1. Cellular respiration uses energy from organic molecules to regenerate ATP, which powers cellular work. It includes glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The citric acid cycle then completes the oxidation of pyruvate.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation generates the majority of ATP through an electron transport chain that uses the redox energy of NADH and FADH2 to power ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.
Ch 9: Cell Respiration and Fermentationveneethmathew
- Cellular respiration consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
- The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and other molecules, generating more ATP and electron carriers.
- Oxidative phosphorylation generates the majority of ATP through an electron transport chain that harnesses the energy of electron transfers to power ATP synthesis.
Ch 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Moleculesveneethmathew
The document summarizes key concepts about large biological molecules from Chapter 5 of Campbell Biology. It discusses the four main classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It focuses on carbohydrates and lipids, explaining that carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides which serve structural and storage functions, while lipids are non-polymeric and include fats, phospholipids and steroids. Specific carbohydrates and lipids are discussed such as monosaccharides, starch, cellulose and fatty acids.
This document provides an overview of photosynthesis and summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Campbell Biology. It discusses that photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical energy through two stages - the light reactions and Calvin cycle. The light reactions use energy from sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, and involve the photosystems PS I and PS II located in chloroplast thylakoids. The Calvin cycle then uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon from CO2 into sugars.
The document summarizes key concepts about the cell cycle and cell division. It discusses how cell division allows for reproduction, growth, and repair. There are two main types of cell division - mitosis, which produces genetically identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which produces gametes. The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitotic phase. Interphase includes DNA replication in S phase. Mitosis separates duplicated chromosomes into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes divide by binary fission, with the chromosome replicating and daughter chromosomes moving apart.
This document provides an overview and summaries of key concepts from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses cellular respiration and fermentation. The chapter examines how cells harvest energy through catabolic pathways, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle then completes the oxidation of pyruvate. Oxidative phosphorylation, which occurs in the mitochondria, generates the majority of ATP through an electron transport chain that harnesses the energy from NADH and FADH2.
1) The document discusses the core themes of biology, including evolution, genetic inheritance, energy flow through ecosystems, interactions between organisms and their environment, and the classification of life.
2) It describes the levels of biological organization from molecules to the biosphere and how new properties emerge at each level.
3) Evolution accounts for both the unity and diversity of life and has transformed life on Earth through genetic changes over time.
1) The document discusses a lecture on carbon and the molecular diversity of life from Campbell Biology.
2) Carbon is able to form four bonds with other atoms, allowing it to create large, complex molecules like proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules essential for life.
3) Key functional groups on organic molecules include hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups, which influence the properties and reactions of biological compounds.
The document provides an overview of metabolism and energy transformations in cells. It discusses how (1) cells extract and use energy to perform work through thousands of chemical reactions organized into metabolic pathways, (2) the laws of thermodynamics govern energy transformations with energy being conserved but entropy increasing, and (3) ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions like its hydrolysis to endergonic reactions like transport or synthesis through energy transfer.
Ch 9: Cell Respiration and Fermentationveneethmathew
- Cellular respiration consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
- The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and other molecules, generating more ATP and electron carriers.
- Oxidative phosphorylation generates the majority of ATP through an electron transport chain that harnesses the energy of electron transfers to power ATP synthesis.
Ch 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Moleculesveneethmathew
The document summarizes key concepts about large biological molecules from Chapter 5 of Campbell Biology. It discusses the four main classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It focuses on carbohydrates and lipids, explaining that carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides which serve structural and storage functions, while lipids are non-polymeric and include fats, phospholipids and steroids. Specific carbohydrates and lipids are discussed such as monosaccharides, starch, cellulose and fatty acids.
This document provides an overview of photosynthesis and summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Campbell Biology. It discusses that photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical energy through two stages - the light reactions and Calvin cycle. The light reactions use energy from sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, and involve the photosystems PS I and PS II located in chloroplast thylakoids. The Calvin cycle then uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon from CO2 into sugars.
The document summarizes key concepts about the cell cycle and cell division. It discusses how cell division allows for reproduction, growth, and repair. There are two main types of cell division - mitosis, which produces genetically identical daughter cells, and meiosis, which produces gametes. The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitotic phase. Interphase includes DNA replication in S phase. Mitosis separates duplicated chromosomes into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes divide by binary fission, with the chromosome replicating and daughter chromosomes moving apart.
