Arab & Muslim Americans

Arabs and Muslim Americans have been a prominent feature of many
national stories in the United States because of the unfortunate event of
9/11. It is well known that many people in the United States are calling for
such things as racial profiling at airports which I believe would result in
devastating consequences for our country if allowed.
I have worked with many Arab Americans during the past decade as I work in
and around Dearborn, Michigan which is home to highest percentage of
Arabs outside of the Middle East and I believe there are quite a bit of
misconceptions towards Arab Americans on the part of non-Arab Americans.
I believe it is crucial for the United States to begin working towards better
relations with Arab Americans and Middle Eastern Arabs in general because
of the new reality we face with regard to globalization and the global
economy.
Introduction

The role of culture with regard to influencing behavior and mental
processes cannot be underestimated. Take for instance the statistics which
show that the IQ scores of poorer White individuals are as much as 20
percentage points lower than “the average score of members in the middle
class” (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 137). Thus, it is possible that an
individual’s intelligence is directly tied to their socio-cultural experience. In
many Islamic cultures, the education of men is often valued higher than that
of women, and even in countries such as Indonesia where women have
experienced greater levels of freedom: when money is tight families tend to
value the education of their son’s over their daughters (Smith-Hefner, 2005,
para. 3). Therefore, it is possible that Muslim women may perform lower than
men on various educational test scores but this would not be connected to
any biological differences between the genders but rather entirely related to
cultural influence.
The Role of Culture

Cross-cultural studies on the way people think in recent years have
determined two main processes: dialectical thinking and positive logical determinism
(Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Dialectical thinking refers to a predisposition
toward accepting apparent contradictions and is considered the preferred way of
thinking among many Eastern cultures (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Positive
logical determinism involves a foundation in the belief that contradictions are
mutually exclusive and is dominate in Western society (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p.
127).
The Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence before
marriage, no toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions. Thus, the religion of
Islam would influence adherents to a certain level of dialectical thinking: Islamic
principles are true, therefore, that which disagrees with Islam is false. However,
despite these universal laws that Muslims throughout the world adhere to there are
certain culture specific behaviors within this sub-group depending upon location. The
well known migration of Muslim families to Western societies such as Great Britain
and the United States has played a key role in the differing attitudes Muslims have
toward various issues such as gender roles, societal responsibility, and the level of
individualism versus collectivism (Read, 2003).
The Role of Culture

The Role of Culture
Cross-cultural studies on the way people think in recent years have
determined two main processes: dialectical thinking and positive logical determinism
(Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Dialectical thinking refers to a predisposition
toward accepting apparent contradictions and is considered the preferred way of
thinking among many Eastern cultures (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). Positive
logical determinism involves a foundation in the belief that contradictions are mutually
exclusive and is dominate in Western society (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008, p. 127). The
Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence before marriage, no
toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions.
Thus, the religion of Islam would influence adherents to a certain level of
dialectical thinking: Islamic principles are true, therefore, that which disagrees with
Islam is false. However, despite these universal laws that Muslims throughout the world
adhere to there are certain culture specific behaviors within this sub-group depending
upon location.

The Role of Culture
Although there are certain core beliefs and principles that Muslims
throughout the world hold to, one of the most striking differences between Muslims of
the Western World versus those of the Eastern world is the variance with regard to
individualism-collectivism. A strong sense of male dominated leadership is still prevalent
within the majority of Muslim families throughout the world but this sense of gender
inequality is slowly disappearing among Muslims in the Western world thanks to
migration and the global economy (Naber, 1998).
In the article “Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues Facing
Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents” published by the journal Gender &
Society, author Nadine Naber (1998) discusses Islamic society in Egypt and how the
family is considered the very center of society and that children are the main focus of
women within the culture (para. 5). The concept of women’s lives being mainly
concerned with raising children is largely considered to be an old way of thinking in the
United States as well as a way of repressing women’s rights. However, in many Islamic
cultures such as Egypt, women do not necessarily think in terms of being repressed
because they have to raise children but as a way of life. Naber (1998) writes “males and
females occupy distinct roles within a patriarchal system based on age and gender.
Women are caretakers, and men are providers”. Therefore, this type of cultural
atmosphere influences male and female children toward adopting very stringent beliefs
regarding the behaviors of men and women in society.

Islamic Culture American Culture
Compare/Contrast of American Culture and Islamic Culture
PSY 381 Venn Diagram Final Project Part Three
In the Middle East
Arab men tend to
outperform Arabic
women
academically
(Smith-Hefner,
2005)
American
women attend
college and
have higher
graduation
rates than
American men
(NY Times,
2010).
In America, 24%
of Arab Muslims
have a college
degree and 25 %
of non-Arab
Muslims have a
college degree
(America.gov,
2010).

