Spatial Essay

Spatial Reference Frames
It appears that our mental images preserve not only information about distance and orientation, but
also information about the direction of visual motion, as evidenced by the motion aftereffect illusion
from internally–generated motion. What other properties of visual motion might be preserved in our
mental images? For instance, would we use the same perspective or reference frame when viewing
or imagining motion?
We use a variety of spatial reference frames to orient ourselves in our environment, two key reference
frames being egocentric (or retinotopic when referring to visual processes) or environmental.
Egocentric coordinate systems are centered on the individual, while environmental coordinate
systems are centered on some absolute or global point in space, independent of the...show more
content...
This capitalizes on the fact that what is up with respect to the eye is also up with respect to the
environment when we are upright, but not when our heads are tilted. On each trial, participants
adapted to leftward or rightward imagined motion with their heads tilted in one direction. They were
tested for an aftereffect with their heads tilted in the same direction or 90 degrees in the opposite
direction. To the extent that the direction of the MAE follows the eyes after rotation, it is egocentric.
To the extent that the direction of the MAE does not depend on head tilt, it is environmental. If the
spatial reference frame is the same (i.e., egocentric) across mental imagery and visual perception, we
can infer that our mental imagery is based very closely in actual visual perception. If the spatial
reference frame is different, that may be an area of separation between vision and
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Ruth D. Peterson and Lauren J. Krivo are two researchers who used the National Neighborhood
Crime Study to observe the racial–spatial dynamic of violence in neighborhood. The two looked at
thirty–six cities in the U.S. and discovered that not only do the economic conditions that are present
in these neighborhoods have an effect on the violence that happens in the area but also the
proximity to more disadvantaged or racially privileged areas can also have an influence on violence
formed in varies neighborhoods of color.
In this paper I review the research that was done by Peterson and Krivo on Segregated Spatial
Locations, Race–ethnic Composition, and Neighborhood Violent Crime. I begin my paper with a
discussion of the main purpose of...show more content...
This study can be compared to previous research in numerous ways. For instance a 1990s research
study demonstrated that violence could be dispersed from area to area due to the fact that
neighboring communities are pervious to spreading violence across bordering neighborhoods. This
analysis made clear that a neighborhood may become influenced with violence because they are
irrefutable receptive to such. In another study, the study of Groveland, researchers looked at the
poverty rates of the neighboring areas of Groveland and of white communities and compared them.
Groveland is a middle class African American neighborhood that is encircled by communities of 60
percent increased poverty rates compared to white communities of parallel class. Something that I
thought was pretty interesting about the topic of Groveland was that four of seven neighboring areas
have approximately two times the poverty rate of Groveland.
To inform their analysis Peterson and Krivo use the social disorganization theory. These perspectives
suggest that neighborhood disadvantages, residential instability, immigration, community
investments, and white residents are the critical factor at play and that these conditions have spatial
effects through direct spillover and the way they affect crime–controlling and/or crime–generating
processes within focal neighborhoods. (Peterson & Krivo 2009; pg. 97) If adjacent areas have high
levels of disadvantages crime in a focal neighborhood may be

In day to day life, I am learning more information in each second I am living. Not only am I
learning academics but how to be a part of the world and to use my unique mindset while
interacting in society. I have weak and strong intelligence abilities that help me take in my
surroundings. Since I was a child, I have adapted to use my intelligences in everything I do and
everything I take part in. In school when I am taking notes or studying for a test, I have to write
and organize information in a way that makes sense to me so I can fully take in the material.
When I am watching a movie, my mind picks up on certain aspects of the film and personality
traits of the characters because I have adapted to take in knowledge in a specific way. Out of the
eight multiple intelligences, my strong points are visual spatial and interpersonal. I have a
exceptional intelligence for visual images in addition to interacting with others. Visual spatial
intelligence is the special ability to work well with visual images. I work strong learning with
pictures or videos and can remember information more suitably if I draw a picture or watch a film
on the subject. I have a hard time memorizing information directly reading it out of a textbook, but
if there are many diagrams, visual representations or I draw pictures of what the text is explaining,
I can memorize it very easily. Using my visual spatial intelligence, I also have the strong ability to
correctly visualize how something works or