This document provides an overview and summaries of key concepts from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses cellular respiration and fermentation. The chapter examines how cells harvest energy through catabolic pathways, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle then completes the oxidation of pyruvate. Oxidative phosphorylation, which occurs in the mitochondria, generates the majority of ATP through an electron transport chain that harnesses the energy from NADH and FADH2.
1) The document discusses the core themes of biology, including evolution, genetic inheritance, energy flow through ecosystems, interactions between organisms and their environment, and the classification of life.
2) It describes the levels of biological organization from molecules to the biosphere and how new properties emerge at each level.
3) Evolution accounts for both the unity and diversity of life and has transformed life on Earth through genetic changes over time.
1) The document discusses a lecture on carbon and the molecular diversity of life from Campbell Biology.
2) Carbon is able to form four bonds with other atoms, allowing it to create large, complex molecules like proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules essential for life.
3) Key functional groups on organic molecules include hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups, which influence the properties and reactions of biological compounds.
The document provides an overview of metabolism and energy transformations in cells. It discusses how (1) cells extract and use energy to perform work through thousands of chemical reactions organized into metabolic pathways, (2) the laws of thermodynamics govern energy transformations with energy being conserved but entropy increasing, and (3) ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions like its hydrolysis to endergonic reactions like transport or synthesis through energy transfer.
This document provides an overview of meiosis and sexual life cycles by discussing:
- The transmission of traits from parents to offspring through inheritance of genes and chromosomes.
- The differences between asexual and sexual reproduction, and how meiosis and fertilization alternate in sexual life cycles.
- The three main types of sexual life cycles seen in animals, plants/algae, and fungi/protists with regards to timing of meiosis, fertilization, and diploid/haploid stages.
- Key cellular processes like meiosis, fertilization, mitosis and their roles in maintaining chromosome number and producing genetic variation in offspring.
This document provides an overview of the discovery of DNA as the genetic material. It discusses early evidence from experiments transforming bacteria and showing that viral DNA enters bacterial cells. It also describes Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography work that provided insights into DNA's structure and allowed Watson and Crick to deduce the double helix model with paired nitrogenous bases. Their model resolved the structure and showed how DNA could store and replicate the genetic information required for inheritance.
1) Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules to extract energy through redox reactions in the form of ATP.
2) Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Pyruvate is further oxidized in the mitochondrion, entering the citric acid cycle which completes the oxidation of pyruvate and generates more ATP and electron carriers like NADH and FADH2.
4) Most ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation, as electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain which powers ATP synthesis.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on cell structure and function from Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition. It includes:
1) Descriptions of different microscopy techniques used to study cells, such as light microscopy, electron microscopy, and new super-resolution techniques.
2) Explanations of how cell fractionation separates cell components using centrifugation in order to determine organelle functions.
3) Comparisons of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, focusing on eukaryotic cells' internal membranes that compartmentalize functions.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in chloroplasts and involves two stages - the light-dependent reactions where ATP and NADPH are produced, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where glucose is formed. Chlorophyll and other pigments absorb sunlight which is used to power the transfer of electrons and production of chemical energy carriers. Photosynthesis ultimately feeds the biosphere by producing organic molecules and oxygen from inorganic sources.
This document provides an overview of chapter 7 from Campbell Biology, which discusses membrane structure and function. It includes 3 key points:
1) Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics composed of phospholipids and membrane proteins. The fluid mosaic model describes membranes as fluid bilayers with embedded proteins.
2) Membrane proteins perform important functions like transport, signaling, and cell recognition. Integral proteins span the membrane while peripheral proteins are attached to the surface.
3) Membranes are selectively permeable, regulating the movement of substances in and out of cells. This property results from the asymmetric distribution of proteins and lipids in the membrane.
The document provides an overview of cell communication and signaling. It discusses:
- Cells communicate via chemical signals such as epinephrine.
- Signal transduction pathways convert signals at the cell surface into responses.
- Reception involves signal molecules binding receptors, transduction uses cascades of molecular interactions to relay signals from receptors to target molecules, and response leads to activation of cellular responses.
- Common mechanisms of signaling include G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, calcium ions, cyclic AMP, and inositol triphosphate.
1) The document provides an overview of cell structure and microscopy techniques used to study cells. It describes the basic features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and how eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize functions into organelles.
2) Key microscopy techniques described are light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy, and confocal microscopy. These techniques allow visualization of subcellular structures down to 10-20 micrometers in size.
3) The structures and functions of organelles in plant and animal cells are summarized, including the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, cytoskeleton, and cell wall. Diagrams illustrate the relative sizes and
1) Biology is governed by the basic laws of chemistry and physics. Living organisms are composed of elements that form molecules through chemical bonds.
2) Atoms are made up of subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons. The number of protons defines an element and its properties depend on electron arrangement. Elements combine through ionic bonds or covalent bonds to form compounds with unique properties.
3) Molecular shape is important for function, as biological molecules recognize each other based on shape. Weak bonds like hydrogen bonds also allow large biological molecules to maintain functional shapes.
1) Carbon is able to form diverse molecules through its ability to bond with four other atoms. This allows it to form large, complex molecules like the organic compounds that are essential to life.
2) There are four main classes of important carbon-based molecules in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides, which serve as fuels and building materials for cells.
3) Polysaccharides are polymers made of repeating sugar monomers. Examples are starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Starch and glycogen store glucose for energy, while cellulose gives plant cells their strength.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, 9th Edition which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the traits he studied, his development of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. It also discusses terminology used in genetics like genes, alleles, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and how Mendel's principles can explain more complex inheritance patterns.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
Ch 16: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance veneethmathew
DNA is the genetic material that is faithfully replicated and passed from parents to offspring. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, which explained how DNA could store and replicate the instructions for making organisms. Their model showed that DNA consists of two strands coiled around each other, with nucleotides on the strands bonded together through base pairing with adenine bonding only to thymine and guanine only to cytosine. This allows each strand to serve as a template for duplicating the other, explaining DNA's role in inheritance and allowing organisms to pass genetic information between generations.
1. The document discusses meiosis and sexual life cycles in biology. It provides details on the stages of meiosis, including prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
2. Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells rather than two, and reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid. It occurs in two divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II.
3. There are three main types of sexual life cycles that differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization - in animals, plants and fungi. This ensures genetic variation between generations.
Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Sinh học [05 lecture presentation]Tài liệu sinh học
The document summarizes key concepts about large biological molecules from Chapter 5 of Campbell Biology. It discusses the four main classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It focuses on carbohydrates and lipids, explaining that carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides that serve as fuels and building materials, while lipids are hydrophobic and include fats, phospholipids and steroids. Specifically, it describes monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides like starch, cellulose and chitin. It also explains that lipids are not polymers, and describes the structure and properties of fatty acids and fats like triglycerides.
This document provides an overview of key themes and concepts from Chapter 1 of Campbell Biology, 9th Edition. It discusses 7 major themes:
1) Organisms adapt to their environment through evolution. 2) New properties emerge at different biological levels. 3) Reductionism and emergent properties both provide insights. 4) Organisms interact with their environment. 5) Life requires energy transfer and transformation. 6) The cell is the basic unit of structure and function. 7) DNA contains heritable information that is passed from parents to offspring.
1) The document summarizes a chapter from a biology textbook about Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) Mendel conducted controlled crosses of pea plants with distinct, heritable traits and found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, such as a 3:1 ratio for some traits.
3) Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which showed that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently during reproduction.
The document summarizes key themes in biology according to Campbell Biology. It discusses 7 major themes: 1) New properties emerge at different levels of biological organization. 2) Organisms interact with their environment. 3) Life requires energy transfer and transformation. 4) Structure and function are correlated. 5) The cell is the basic unit of life. 6) Heritable information is contained in DNA. 7) Feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems. Each theme is explained and illustrated with examples.
- Water is essential for life on Earth and makes up 70-95% of living organisms. Its unique properties like polarity and hydrogen bonding allow water to moderate temperature, act as a solvent, and more.
- The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, indicating if it is acidic or basic. Most biological fluids need to be slightly basic between pH 6-8.
- Acids increase the H+ concentration while bases decrease it. Buffers help maintain pH within a narrow range important for cellular processes. Ocean acidification from absorbed CO2 threatens water quality and marine life.
This document provides an overview and summary of key topics from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses cellular respiration and fermentation. The summary includes 3 main points:
1) Cellular respiration harvests chemical energy from glucose and other organic molecules through three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2) During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules. The citric acid cycle then completes the breakdown of glucose. Oxidative phosphorylation, which uses an electron transport chain, accounts for most ATP synthesis.
3) Energy is released step-by-step as electrons are transferred between carriers like NADH. This controlled release of
- Cellular respiration uses energy from organic molecules like glucose to produce ATP, which powers cellular work. Photosynthesis produces organic molecules and oxygen from sunlight.
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and produces more ATP and electron carriers.
- During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from electron carriers are passed through an electron transport chain, pumping protons across a membrane. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.
1) Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules to extract energy through redox reactions in the form of ATP.
2) Glycolysis is the first stage where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) The electron transport chain then uses electrons from NADH to power oxidative phosphorylation, the stage that generates the majority of ATP through chemiosmosis. In total, the complete breakdown of one glucose molecule yields around 30-32 molecules of ATP.
This document provides an overview of meiosis and sexual life cycles by discussing:
- The transmission of traits from parents to offspring through inheritance of genes and chromosomes.
- The differences between asexual and sexual reproduction, and how meiosis and fertilization alternate in sexual life cycles.
- The three main types of sexual life cycles seen in animals, plants/algae, and fungi/protists with regards to timing of meiosis, fertilization, and diploid/haploid stages.
- Key cellular processes like meiosis, fertilization, mitosis and their roles in maintaining chromosome number and producing genetic variation in offspring.
This document provides an overview of the discovery of DNA as the genetic material. It discusses early evidence from experiments transforming bacteria and showing that viral DNA enters bacterial cells. It also describes Rosalind Franklin's X-ray crystallography work that provided insights into DNA's structure and allowed Watson and Crick to deduce the double helix model with paired nitrogenous bases. Their model resolved the structure and showed how DNA could store and replicate the genetic information required for inheritance.
1) Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules to extract energy through redox reactions in the form of ATP.
2) Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Pyruvate is further oxidized in the mitochondrion, entering the citric acid cycle which completes the oxidation of pyruvate and generates more ATP and electron carriers like NADH and FADH2.
4) Most ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation, as electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain which powers ATP synthesis.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on cell structure and function from Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition. It includes:
1) Descriptions of different microscopy techniques used to study cells, such as light microscopy, electron microscopy, and new super-resolution techniques.
2) Explanations of how cell fractionation separates cell components using centrifugation in order to determine organelle functions.
3) Comparisons of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, focusing on eukaryotic cells' internal membranes that compartmentalize functions.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in chloroplasts and involves two stages - the light-dependent reactions where ATP and NADPH are produced, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where glucose is formed. Chlorophyll and other pigments absorb sunlight which is used to power the transfer of electrons and production of chemical energy carriers. Photosynthesis ultimately feeds the biosphere by producing organic molecules and oxygen from inorganic sources.
This document provides an overview of chapter 7 from Campbell Biology, which discusses membrane structure and function. It includes 3 key points:
1) Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics composed of phospholipids and membrane proteins. The fluid mosaic model describes membranes as fluid bilayers with embedded proteins.
2) Membrane proteins perform important functions like transport, signaling, and cell recognition. Integral proteins span the membrane while peripheral proteins are attached to the surface.
3) Membranes are selectively permeable, regulating the movement of substances in and out of cells. This property results from the asymmetric distribution of proteins and lipids in the membrane.
The document provides an overview of cell communication and signaling. It discusses:
- Cells communicate via chemical signals such as epinephrine.
- Signal transduction pathways convert signals at the cell surface into responses.
- Reception involves signal molecules binding receptors, transduction uses cascades of molecular interactions to relay signals from receptors to target molecules, and response leads to activation of cellular responses.
- Common mechanisms of signaling include G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, calcium ions, cyclic AMP, and inositol triphosphate.
1) The document provides an overview of cell structure and microscopy techniques used to study cells. It describes the basic features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and how eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize functions into organelles.
2) Key microscopy techniques described are light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, electron microscopy, and confocal microscopy. These techniques allow visualization of subcellular structures down to 10-20 micrometers in size.
3) The structures and functions of organelles in plant and animal cells are summarized, including the nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, cytoskeleton, and cell wall. Diagrams illustrate the relative sizes and
1) Biology is governed by the basic laws of chemistry and physics. Living organisms are composed of elements that form molecules through chemical bonds.
2) Atoms are made up of subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons. The number of protons defines an element and its properties depend on electron arrangement. Elements combine through ionic bonds or covalent bonds to form compounds with unique properties.
3) Molecular shape is important for function, as biological molecules recognize each other based on shape. Weak bonds like hydrogen bonds also allow large biological molecules to maintain functional shapes.
1) Carbon is able to form diverse molecules through its ability to bond with four other atoms. This allows it to form large, complex molecules like the organic compounds that are essential to life.
2) There are four main classes of important carbon-based molecules in living things: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides, which serve as fuels and building materials for cells.
3) Polysaccharides are polymers made of repeating sugar monomers. Examples are starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Starch and glycogen store glucose for energy, while cellulose gives plant cells their strength.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 14 from Campbell Biology, 9th Edition which discusses Gregor Mendel and his experiments that established the basic principles of heredity and inheritance through genetics. It summarizes Mendel's experiments with pea plants, the traits he studied, his development of the laws of segregation and independent assortment. It also discusses terminology used in genetics like genes, alleles, phenotypes, genotypes, dominance, and how Mendel's principles can explain more complex inheritance patterns.
1) Gregor Mendel conducted experiments with pea plants to study inheritance of traits from parents to offspring. Through his experiments, he discovered that traits are inherited in discrete units, which he called "factors" and which we now call genes.
2) Mendel's experiments led him to formulate two laws of inheritance: the Law of Segregation, which states that organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent, and these genes segregate or separate during the formation of gametes; and the Law of Independent Assortment, which states that different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation.
3) Mendel's laws reflect the rules of probability - the alleles of one
Ch 16: The Molecular Basis of Inheritance veneethmathew
DNA is the genetic material that is faithfully replicated and passed from parents to offspring. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, which explained how DNA could store and replicate the instructions for making organisms. Their model showed that DNA consists of two strands coiled around each other, with nucleotides on the strands bonded together through base pairing with adenine bonding only to thymine and guanine only to cytosine. This allows each strand to serve as a template for duplicating the other, explaining DNA's role in inheritance and allowing organisms to pass genetic information between generations.
1. The document discusses meiosis and sexual life cycles in biology. It provides details on the stages of meiosis, including prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I.
2. Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells rather than two, and reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid. It occurs in two divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II.
3. There are three main types of sexual life cycles that differ in the timing of meiosis and fertilization - in animals, plants and fungi. This ensures genetic variation between generations.
Tiếng Anh chuyên ngành Sinh học [05 lecture presentation]Tài liệu sinh học
The document summarizes key concepts about large biological molecules from Chapter 5 of Campbell Biology. It discusses the four main classes of macromolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. It focuses on carbohydrates and lipids, explaining that carbohydrates include sugars and polysaccharides that serve as fuels and building materials, while lipids are hydrophobic and include fats, phospholipids and steroids. Specifically, it describes monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides like starch, cellulose and chitin. It also explains that lipids are not polymers, and describes the structure and properties of fatty acids and fats like triglycerides.
This document provides an overview of key themes and concepts from Chapter 1 of Campbell Biology, 9th Edition. It discusses 7 major themes:
1) Organisms adapt to their environment through evolution. 2) New properties emerge at different biological levels. 3) Reductionism and emergent properties both provide insights. 4) Organisms interact with their environment. 5) Life requires energy transfer and transformation. 6) The cell is the basic unit of structure and function. 7) DNA contains heritable information that is passed from parents to offspring.
1) The document summarizes a chapter from a biology textbook about Gregor Mendel and his experiments with pea plants that established the basic principles of heredity and genetics.
2) Mendel conducted controlled crosses of pea plants with distinct, heritable traits and found that traits were passed to offspring in predictable ratios, such as a 3:1 ratio for some traits.
3) Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment, which showed that traits are inherited as discrete units (now known as genes) that segregate and assort independently during reproduction.
The document summarizes key themes in biology according to Campbell Biology. It discusses 7 major themes: 1) New properties emerge at different levels of biological organization. 2) Organisms interact with their environment. 3) Life requires energy transfer and transformation. 4) Structure and function are correlated. 5) The cell is the basic unit of life. 6) Heritable information is contained in DNA. 7) Feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems. Each theme is explained and illustrated with examples.
- Water is essential for life on Earth and makes up 70-95% of living organisms. Its unique properties like polarity and hydrogen bonding allow water to moderate temperature, act as a solvent, and more.
- The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, indicating if it is acidic or basic. Most biological fluids need to be slightly basic between pH 6-8.
- Acids increase the H+ concentration while bases decrease it. Buffers help maintain pH within a narrow range important for cellular processes. Ocean acidification from absorbed CO2 threatens water quality and marine life.
This document provides an overview and summary of key topics from Chapter 9 of Campbell Biology, Ninth Edition, which discusses cellular respiration and fermentation. The summary includes 3 main points:
1) Cellular respiration harvests chemical energy from glucose and other organic molecules through three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2) During glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules. The citric acid cycle then completes the breakdown of glucose. Oxidative phosphorylation, which uses an electron transport chain, accounts for most ATP synthesis.
3) Energy is released step-by-step as electrons are transferred between carriers like NADH. This controlled release of
- Cellular respiration uses energy from organic molecules like glucose to produce ATP, which powers cellular work. Photosynthesis produces organic molecules and oxygen from sunlight.
- Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and produces more ATP and electron carriers.
- During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from electron carriers are passed through an electron transport chain, pumping protons across a membrane. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis.
1) Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules to extract energy through redox reactions in the form of ATP.
2) Glycolysis is the first stage where glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) The electron transport chain then uses electrons from NADH to power oxidative phosphorylation, the stage that generates the majority of ATP through chemiosmosis. In total, the complete breakdown of one glucose molecule yields around 30-32 molecules of ATP.
1) Cellular respiration uses chemical energy stored in organic molecules like glucose to regenerate ATP, which powers work in cells. It occurs in three stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2) Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, generating a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and generates more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3) Most ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation, where electrons transferred by NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain, powering ATP synthesis. This controlled process harnesses more energy than an
1. The document outlines a lecture presentation on cellular respiration and fermentation. It discusses the three stages of cellular respiration - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle then completes the oxidation of pyruvate and generates more ATP.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation, powered by redox reactions, generates the majority of ATP through chemiosmosis and the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. This three-stage process extracts energy from glucose and other organic molecules to produce ATP.
The document provides an overview of cellular respiration and its three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses how:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
2. Pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrion where it is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and a small amount of ATP.
3. The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to the electron transport chain during oxidative phosphorylation, where they generate a large amount of ATP through chemiosmosis.
1. Cellular respiration involves three main stages - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and generates more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage, where electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrion. This powers ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis and generates the majority of ATP from cellular respiration.
KEY CONCEPTS
9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic
fuels
9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
9.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules
9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
9.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to
produce ATP without the use of oxygen
9.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways
1. Cellular respiration involves three main stages - glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and generates more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage, where electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrion. This powers ATP synthesis via chemiosmosis and generates the majority of ATP.
The document summarizes cellular respiration, which consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP. The citric acid cycle further oxidizes pyruvate and generates more ATP, NADH, and FADH2. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain where their energy is used to pump protons across a membrane and generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to generate most of the cell's ATP through chemiosmosis.
The document summarizes cellular respiration, which consists of three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate in the cytoplasm. The citric acid cycle further breaks down pyruvate in the mitochondria. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain which pumps hydrogen ions across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to synthesize ATP through chemiosmosis.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages - the light-dependent reactions where sunlight is absorbed to make ATP and NADPH using chlorophyll, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where carbon dioxide is fixed using ATP and NADPH to produce glucose or other carbohydrates. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is essential for aerobic organisms to survive.
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose. It occurs in two stages - the light-dependent reactions where sunlight is absorbed to make ATP and NADPH using chlorophyll, and the light-independent Calvin cycle where carbon is fixed into sugars like glucose using ATP and NADPH. Photosynthesis provides food for plants and oxygen for other organisms while consuming carbon dioxide.
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells harvest chemical energy from glucose and convert it to ATP. It is an aerobic process that requires oxygen. During cellular respiration, glucose and oxygen undergo redox reactions where glucose is oxidized, losing electrons, while oxygen is reduced, gaining electrons. This electron transfer and hydrogen transfer from glucose to oxygen releases energy, which is harnessed to produce ATP through electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. Cellular respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules from each glucose molecule consumed.
1) The document describes the metabolic pathways that break down glucose to harvest its stored chemical energy.
2) There are three main pathways: glycolysis, which converts glucose to pyruvate and generates a small amount of ATP; cellular respiration, which further breaks down pyruvate through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to generate much more ATP; and fermentation, which regenerates NAD+ without oxygen.