Muslim culture
tends to focus on
only the Islamic
Religion
Belief in higher
Power / God
American culture
Embraces many
different types of
religions and has
many elements of
pluralism

Muslims families
Tend to live in close-
knit neighborhoods
nearby their
relatives and other
fellow Muslims
(America.gov, 2008)
Both cultures place a
high priority on
education for their
children
Americans do not
place a high priority
on living nearby
relatives and those
they attend religious
services with

“The Arabic
language is the
single most unifying
force among Arabs”
(Schaefer, 2011).
Both cultures tend
to envelop one type
of language – In
America however,
Muslims have
become more
adaptive to being bi-
lingual.
Although America is
home to people of
many different
languages, English is
the dominant
language of the
entire company.

Characters:
25 year old Arab American Sonia and 30 year old Caucasian
American Seth
Scenario:
Sonia is at a local coffee shop reading a book and Seth, a fellow
student from a few years prior recognizes her and comes over to
say hello.
Fictional Scenario
Between an Arab American Muslim
and a Caucasian American

Seth: “Sonia, remember me, Seth, from Abnormal Psychology
three years ago?”
Sonia casually looks around the room, and then responds with a
touch of hesitancy in her voice, “Hello Seth, it’s been a long time
how are you?”
Seth: “I’ve been having a hard time. I graduated a year ago but
still haven’t found a job. Fortunately, my parents are supporting
and paying for me to go to graduate school in New Jersey later
this year”.
Sonia: “Yes, the economy is bad and I haven’t been able to find a
job either. I was actually accepted to the same school you’re
referring to but my parents won’t let me go”.
Seth: “Won’t let you go? Your 25 years old, what do you mean
they won’t let you go?”

Sonia: “Seth, my parents are devout Muslims, there’s a reason I
wear this head covering you know.”
Seth: “I realize you’re Muslim, but you dress like every other
American girl, and what does that have to do with you moving to
New Jersey for school, if I remember correctly your older brother
is studying engineering at a school in California?”
Sonia: “Well, my parents let me dress according to American
culture, but my older brother doesn’t need a chaperone according
to my parents. In our culture, men are often given a lot more
leeway with regard to independence from their parents. It’s
actually a big deal that I’m in this coffee house by myself talking
with you. My father really doesn’t approve of me coming to a
public place like this without a girlfriend or one of my brothers”.

Seth: “Really? Man, my seventeen year old sister just tends to do
what she wants. She went to a party last Friday night and didn’t
get home till nearly three in the morning. I mean, my parents
don’t approve, but what can they do about it?”
Sonia: “If I stayed out that late there would be hell to pay. To do
such a thing would be considered disrespecting my family because
my parents believe that when I am out in public I represent them
and all of our relatives as well as our religion”.
Seth: “Wow, that’s different. I barely even know my relatives. The
only time we all get together is for a funeral or a wedding”.
Sonia: “All of my relatives that have migrated to America all live in
the same city or neighboring city and we get together daily. In
fact, my mother and my aunts cook together at least three or four
times a week”.

Seth: “So, I’m guessing that if I ask you out on a date for Friday
night it would be out of the question.”
Sonia: “Uh, yea, that’s not going to happen anytime soon. That
would upset my parents to no end. I do not necessarily agree with
them on all of these issues, and I am sure that I’m going to treat
my own children differently. But because I want peace between
my family and I, I’m going to respect them and their cultural
beliefs”

Discussion of Fictional Scenario
Upon migrating to America, many American Muslim women still wear
a traditional head covering but attitudes towards modern dress styles (such as
wearing slacks or skirts) has become more lenient and Muslim American
women are just as likely to wear popular styles of clothing as non-Muslim
American women (Schaefer, 2011).
While Arab American families place just as much emphasis on
education as their non-Muslim American counterparts, Arab Americans tend to
allow their son’s more latitude in pursuing higher education than their
daughters (America.gov, 2008). This does not mean that Arab American women
are prohibited from pursuing graduate degrees, but that Muslim men are more
likely to be permitted to attend schools farther away from home than Muslim
women. The scenario I presented was actually a reinterpretation of my own
experience with friends of mine who are Muslim women from Lebanon, Iraq,
and Saudi Arabia. Each of my three friends wanted to pursue their graduate
degree abroad, but ended up graduating at local universities at the request of
their parents.

Discussion of Fictional Scenario
Another theme that was central to my fictional story is the concept of
community and relationships between Muslim relatives. Arab American
families generally place a much higher emphasis on the relationships between
extended relatives than non-Arab Americans (America.gov, 2008). Arab
Americans are more likely to live in close proximity with their relatives than
non-Arab Americans (America.gov, 2008).
Finally, a central element in my scenario involved the character Seth
asking Sonia a series of questions. Cross-cultural studies have shown that when
non-Muslims demonstrate a sincere interest in the Muslim religion, culture,
and philosophy, Muslims are more willing to engage in dialogue (Clyne, 2001).

Profile of a “typical” Arab American Muslim
In this section I will expand on the character profile of “Sonia”, a 25
year old Arab American Muslim who I introduced in my fictional scenario.
The Islamic religion is well known for its universal laws of abstinence
before marriage, no toleration of alcohol, and other such distinctions and
therefore it would be highly likely that 25 year old Sonia abstains from
premarital sex, alcohol and other behaviors that are frowned upon by Islamic
society.
Since she is a Muslim it is also likely that she still lives at home with
her family because in general; a strong sense of male dominated leadership is
still prevalent in much of the Muslim society and it would be considered
unbecoming for a single Muslim woman to live on her own apart from her
father (Naber, 1998). Linda Brannon (2007) explains that Muslim countries
have “longstanding traditions of unquestioned male authority over the family”
(p. 254). However, countries such as Morocco and South Africa have slowly but
steadily began to change political policies “giving women more rights in
marriage” (Brannon, 2007, p. 254).
Thus, it is possible that since Sonia lives in America her parents are
more likely to give her more freedoms as an adult then other, more
conservative Muslim societies.

In the article “Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues
Facing Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents” published by the
journal Gender & Society, author Nadine Naber (1998) discusses Islamic society
in Egypt and how the family is considered the very center of society and that
children are the main focus of women within the culture (para. 5).
Therefore, it is likely that although Sonia is studying at the University
level, she still perceives a future in which she will marry and bear children.
While some American women might interpret this cultural distinctive as being
oppressive toward women, in many Islamic cultures such as Egypt, women do
not necessarily think in terms of being repressed because they have to raise
children as a way of life. Naber (1998) writes “males and females occupy
distinct roles within a patriarchal system based on age and gender. Women are
caretakers, and men are providers”.

Miss Michigan 2010, Arab American Rima
Fakih (ArabDetroit.com, 2011).
Arab and Muslim American men and women are more
likely to look and act like any other American than to
look different (Read, 2003)
Arab American Actor/Model Wes
Pollock (Somewhere in Indiana
Actors, n.d.).

Professor Fawzia Afzal-Khan (1997), who was raised in a Muslim
family in Pakistan, suggests that Americans on average associate the phrase,
“Muslim woman” with the terms; “weak, subservient, passive, abused” (para.
8). Although these descriptions might fit many Muslim women throughout the
world, American Muslims have allowed their females to break away from many
of these negative stereotypes and embody character traits in common with any
other non-Muslim female in America (Naber, 1998). In the United States,
Islamic views of masculinity and femininity often depend on whether the
Muslim family has migrated to the country or are second generation citizens.
Thus, if Sonia’s parents are second generation citizens, it is likely that
Sonia herself looks and acts like any other woman in America.
Read (2003) suggests that although Islamic women in America are considered
to be more traditional and more repressed than non-Islamic female Americans,
that among Islamic women born in America “the influence of Muslim affiliation
on gender traditionalism disappears” (para. 27). Thus, young girls who are
raised by Muslim parents born in the United States are more likely to
experience the same type of upbringing as non-Muslim Americans.

Perhaps one of the most common misunderstandings Americans have
of Muslims is related to the veil or hijab (modern headscarf), in the article
“Clothes, Culture, and Context: female dress in Kuwait” published by the
Journal Fashion Theory, author Marjorie Kelly (2010) explains that while
Muslim women in Kuwait wear the hijab in public, “At private, same-sex, or
family gatherings, women remove their abayas to reveal anything from shorts
and jeans to formal gowns” (para. 5). Thus, at home Kuwait women dress often
dress just as casually as American women, the main difference being that
casual dress (such as jeans or shorts) is considered improper in public. It was
scarcely less than a generation ago that the average American man would not
even think of attending a ball game without wearing a tie so this author
contends that those people overly critical of Islamic dress need to remember
our society has only recently relaxed our own view of proper public dress
codes.

