Lecture to ANU Strategic Studies students on ethnicity and separatism. Case-studies of Bougainville and South Sudan, with discussion of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P).

1. 1
Separatism and
ethnic violence
Gerard McCarthy- PhD Candidate,
International, Political, Strategic Studies
(IPS), ANU
April 28th 2014

2. 2
Outline
• First hour – separatism and ethnic
violence:
– Definition of key terms
– How do separatism and ethnic violence
challenge nation-states?
– Case studies: (Bougainville; South Sudan)
– R2P & Intervention
• Second hour – counterinsurgency:
– Guest lecturer, Dr Russell Glenn, SDSC

3. What is ‘societal security’?
• Middle ground between state and human
security
• A society relies on its members sharing an
identity
• The most important unit of society is the
nation-state
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4. What is the ‘nation-
state’?
• Two separate ideas:
– State: eg. China, Spain
– Nation: eg. Tibet, Basque
• What is a ‘nation’?
– A type of society characterised by:
• A common (often cultural or ethnic) identity;
• Self-awareness and self-differentiation; and
• A continuity of existence over time.
• Why link ‘nation’ and ‘state’?
– Idea that strong states need a united society
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5. What is ‘nationalism’?
• Ideology that links nation to state
• Three themes:
–Autonomy
–Unity
–Identity
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6. What is ‘ethnicity’?
• A perception of commonality and
belonging
• Perception based on:
– Language
– Religion
– Culture
– History
– Physical appearance
– Ancestry
• Visual ethnicity especially
‘sticky’/durable
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7. How do ethnicity & nationalism interact?
• Ethnicity is different to nationalism
• Rarely clear cut, especially in AP w/ large ethnic
minorities.
• Related to processes/symbols of ‘nation-making’
(flag, official language, curriculum).
•
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• Highly contentious when linked:
• (eg. Burma & Burman Buddhist
nationalism)
• Potential for competing
‘nationalisms’ within single state:
eg. Burma, Indonesia (West
Papua).

8. What is ‘self-determination’?
• Post-colonial borders (often arbitrary) created
multi-nation states
• 1960 UN General Assembly Resolution 1514 (Declaration on
the Granting of Independence to Colonial countries and
Peoples):
– Principle: right of national groups to freely choose their
sovereignty and international political status with no external
compulsion or interference
• 3 expressions of self-determination:
– 1) free association w/ independent State (NZ & Cook Is)
– 2) integration into independent State (Crimea);
– 3) independence/separation (South Sudan).
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9. Decolonisation in the Asia-Pacific
• ‘States without
nations’:
– Culturally and
ethnically diverse
– State borders divided
pre-existing social,
cultural and ethnic
groups
• ‘Second wave’ of
colonisation
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10. Patterns of ethnic grievances
• Ethnic conflict:
– Ethnic groups compete for primacy within a state (ethnic
security dilemma); and/or
– Ethnic groups rebel against state/for control of state.
• Ethnic separatism:
– Ethnic minorities develop a political consciousness, identify as a
nation and demand self-determination
• Can involve:
• Cultural cleansing and homongenisation (govt & rebels)
• Insurgency
• Genocide/ ethnic cleansing (govt & rebels)
• Separatism
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11. How does separatism challenge nation-
states?
• Separatism = creation of new, separate states:
(Balkanisation?); or legitimate secession (East Timor?)
• A challenge because:
– Threatens societal security
– Call into question existing state boundaries
– