2
To confirm that order effects were not in play, we ran multiple permutation tests (Hothorn, Hornik, van de Wiel, & Zeileis, 2006,
2008; R Core Team, 2015) examining the effect of order on task performance and found no significant effect of order (10,000
permutations, all p-values > .05).
3
For video of Cognitive Task, see: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzwOMF8W5Wc.
4
For video of Motor-Spatial Task, see: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8pjTME_ugY.
6 Francys Subiaul et al.
7. Training and testing
Following the protocol developed by Subiaul et al. (2012, 2015, in press), children were
trained on each task (Cognitive, Motor-Spatial) prior to the introduction of the
experimental conditions (Table 2). Training was similar to the Trial-and-Error condition
(described below) and ensured that performance on the experimental conditions did not
reflect any lack of familiarity with the experimental setup. During training, children were
exposed to each task and were encouraged to ‘find “Jumping Man”’ by touching the
pictures on the screen in a target order. Children received social feedback from the model
and asocial (audio, visual) feedback from the computer following each response.
Incorrect responses, which terminated a trial, generated a brief (~500 ms) ‘boom’ sound,
all pictures disappeared, the screen turned black for 2 s, and the experimenter said,
‘Whoops! That’s not right!’ Following a correct response, the computer generated a brief
(~500 ms) ‘bing’ sound, all pictures remained on the screen and the experimenter said,
‘That’s right!’ When all three pictures were touched in the correct order, a 5-s video clip of
a man doing a backward somersault – ‘jumping man’ – played in the middle of the screen
accompanied by music or clapping and the model smiled and said, ‘Yay! You found
jumping man!’ This procedure made the goal of the task clear and consistent across
experimental conditions. Regardless of whether the condition was social or asocial, the
goal was familiar and always the same, find Jumping Man. To advance to testing, children
had to independently respond to all three pictures on the screen in the target order
without making any errors.
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL N
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Experimental tasks. (a) Cognitive Task: Three different pictures appear on a touch screen.
From trial to trial, these same three pictures re-appear in a different spatial configuration (apple, boy, cat).
(b) Motor-Spatial Task: Three identical pictures appear on a touch screen. From trial to trial, a different set
of identical pictures appears in the same spatial configuration (top, bottom, right). In both tasks, children
have to touch each picture in a specific sequence.
Cognitive structure of emulation 7
8. There were two asocial learning conditions: Trial-and-Error and Recall:
Trial-and-error: Children were encouraged to discover the correct sequence entirely
by trial-and-error learning. The model and computer provided feedback following each
response. Following an error, all items disappeared, the screen turned black, and the
model provided the child with verbal (e.g., ‘Whoops! That’s not right!’) and non-verbal
feedback (smiles or frowns and eye contact) following correct and incorrect responses.
Upon touching all pictures correctly, the video of Jumping Man played, the computer
was turned away from the child for 30 s, and the child’s attention was diverted to
stickers. Performance on Trial-and-Error was used to establish the spontaneous rate of
sequence learning and to compare to Recall, Emulation, and Imitation conditions.
Recall: Thirty seconds after the completion of the Trial-and-Error condition, the
computer was turned back around and the child was told, ‘Okay, it’s your turn again.
Can you find jumping man again? Remember, start with picture number 1’. The same
sequence from the Trial-and-Error condition was used in the Recall condition to assess
the child’s ability to encode and recall a previously, individually learned rule.5
There were two social learning conditions: Imitation and Emulation:
Imitation: The experimenter faced the child and said, ‘Watch me!’ and then proceeded
to touch pictures in the target sequence (e.g., A?B?C) three consecutive times.
Immediately after the third and final demonstration, the experimenter faced the child
and exclaimed, ‘Yay! I found Jumping Man! Ok, now it’s your turn. Can you find
Jumping Man? Remember, start with picture number 1’.