In two–dimensional space, geographic features have spatial references. Central tendency must
incorporate the coordinates that define the location of the features or objects. This in the spatial
context will be the mean center, the weighted mean center, or the median center of a spatial point
distribution. There is no essential correct way of calculating the center of spatial distribution (no one
correct way to calculate in all situations, although appropriate methods to calculate for various
settings. The interpretation of the result of the calculation can be determined by the nature of the
problem.
The mean center is the average location of a set of points. These points can represent regional
subdivisions, landslides, water wells, and such in a region. It is the geographic center of the set of
observations. In the study area, the average of X–bar and Y–bar coordinate is taken of all the
features/observations. The mean center of X and Y are X–bar and Y–bar respectively. For the i–th
observation of object, Xi and Yi are the coordinates and n is the number of observations.
The weighted mean center is the measure of the weighted geographic center of the set of
observations, as the weighted average Xw–bar and Yw–bar coordinate are seen of the features
/observations in the study area. Xw–bar and Yw–bar are the weighted mean center of X and Y
(respectively), Xi and Yi are the coordinates for the i–th observation, and wi is the weight. For
example, the population in the i–th

Human Geography is defined as the study of spatial pattern and spatial organization of human
activities and people's relationships with their environment. The study of spatial organization of
human activities is extremely important as it allows us to understand demography, the study of the
characteristics of human populations. Demographics allow geographers and government agencies to
look at population data from the past and the present to predict future trends in population growth or
decline (Knox, 2013, p.2, 99–101). The information gathered through a census or vital records can
for example help a nation adjust immigration levels if a country is having a very low birth rate or
allocate more funding for health care if a high percentage of its population is over 65. Comparing the
demographics between various countries can aid in understanding national, regional and global
issues. China, Brazil, Canada, India and Ghana provide a great context to analyze how the
environment affects populations.
The demographic transition theory looks at how populations change from high birth and death rates
to low birth and death rates. The theory argues that as societies move from pre–industrial to
industrial societies, population growth slows. Canada was in Phase 3 – Transitional stage in 1955 as
it was almost fully industrialized. The crude birth rate was 27.4, which was in line with other
industrializing countries such as Britain and the US. Canada's crude death rate was also much lower

Introduction to Spatial Planning
Introduction
Planning, that is process of 'making a plan', has been an important part of development of our
areas. Planning is the application of conscious thought to the solution of problem or issue. Planning
is said to be found at the very centre of the complex mess of technology, politics, culture and
economics that create our whole society and its physical presence (Rydin, 2011). As RTPI (2011)
defines it, 'planning is the management of competitive uses for space and making of places that are
valued and have an identity.'
Space as a term is very much territorial in nature, and since we are talking about competitive uses
of space, it means that a space needs to be used in such a way that it gives the most advantage to the
society....show more content...
In order to reduce these problems, planners looked at 'mixed patterns' of land–use. This reduces long
distance travels, as people can then live and work in nearby areas and hence use means of travel
like walking, cycling etc. This also results in a healthy, safe and more vibrant city.
Problems with Land–use planning and shift to spatial planning
Even after the introduction of mixed use planning, there are some essential drawbacks of land–use
method of planning. Firstly, there is nothing to suggest the pattern in which the growth should or
will happen, and it is expected that the stakeholders should invest in the future looking at the
potential of proposed development plans and regulatory policies which are decided by the state
(Rydin, 2011). This is not always a concrete method of predicting the future, and the stakeholders do
not feel involved as they do not have a say in the process.
Land–use planning is not very flexible and plans cannot keep up with the changing market scenarios
and economic demands or the changes in main planning objectives. It cannot adapt to the changes in
the development requirements. The generalization of land use ignores the uniqueness of land and
local requirements of some areas which are different.
From the post–war times, state intervention was very important in reconstruction, and there was a
nationalisation of land development rights. The old planning system was a comprehensive and

Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis Paper
1.Introduction
The escalating liberalization of international trade that occurred during the decades following World
War II under the impulse of various multilateral agreements and organizations has brought about a
dramatic change in the geographic scope of logistics and freight transportation systems. While new
trade ties have emerged with East Asia, long–time trading partners such as the United States and
European nations have also intensified their trade relationships, to the point that the European Union
is the largest trading partner of the United States and this trade represents 4% of U.S. gross domestic
product (BEA, 2010).
The intensification of long–haul trade routes has reinforced the critical role of seaports, as gateways
to...show more content...
We look at competition and positioning of these ports with respect to shippers and their geographic
location on the European continent. We separately consider their linkages with U.S. ports of entry;
finally, we also look at port traffic from the angle of the types of commodity handled. Each analysis
produces a functional space of European forwarding ports from one of the three perspectives. All
three perspectives are also brought together in a synthetic analysis of inter–port competition.
Commodity flow databases constitute a rich and multidimensional data source, but this information
will not be useful unless some rules and patterns are extracted from data in the form of functional
space, for instance. Exploratory spatial data analysis methods play an increasing role in analyzing
huge databases. It helps to understand, summarize, and classify the huge unorganized data, and,
more importantly, provides new hypotheses about data that can be subsequently applied in spatial
modeling. Multivariate statistical methods such as factor analysis, principle component analysis,
multidimensional scaling, and self–organizing maps deal with data reduction and have been used
effectively comprehend functional space, either implicitly or explicitly. Berry (1966) applied factor
analysis approaches to identify India's salient commodity flow patterns. R–mode analysis identifies
clusters of destination locations with similar profiles of incoming flows,

Historical Features Of Spatial Data Essay
Spatial data mining is a rising exploration field devoted to the advancement and utilization of novel
computational procedures for the examination of big spatial datasets. It envelops methods for
finding valuable spatial associations and patterns that are not stored in spatial datasets. Generally
these procedures need to manage complex features with spatial data properties. The properties and
relationships that have been contained in spatial data are different from transactional data. For
instance, transactional data are stored in discrete space of numeric and categorical data rather than
spatial data which are stored in continuous space. Transactions in transactional data are independent
of each other unlike the spatial data share a variety of spatial relationships among each other. The
complexity of spatial data type and implicit relationships among spatial objects makes the process of
discovering spatial patterns from spatial data is more diп¬ѓcult compared to the process discovering
patterns from traditional data. Different approaches have been developed for knowledge discovery
from spatial data such as Spatial Classification, Spatial association rule mining, Spatial Clustering
[8]. Spatial Classification spatial classification is known as that attributes can be grouped with
respect to their values into categories also the attribute values of objects of neighbors may also be
related to the membership of objects so that they have to be considered as well

Research Paper On Spatial Inequality
Intro: Hook: How would you like to be poor living in a place where you really can't make more
money than you already do, or get any education, or a better way of life? Background Info: All of
that is caused by spatial inequality. What is spatial inequality? Spatial inequality is the unequal
distribution of wealth or resources so that some places are poorer than the others. Thesis Statement:
In my opinion what starter spatial inequality was the jobs, the money, and the education. Body
Paragraph #1: Topic Sentence: One way spatial inequality exist is because of jobs. CD–Q: According
to the textbook named, "Geography Alive!" it states, "... now they are finding it hard to serve. To
compete with large farms, they have to increase their production. But they don't have the money to
buy seeds, fertilizer, and farm machinery. Many of them end up selling their land." (pg.144)
Commentary/Analysis: What that means is that now that big commercial farms are moving in and
selling their crops for less money, les bigger farms have to increase the productivity, but they don't
have money so they are forced to sell their farms and go to the city for better
opportunities.CD–Q:According to a...show more content...
CD–Q: The people in the low class obviously have no money to pay for their kids to go to school.
Commentary/Analysis: That means that since the low class people have no money, how are they
going to pay for their kids to go to school and have a better future. CD–Q: For example, according to
the textbook called, "Geography Alive!" it states, "Some middle–class families can no longer save
money for the future or send their children to good private schools." Commentary/Analysis: That
means that even the people in the middle–class are struggling to keep their kids in school, and if
they don't have education it's gonna be harder for them to find good paying jobs, and then they fall
into