3) Through these pathways, the chemical energy from glucose is transferred to ATP via redox reactions and the proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane during oxidative phosphorylation.
AP Biology Chapter 6 notes Photosynthesis and RespirationTia Hohler
This document summarizes key concepts about pathways that harvest and store chemical energy in cells. It discusses how ATP, reduced coenzymes, and chemiosmosis play important roles in biological energy metabolism. Carbohydrate catabolism in the presence of oxygen releases a large amount of energy through cellular respiration, while in the absence of oxygen it releases a small amount through fermentation. During photosynthesis, light energy is converted to chemical energy that is then used to convert CO2 into carbohydrates.
Photosynthesis And Cellular Respiration Notes NewFred Phillips
1. Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen through a two-phase process of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.
2. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose and other food molecules to produce ATP through three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.
3. Both processes are essential for life - photosynthesis provides energy for plants and produces oxygen and glucose as an energy source for cellular respiration in plants and animals.
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP through a series of metabolic pathways. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces a small amount of ATP along with NADH. The pyruvate produced then enters the mitochondria where it undergoes the link reaction and is converted to acetyl-CoA. The Krebs cycle then oxidizes acetyl-CoA, producing carbon dioxide, more ATP, and electron carriers NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers are used in the electron transport chain to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, establishing a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted for these aerobic
The document summarizes key concepts about photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Photosynthesis uses sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and glucose through two stages - the light reaction and Calvin cycle. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose to release energy through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain, using oxygen as the final electron acceptor to produce water. Both processes involve the production and consumption of ATP as an energy carrier.
The document summarizes the three main stages of cellular respiration:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate and produces a small amount of ATP.
2. The citric acid cycle further breaks down pyruvate and produces more ATP and electron carriers.
3. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are passed through an electron transport chain which pumps protons across a membrane, building an electrochemical gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to produce the majority of ATP from cellular respiration.
Similar to Ap bio chp 9 cellular respiration and fermentation (20)
21. Figure 9.5
(a) Uncontrolled reaction (b) Cellular respiration
Explosive
release of
heat and light
energy
Controlled
release of
energy for
synthesis of
ATP
Freeenergy,G
Freeenergy,G
H2 1/2 O2 2 H 1/2 O2
1/2 O2
H2O H2O
2 H+ 2 e
2 e
2 H+
ATP
ATP
ATP
(from food via NADH)
23. Figure 9.UN05
Glycolysis (color-coded teal throughout the chapter)1.
Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
(color-coded salmon)
2.
Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and
chemiosmosis (color-coded violet)
3.
25. Figure 9.6-2
Electrons
carried
via NADH
Electrons carried
via NADH and
FADH2
Citric
acid
cycle
Pyruvate
oxidation
Acetyl CoA
Glycolysis
Glucose Pyruvate
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
ATP ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
26. Figure 9.6-3
Electrons
carried
via NADH
Electrons carried
via NADH and
FADH2
Citric
acid
cycle
Pyruvate
oxidation
Acetyl CoA
Glycolysis
Glucose Pyruvate
Oxidative
phosphorylation:
electron transport
and
chemiosmosis
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
ATP ATP ATP
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Substrate-level
phosphorylation
Oxidative
phosphorylation
69. Figure 9.15
Protein
complex
of electron
carriers
(carrying electrons
from food)
Electron transport chain
Oxidative phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis
ATP
synth-
ase
I
II
III
IV
Q
Cyt c
FADFADH2
NADH ADP P i
NAD
H
2 H + 1/2O2
H
H
H
21
H
H2O
ATP
72. Figure 9.16
Electron shuttles
span membrane
MITOCHONDRION
2 NADH
2 NADH 2 NADH 6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 FADH2
or
2 ATP 2 ATP about 26 or 28 ATP
Glycolysis
Glucose 2 Pyruvate
Pyruvate oxidation
2 Acetyl CoA
Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
phosphorylation:
electron transport
and
chemiosmosis
CYTOSOL
Maximum per glucose:
About
30 or 32 ATP
94. Figure 9.UN08
Protein complex
of electron
carriers
(carrying electrons from food)
INTERMEMBRANE
SPACE
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
H
H
H
2 H + 1/2 O2 H2O
NAD
FADH2 FAD
Q
NADH
I
II
III
IV
Cyt c