Emulation: Procedures were identical to those described above except that the
experimenter touched the first picture correctly and then incorrectly touched the last
picture in the sequence, skipping the second (middle) item. Following this error, the
experimenter faced the child and with a frown said, ‘Whoops, that’s not right. Let me
try again. Watch me’. This same error was repeated three times to make it clear that the
model had failed to fulfil their goal (i.e., to find Jumping Man). Following the last
demonstration, the experimenter turned to the child and said, ‘Whoops, that’s not
right. I can’t find Jumping Man. Now it’s your turn. Can you find Jumping Man?
Remember, start with picture number 1’. This procedure was equivalent to the non-
verbal re-enactment procedure used by Meltzoff (1995) and the ‘Whoops’ paradigm
used by Carpenter et al. (1998).
Children were given a total of 20 trials to discover the target rule in each condition.
Testing in each condition ended before 20 trials if either a child completed the task (97% of
all cases) or when a child was no longer willing to participate (3% of all cases). Because
both tasks used the same conditions, we refer to each by identifying the task first
(Cognitive or Motor-Spatial) followed by the condition (Baseline, Recall, Emulation, or
Imitation); for example, Cognitive Imitation and Motor-Spatial Recall.
Measure of learning
The computer program recorded all responses including specific items touched, number
of responses, and errors for each trial. From these data, a learning ratio was calculated as
5
While some might take issue with us calling the Recall condition a learning condition given that ‘learning’ (i.e., serial order)
occurred during Baseline, we argue that recall represents a different type of learning, namely the ability to represent and execute
individually acquired information following a brief delay. As such, Recall is a measure of operant learning and short-term memory.
8 Francys Subiaul et al.
9. the total number of correct responses (i.e., pictures touched in the target order) to the
total number of trials in a condition. This measure captured both improvement across
trials and the number of trials needed to complete the task.6
Results
How does emulation differ from other learning conditions?
A summary of children’s performance across tasks and conditions is presented in Table 3.
Previous permutation tests using this same data set revealed that performance in all
conditions improved with age (Subiaul et al., 2015; Figure 2), but also that recall,
imitation, and emulation performance were greater than trial-and-error on both tasks
(Table 4, Subiaul et al., 2015), establishing that learning in the three conditions exceeded
Baseline performance (i.e., spontaneous production). Additionally, emulation perfor-
mance in the Motor-Spatial Task exceeded imitation performance, but in the Cognitive
Task, emulation and imitation performance did not differ (c.f., Table 4, Subiaul et al.,
2015). Because trial-and-error was included as a necessary precursor to recall, and to
establish that the three learning conditions exceeded Baseline performance, we did not
consider trial-and-error performance in subsequent analyses.
What social and asocial learning processes are associated with emulation learning?
For initial inspection of the associations between age and the various task–condition
combinations, we constructed a Spearman correlation matrix (Table 5).
Subsequently, two generalized linear models (GLMs) were constructed, one for
cognitive emulation and another for motor-spatial emulation. GLMs are an extension of
traditional linear models that can handle non-normally distributed data through the use of
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for different conditions. (a) Cognitive Task, (b) Motor-Spatial Task
N Mean SE
(a) Cognitive Task
Trial-and-Error 203 1.394 0.058
Recall 203 2.194 0.067
Imitation 203 1.939 0.077
Emulation 203 2.069 0.071
(b) Motor-Spatial Task
Trial-and-Error 192 1.206 0.042
Recall 192 1.994 0.064
Imitation 192 1.737 0.067
Emulation 192 2.227 0.072
Note. N = sample size; Mean = average learning ratio (total correct responses/first correct trial);
SE = standard error of the mean.
6
For example, imagine a child makes the following responses across three trials, Trial 1: C (0 correct responses), Trial 2: A?C
(one correct response), and Trial 3: A?B?C (three correct responses, condition complete), the learning ratio would be 4/3 (or
four correct responses divided by three trials) = 1.33. Children could not make the following response: A?C?B because an
incorrect response (e.g., touching C after A) terminated the trial. However, as pictures did not disappear after a correct response, it
was possible for children to make the following response: A?B?A (two correct responses). The maximum ratio was 3 (3/1) and
the minimum was 0 (failing to touch any picture in the target order).