Spatial Planning And Spatial Planning
Spatial planning is assisting with a change in emphasis by governments in the way they think about
the role of planning to support, change and manage economic growth, improve quality of life,
through a growing understanding of the dynamics of sustained development. Spatial planning
focusses that planning can be more than the traditional regulatory and zoning practices of land use.
Spatial planning is regional planning, transportation, environment social and economic growth of an
area local region through new models, technologies. The spatial planning is more attributed to
Regional Planning, Localised Sustained development.
Labour Government's implementing the spatial planning as environmental manifesto focusing on
two related and critical issues....show more content...
The resource management with skill development which needs to make spatial plans has to be
superior to the old traditional use of planning. The Land use plans were more of Governmental not
participative plans, but spatial plans have been stressed upon to achieve the decentralised localised
participation. Hence the importance of keeping in mind while spatial planning one should consider
of cultural, especially multicultural metro urban requirements.
How spatial planning is different from Land use planning:
The traditional Land Use planning was regulating the use and development of land by government
norms and conditions where as in spatial planning it's shaping the norms in more democratic way,
but ultimately in ground zero it becomes the same as authorities will decide.
Scheduling of policy frame work and decision of rules to regulate administrate are mapped and
designed for development work in land use planning where as in spatial planning its identifying key
areas of change inclusive development of all functional areas. But at the time of implementation of
the same it's the authorities and regional body for allocation of

Examples Of Visual-Spatial Abilities
When it comes to visual–spatial abilities, it is thought that males are better than girls. They can
rotate objects better in their minds, are better at things like engineering and mathematics. Females
are good at empathizing and listening, more likely to choose professions in the arts rather than
sciences. It was thought that these differences were due to the fact that our brains are wired
differently, that our hormones controlled more than we thought. However, that is not the case it
seems. There seems to be no significant results that gender differences in visual–spatial abilities are
innate but rather socialized through practice and training and gender schemas.
A.
The prenatal hormone theory states that there is a surge of hormones in the womb that can cause sex
differences in the fetus. The hormone testosterone is believed to cause males to be more interested
in things that involve objects or systems and less interest in things like facial expression and people
(Fine). The theory would account for the claim that more males are interested in professions that
involve math and science (engineering, computer sciences, physics, etc.). Counteracting this claim,
however, is evidence pointing towards the fact that many of these professions and intellectual
discovers need a great deal of empathetic ability to achieve. Fine points out in her novel, Delusions
of Gender, that Albert Einstein claimed to have made great discovers when he was following his
intuition and not his logic.

Spatial And : Spatial Analysis
In addition to the endogeneity problem, researchers need to consider a spatial spillover effect when
using spatial data. Generally, it is expected that neighboring areas have a stronger interaction than
geographically distant areas. However, it is likely that unobserved household and neighborhood
characteristics are shared over geographically adjacent neighborhoods, which can cause a spatial
autocorrelation problem. Though spatially correlated errors do not result in biased estimates, these
errors can produce inefficient estimates and biased standard errors (Anselin, 1988). The spatial
econometric technique allows for an examination of the role played by spatial effects and
geographical spillovers by considering the spatial characteristics of neighborhood data. In this study,
spatial dependence is presented based on a contiguity–based binary weight matrix. To diagnose the
existence of spatial dependence in model residuals, we use Moran's I statistics for residuals,
Lagrange multiplier (LM) tests for the lag dependence and error dependence, and robust LM tests
for the lag dependence and error dependence with the fixed effect model. According to Anselin and
Rey (1991), Moran's I is commonly used for detecting spatial dependence, but it cannot determine
what type of spatial dependences (e.g. spatial lag dependence or spatial error dependence) exists in
regression residuals. Therefore, it cannot provide information on which model is appropriate in
explaining the spatial

Spatial Memory
Spatial memory has been an intriguing field of study for many years. A major debate especially
arises when the spatial memory is said to differ between males and females. The five studies attempt
to attribute the variations to different reasons. The first paper (Lund,2001), attempts to find the role
of estrogen in the difference between the performance of learning and memory tasks in males and
females. The second paper, (Lejbak, 2011) emphasizes the n–back task, a continuous performance
working memory measure that makes strong demands on working memory in the superior cognitive
load conditions. This strategy has been passed as an effective paradigm that is used in neuroimaging
as a measure for working memory. The third article, (Chennareddi,...show more content...
The study first appreciates that sex differences in psychological functions exist, but the objective is
to gauge the performance as the individual progresses with age. The study used rhesus monkeys that
were subjected to various tasks with varying complexities. The results revealed that the perfomance
of the male spatial memory was superior to the that of the female subjects at the beginning of the
study. However, the rate at which the performance declined was higher for the male subjects than the
females. Working memory, however, was the only component of the study that showed a difference.
The study then concluded that males have an advantage in spatial working memory at a young age,
but the decline is more significant with progression in

Edward T. Hall's Four Spatial Zones
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall has defined four spatial zones that we use depending upon the
content that we are communicating and the level of self–disclosure. Hall's four spatial zones begin
with what he calls intimate space, skin contact to 18 inches away, this is the space that we use for
intimate conversations, secrets, and deeper levels of self–disclosure. The second of Hall's spatial
zones is personal space, 18 inches to 4 feet away, this spatial zone is used to communicate personal
information, but is less intimate than that of intimate space. The third of Hall's spatial zones is
social space, 4 to 12 feet away, in this spatial zone occurs more formal and impersonal
communication. The fourth of Hall's spatial zones is public space, 12...show more content...
Family and friends know when you're behaving out of the ordinary, and because they know you at
a deeper level they feel they can tell you to stop a certain behavior without hurting your feelings.
Strangers, on the other hand only know you at superficial level and don't feel comfortable
correcting your behavior, strangers don't know how you typically behave and probably think that
you go around making people feel uncomfortable all the time. I also learned that it not just invading
people's physical space that leaves them feeling uneasy, but violating spatial zones by discussing
content that is inappropriate for certain zones. When you discuss content that is only appropriate for
intimate spatial zones so that it can be heard in a public spatial zone it makes people feeling very
uncomfortable. Like arguing in public or talking to loud at a restaurant about personal

Spatial Specificity Analysis
Having differences between the two types of fMRI, "Spatial Correlations of Laminar BOLD and
CBV Responses to Rate Whisker Stimulation with Neuronal Activity Localized by Fos
Expression" by Lu et al. exemplifies the spatial limitations of BOLD fMRI and in contrast
demonstrates CBV fMRI's superior spatial specificity. The paper states that the spatial specificity
of BOLD fMRI is limited due to two reasons: the physiological process to the hemodynamic
response and the microcirculation of the brain (Lu et al, 2004). Duvernoy et al.'s discovery of the
venous unit is specifically deteriorates BOLD's spatial specificity. The venous unit is compromised
of large cortical penetrating veins to drain the amount of deoxygenated blood. This propagation of
DH makes it difficult to pinpoint the origin of brain activity which gave reason to Lu et al. to
hypothesize that the venous unit employs inaccurate positive BOLD signals (Duvernoy et al.,
1981). Menon and Goodyear add that BOLD fMRI suffers greatly due to its low contrast to noise
ratio (Menon and Goodyear, 1999). It was also made known, by Lee et al., that fractional changes in
blood vessel diameter are...show more content...
The whisker barrel is found on the medial primary somatosensory cortex and a single whisker is
confined to a single barrel which is provided with independent blood supply from the capillary bed.
A superparamagnetic CBV fMRI contrast agent called MION was used to enhance the blood volume
response. In addition, c–Fos immunochemistry, used for neuroanatomical metabolic mapping, was
also performed to be compared with the CBV activation maps for it was assumed that if CBV
fMRI could bypass the venous barrier, it would show areas of activation analogous to Fos expression
(Lu et al,