Roots of Prejudice and Hate Toward Arab and
Muslim Americans
In the article “In the article “Understanding and Preventing Hate
Crimes” available through the APA Website, Tori DeAngelis (2001) explains that
discrimination often occurs when people experience a crisis and then look for a
scapegoat to place blame upon (para. 1). In the case of discrimination towards
Arab Americans DeAngelis’ (2001) hypothesis fits quite succinctly in light of the
events of 9/11. Because all of the 9/11 hijackers were both Arabic and Muslim,
the potential for racial profiling and discrimination has been fueled throughout
America. Schaefer (2011) writes, “News events have fueled anti-Arab, anti
Muslim feeling” (p. 275). Numerous surveys taken in the United States have
demonstrated that since 9/11, 1 in 4 people harbor “anti-Muslim stereotypes
such as the idea that Islam teaches violence and hatred (Schaefer, 2011, p.
277).
Hollywood has also been a key contributor toward anti-Arab attitudes,
Schaefer (2011) explains that television shows and movies rarely portray Arab
and Muslim Americans engaging in “normal behavior such a shopping,
attending a sporting event, or even just eating without a subtext of terrorism
lurking literally in the shadows” (p. 277).

Roots of Prejudice and Hate toward Arab and
Muslim Americans
Thus, with both Hollywood and the news media portraying Arab and
Muslim Americans in a negative light it comes as no surprise that the general
public continues to harbor such ill will towards this cultural group.
Islamic discrimination toward non-Muslims is more predominant in
the Middle East where Muslims are the majority and non-Muslims are the
minority. For instance, in Saudi Arabia Islam is the official religion of the
kingdom and the law mandates that all citizens be Muslim (U.S. Department of
State, 2004). Thus, while non-Muslims are permitted visas to enter countries
such as Saudi Arabia, legal discrimination exists in the very laws that many of
these Middle Eastern countries are founded upon.
One potential area of discrimination by American Muslims toward
non-Muslims could be a belief that all non-Muslims harbor hate and
resentment toward them. With such a preponderance of examples that show
high percentages of Americans having negative attitudes toward Muslims it
could be easy for Muslims to stereotype all Americans as harboring hate or
discrimination.

Arab American women wearing
traditional veil or hijab (modern
headscarf) (USA Today, 2003).
Media portrayals of Arab and Muslim Americans are often
negative stereotypes such as the one in the image above,
images like these foster discrimination and hate toward Arab
and Muslim Americans (Examiner.com, 2010).

References
America.gov. (2010). Muslims in america: a statistical portrait. Retrieved from,
http://www.america.gov/st/peopleplace-
english/2008/December/20081222090246jmnamdeirf0.4547083.html
Afzal-Khan, F. (Spring 1997). Introducing a new course: Muslim women in the twentieth-
century literature. NWSA Journal, 9, n1. p.76(13). Retrieved from Academic
OneFile via Gale:
ArabDetroit.com. (2011). [Arab American Rima Fakih Wins Miss Michigan USA Image].
Retrieved from, http://www.arabdetroit.com/news.php?id=960
Brannon, L., (2007). Gender: Psychological Perspectives (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Clyne, I. (2001). “Finding common ground: cross-cultural research in the Muslim
community”. University of Melbourne. Retrieved from,
http://www.aare.edu.au/01pap/don01569.htm
Examiner.com. (2010). [Terrorism Image]. Retrieved from,
http://www.examiner.com/populist-in-national/where-are-the-non-violent-
muslims

Kelly, M. (June 2010). Clothes, culture, and context: female dress in
Kuwait. Fashion Theory, 14, 2. p.215(22). Retrieved from Academic
OneFile via Gale:
Matsumoto, D. & Juang, L. (2008). Culture & psychology [4th ed.]. Belmont:
Wadsworth.
Naber, N C (Feb 1998). Family and Gender Among American Muslims: Issues
Facing Middle Eastern Immigrants and Their Descendents. Gender &
Society, 12, n1. p.105(3). Retrieved from: Academic OneFile via Gale:
Read, J. G. (Summer 2003). The sources of gender role attitudes among
Christian and Muslim Arab-American women. Sociology of
Religion, 64, 2. p.207(16). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:
Schaefer, R. (2011). Racial and ethnic groups (12th ed). Upper Saddle River:
Pearson.

Smith-Hefner, N J (Oct 2005). The new Muslim romance: changing patterns of
courtship and marriage among educated Japanese Youth. Journal of Southeast
Asian Studies, 36, 3. p.441(19). Retrieved from Academic OneFile via Gale:
Somewhere in Indiana Actors. (n.d.). [Wes Pollock Image]. Retrieved from,
http://www.dl-sites.com/sii-actors.htm
USA Today. [Two Arab-American women listen to Democratic presidential
candidate Howard Dean image]. Retrieved from,
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-11-20-arab-americans_x.htm
Williams, A. (2010). The new math on campus. Retrieved from,
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/07/fashion/07campus.html

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