Cognitive structure of emulation 9
10. a link function (Venables & Ripley, 2002). For our data, a binomial error distribution and
the logit link function were used since the dependent variable was the binomial learning
ratio (no. correct responses, no. trials). Because our data were under-dispersed, as
Table 4. Contrasts Between conditions. (a) Cognitive Task, (b) Motor-Spatial Task. Z and p values
based on permutation tests (Hothorn et al., 2006, 2008; R Core Team, 2015)
Z Bonferroni-Corrected p
(a) Cognitive Task
Emulation > Trial-and-Error 7.028 <.01
Imitation > Trial-and-Error 5.342 <.01
Recall > Trial-and-Error 7.728 <.01
Emulation = Imitation 1.47 >.8
Recall = Emulation 1.403 >.8
Recall = Imitation 2.741 >.8
(b) Motor-Spatial Task
Emulation > Trial-and-Error 9.88 <.01
Imitation > Trial-and-Error 6.011 <.01
Recall > Trial-and-Error 8.777 <.01
Emulation > Imitation 5.586 <.01
Emulation = Recall 2.758 >.8
Recall = Imitation 2.914 >.8
Table 5. Spearman’s correlation matrix. Includes age and all task–condition combinations
Age
(months)
Motor-
Spatial
Baseline
Motor-
Spatial
Recall
Motor-
Spatial
Imitation
Motor-
Spatial
Emulation
Cognitive
Baseline
Cognitive
Recall
Cognitive
Imitation
Motor-
Spatial
Baseline
.32** –
Motor-
Spatial
Recall
.29** .19 –
Motor-
Spatial
Imitation
.30** À.01 .13 –
Motor-
Spatial
Emulation
.52** .30** .27** .33** –
Cognitive
Baseline
.18 À.08 .18 .21 .09 –
Cognitive
Recall
.24* .09 .20 .13 .27** .07 –
Cognitive
Imitation
.37** .13 .16 .18 .28** .03 .20 –
Cognitive
Emulation
.36** .13 .22* .13 .37** .17 .19 .32**
Note. Bonferroni-corrected *p < .05, **p < .01.
10 Francys Subiaul et al.
11. indicated by the ratio of the residual deviance to the residual degrees of freedom
(cognitive emulation = 0.62; motor-spatial emulation = 0.62), we used a quasibinomial
error distribution (Venables & Ripley, 2002). We explored all possible models that
included the predictor variables age (months), the learning ratios on the five other
learning conditions, and all age by condition interaction terms. The final model for each
task was determined using quasi-Akaike’s information criterion with correction for finite
sample size (QAICc).
Model 1 tested whether age and other learning conditions predicted cognitive emu-
lation. In the final model (QAICc = 513.3), age, motor-spatial emulation, motor-spatial
imitation, and cognitive imitation were significant predictors of cognitive emulation
(Table 6a). Model 2 tested whether age and other learning conditions predicted motor-
spatial emulation. In the final model (QAICc = 494.9), age, motor-spatial imitation, and
cognitive recall were significant predictors of motor-spatial emulation (Table 6b).
Discussion
In contrast to imitation, goal emulation has been relatively under-studied and its
underlying cognitive features poorly characterized. We previously showed age-related
changes in goal emulation across the preschool years (Subiaul et al., 2015). Here, we
show that during these years, goal emulation is predicted by social and asocial learning
depending on the task. The present findings are in contrast to imitation, whose
development was predicted by very few other types of learning (Subiaul et al., 2015). In
this respect, the cognitive and neural processes mediating goal emulation appear to be
less specialized and more domain-general (i.e., applicable across task domains) than those
mediating imitation. Perhaps, goal emulation engages many different cognitive processes
because intention mirroring (emulation) requires more cognitive processing than action
mirroring (imitation). Below, we explore these possibilities further.
Although comparative and developmental psychologists have distinguished between
action mirroring (imitation) and goal or intention mirroring (emulation) (Carpenter &
Call, 2002; Heyes, 2011; Hopper, 2010; Huang et al., 2002; Want & Harris, 2002; Whiten
& Ham, 1992; Whiten et al., 2009), no study has explicitly tested whether different types
of intention mirroring (or emulation) are dissociable within subjects as proposed by the
Table 6. Generalized linear models for emulation. (a) Cognitive and (b) Motor-Spatial Task
Unstandardized
coefficients
Standardized coefficients
b t Sig.B Std. Error
(a) Cognitive Emulation
Age (months) 0.017 0.008 .092 2.136 .034
Motor-Spatial Emulation 1.141 0.059 .098 2.404 .017
Motor-Spatial Imitation À0.113 0.057 À1.074 À1.994 .048
Cognitive Imitation 0.119 0.049 .090 2.435 .016
(b) Motor-Spatial Emulation
Age (months) 0.045 0.006 .213 6.988 <.001
Motor-Spatial Imitation 0.161 0.051 .110 3.134 .002
Cognitive Recall 0.136 0.050 .080 2.735 .007
Cognitive structure of emulation 11
12. MEM framework or whether they are associated with one another, consistent with
hypotheses proposing that all social learning processes are mediated by a single
associative learning mechanism (Heyes, 2012a,b; Paulus, 2014) or goal/rational reasoning
processes (Kiraly et al., 2013; Wohlschlager et al., 2003). The results of the present study
do not support the predictions of the MEM framework, which hypothesized that there
would be MEMs. Instead, results suggest that, in contrast to imitation (Subiaul et al.,
2015), emulation appears to be supported by a more unitary, domain-general mechanism
that receives input from multiple cognitive processes, both social and asocial (c.f.,
Figure 2). This conclusion is based on the fact that both cognitive and motor-spatial
emulation were associated with one another, and while their cognitive structures were
not identical, both were associated with other social, asocial, or both learning processes
(c.f., Table 4). However, exactly which mechanism(s) underlie emulation is still unclear.
Consistent with the GOADI theory (Wohlschlager et al., 2003), cognitive emulation was
predicted by motor-spatial emulation as well as by cognitive imitation. In addition, motor-
spatial imitation predicted motor-spatial emulation. However, inconsistent with GOADI,
motor-spatial imitation was negatively predictive of cognitive emulation, and cognitive
imitation did not predict motor-spatial emulation, highlighting the importance of task
specificity when thinking about the cognitive structure of social learning and the
cognitive processes that underlie them. Furthermore, cognitive recall also predicted
motor-spatial emulation, which perhaps suggests that domain-general learning processes
play a significant role in emulation learning, consistent with associative models (Heyes,
2012b; Paulus, 2014).
Nonetheless, we cannot overlook the fact that while a more unitary mechanism
appears to mediate emulation, this does not seem to be the case for imitation (c.f.,
Figure 2). As such, we can reject the hypothesis that a single, unitary mechanism explains
all forms of social learning, emulation and imitation alike. Rather, results from this and
other studies (Subiaul et al., 2015, in press) suggest that the cognitive architecture of
social learning includes a domain-general (and more unitary) social learning mechanism
supporting emulation across tasks as well as various domain-specific mechanisms
supporting different forms of imitation on different tasks. This result is striking given that
they were generated from the same data set (Figure 2). Thus, the development of
imitation and emulation appears to rely on different underlying processes, that is on
multiple underlying cognitive and neural mechanisms (Figure 2).
Our overall conclusion that emulation and imitation rely on different cognitive
processes is consistent with a number of studies (Horner & Whiten, 2007; Subiaul et al.,
2012, 2015; Want & Harris, 2001) showing that children generally excel in emulation
before they succeed in imitation. However, the specific cognitive processes underlying
either emulation or imitation appear to be somewhat specific to the task at hand. For
example, Subiaul et al. (2015) showed that Motor-Spatial Imitation was associated with
Motor-Spatial Emulation, but the same was not true for Cognitive Imitation, which was not
associated with either social (Emulation) or asocial (Recall) learning processes. Likewise,
here we found that Motor-Spatial Emulation was associated with both social (Motor-Spatial
Imitation) and asocial learning (Cognitive Recall), while Cognitive Emulation was
associated with only social learning (Motor-Spatial Emulation, Cognitive and Motor-Spatial
Imitation). Together,these results suggest that while the development of goal emulation is
associated with the development of a variety of social and asocial learning processes
depending on the task, the development of imitation is likely more task and domain
specific and, generally, not associated with concomitant developmental changes in other
social or asocial learning processes.
12 Francys Subiaul et al.
13. This overall pattern of results is most consistent with a framework that predicts a
mosaic organization of social learning, henceforth, the Mosaic Social Learning (MSL)
Hypothesis. This framework proposes that the cognitive structure of social learning is
mosaic, including multiple specialized, domain-specific mechanisms that support
imitation learning across different tasks and domains as well as a unitary and domain-
general mechanism that supports emulation learning. Thus, the main prediction of the
MSL hypothesis is that no single mechanism can fully capture social learning across tasks
and domains and instead, different mechanisms apply to different forms of social learning.
Some might interpret the domain generality of emulation as prima facie evidence that
all mirroring processes including imitation and emulation share the same underlying
‘general’ cognitive and neural mechanisms be it associative learning (Heyes, 2012b;
Paulus, 2014; Ray & Heyes, 2011) or general (executive) cognitive functions (Heyes,
2012a,b). Yet these models are challenged by the fact that the Cognitive and Motor-Spatial
Tasks are uniquely matched on ‘general’ cognitive processes, including visual attention,
inhibition, serial knowledge, and working memory (Subiaul et al., 2012). Furthermore,
conditions were matched in the type of feedback (social and asocial) children received,
the model used across conditions was the same, and the responses used to achieve the
goal (to find Jumping Man) were familiar to the child and did not vary throughout the
study.
Given that both tasks share so many of the same parameters, if there was a common
system underlying all mirroring behaviours, be it goals (Bekkering et al., 2000;
Wohlschlager et al., 2003), associative learning, or general executive and perceptual
processes (Heyes, 2004, 2012b; Paulus, 2014), one would expect similar structures (with
varying strength in the associations) between different types of learning rather than
completely different patterns of associations reported here and elsewhere (Subiaul et al.,
2012, 2015). As summarized in Figure 2, analyses of the present data set produced models
for imitation and emulation indicating different cognitive structures, consistent with the
MSL framework.
While we have interpreted the different models for emulation and imitation (c.f.,
Figure 2) to mean that the cognitive processes underlying emulation rely on imitation
but the processes mediating imitation performance do not rely on emulation during
development, the nature of this unidirectional association is currently unknown and
merits further study. Previous research suggests that imitation is more domain specific
and specialized for learning by imitation within specific domains (Subiaul et al., 2015,
in press). In contrast, the unidirectional association found here suggests that emulation
learning is more domain general and, perhaps, less specialized for social learning per se.
This pattern of results is consistent with the hypothesis that goal emulation is mediated
by cognitive and neural mechanisms that are likely to receive input from other
mechanisms supporting behaviours that are domain specific (e.g., imitation) and others
that are domain general (e.g., recall).