Spatial Inequality
Where you live is also a huge part of spatial inequality. Because if you do not have access to a car
or transportation to get food from grocery stores in other neighborhoods, then you are going to
face some difficulties. Normally, you want to live in a neighborhood with access to grocery stores
and transportation if you do not have a car. It is also ideal to live in an area where there is less
crime and there is better schooling. I think that spatial inequality exists in Minneapolis because of
the crime and unsafe neighborhoods there. There are not enough supplies in certain neighborhoods
because big name companies do not want to build a store in a neighborhood where there is crime. If
there is crime, there is a greater chance that bad things

Definition Of Spatial Layout And Functionality
consumers who were dining under dimmed lighting has higher level of comfort, than customers
dining under higher levels of lighting. Further, Ryu and Hand (2011) affirmed that "customers who
dine in a relaxing environment, with softer lighting, eat less, stays longer and enjoy their meal
more." Similarly, Sulek and Hensley (2004) stated "customers in fine–dining restaurants would eat
more as the tranquil atmosphere would make them to stay longer and order more food and drinks."
Bitner (1992) indicated that spatial layout "symbolises the ways in which furnishings, equipment and
machineries are organized, the shape and size of those items, and the spatial relations among them,
with functionality establishing the ability of those items to facilitate performance and the attainment
of goals." Similarly, Wakefield and Blodgett (2016) asserts that spatial layout and functionality are
the way in which furniture is set–up or equipment spaced out.
A spatial layout may have a direct influence on customer's value perceptions, desirability, and
excitement levels, and an indirect influence on the need to return (Wakefield & Blodgett, 2016). For
example, the settings of tables in restaurants can have a positive effect on the overall experience of a
consumer. How dining tables are laid out has the ability to convey a sense of privacy, portrays the
functionality desired, and works as border for the consumer (Lin, 2004).
Furthermore, symbols and artifacts, which include signage, personal

Spatial And Event-Based Design
Precedent Analysis
The practice in design research includes academics and practitioners elaborating on the topic
between peoples and places. This section forms a progressive theoretical research and precedent
works that influenced by ideas development and evaluation as a reflective process.
Spatial and Event–Based Design
The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces is a documentary film directed by William H. Whyte, it
reveals a documentary study of public life that happened in–between plazas and buildings in the city.
Upon the analysis of problems and results, Whyte deliberates the theory of triangulation. The idea of
triangulation means, to provide the opportunities of an event as the medium that could bring people
together in places (William H. Whyte, 1988). Whyte clearly states the theory of triangulation as the
most crucial aspects in urban public spaces.
In addition, an event–based and laneway revitalisation project by City of Sydney, the Laneway by
George! Hidden Networks 2009. This event curated eight interconnected lanes alongside George
Street with a setting of an outdoor public installation, that encourages dialogue about public space
and social interaction through a laneway (Natalie Ward,...show more content...
The objective is to challenge the viewer's perception with their bodies and encourages human
movement in and around his sculptures. Serra viewed his sculpture as a key to understanding the
urban space, the works become an abstract of form compositions that harmoniously act as an
intermediate of a spacious scale environment (figure 2). The similarity to the project comes under the
methodology, Serra begins his work by planning and making a maquette with the exploration
between the viewer and the site. The element of Serra's work values not only based through its form
of an object, but also its intricacy of the work to understand human movement and the urban

Spatial Justice: The Concept Of Spatial Justice
In the third part of the book, Harvey talks about the concept where Spatial justice connects together
social justice and spaces, most dominantly. It is also mentioned that Spatial Organization is a crucial
dimension and aspect of Society and it precisely reflects social facts and influences social relations
.Hence, justice and injustice both the aspects becomes more visible in space. Therefore, it becomes
important to understand social injustice in totality and formulate territorial policies accordingly
aiming to tackle them by analysing the interactions between space and society. It is at this junction
that the concept of spatial justice has been developed. Space as we know, is a fundamental
dimension of human societies, social justice is embedded in it....show more content...
This can be guided by concept of spatial justice, which combines together Social Justice with
space. It is major challenge because it is goal of many policies of planning. So it is also important
to analyse the concept of spatial justice along with social, which is never questioned to the extent
that it has been taken for granted. The concept of Spatial Justice opens up several perspectives for
various other

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