An important limitation of this study is that it tested only one type of intention
mirroring (goal emulation) and only one possible type of goal emulation, sensu
behavioural re-enactment (Meltzoff, 1995). Future studies should explore the relationship
between different types of emulation (c.f., Table 1). One might hypothesize that certain
forms of emulation such as end-state and affordance learning might be closely associated
with one another, but differ from other types of emulation such as goal emulation. This
type of patterning might suggest that the former is mediated by causal reasoning, and the
latter, by mental-state reasoning. Alternatively, because all forms of emulation involve
idiosyncratic responses and inhibiting the execution of observed responses, one might
Cognitive structure of emulation 13
14. expect that all covary with executive and causal reasoning processes (Buchsbaum, Seiver,
Bridgers, & Gopnik, 2012; Gopnik, 2012). As a result, all forms of emulation might be
strongly associated with one another.
The present study represents a first step in understanding the developmental
relationship between social and asocial learning during the preschool years. From a
practical standpoint, these findings are relevant to early educators who may be able to
exploit emulation learning as a way to dramatically and rapidly increase information
acquisition at the point of school entry. The use of emulation as an alternative learning tool
is particularly relevant given that certain forms of emulation develop before imitation
(e.g., motor-spatial).
In short, there is nothing simple about imitation and emulation, and so we should be
sceptical of any framework that suggests a single system mediates all mirroring processes
regardless of task or domain. The parsimony of such hypotheses is appealing, but it cannot
account for the growing number of studies across the neuropsychological (Goldenberg,
2006; Goldenberg & Karnath, 2006; Rumiati et al., 2005), developmental (Cutting,
Apperly, & Beck, 2011; Subiaul et al., 2012; Vanvuchelen, Roeyers, De Weerdt, 2011;
Want & Harris, 2001), and comparative (Hopper, 2010; Myowa-Yamakoshi & Matsuzawa,
1999; Renner & Subiaul, 2015) sciences showing dissociations between tasks, age groups,
and types of social and asocial learning. While comparative psychologists have long
distinguished between different types of social learning (Thorndike, 1898, 1911), in the
past thirty years researchers have not only proposed that imitation and emulation
represent different types of social learning, but that there are also different types of
emulation (Whiten & Ham, 1992; Whiten et al., 2009) and imitation (Subiaul, 2010a).
Here, we advance a novel framework, the MSL hypothesis, which proposes that mirroring
includes both domain-general mechanisms mediated by general processes, such as
Cognitive
Emulation
Motor-
Spatial
Emulation
Cognitive
Imitation
Cognitive
Recall
EMULATIONIMITATION
MOTOR-SPATIALCOGNITIVE
Motor-
Spatial
Emulation
Motor-
Spatial
Imitation
Cognitive
Imitation
Motor-
Spatial
Imitation
Figure 2. Cognitive structure of mirroring (social learning) mechanisms. The figure depicts a summary
of the cognitive structure of mirroring mechanisms as indicated by the results from Subiaul et al. (2015) on
the left, and the present study (c.f., Table 6) on the right. Shapes correspond with tasks (circles =
Cognitive, squares = Motor-Spatial). Colours correspond with learning conditions (red = Imitation,
dark pink = Emulation, light pink = Recall). Overlapping shapes show significant associations. Age was
significantly associated with all learning conditions (not shown).
14 Francys Subiaul et al.
15. emulation and domain-specific mechanisms whose development and functioning is
largely independent of domain-general systems, such as imitation. Defining the contours
of the different social learning mechanisms that form this mosaic psychological faculty
will not be easy. However, rejecting the notion of a single mirroring system, while
recognizing that there are unique challenges associated with imitating and emulating
across domains and tasks, is a necessary first step.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the many student volunteers in the Social Cognition Lab of the George
Washington University for assisting with recruitment and data collection. Finally, we want to
extend our gratitude to the Smithsonian’s Institute, National Museum of Natural History, its
staff, and visiting children whose participation made this study possible. This study was
supported by University Facilitating Funds (GWU) and a CAREER grant from the National
Science Foundation to F. Subiaul (BCS-0748717).
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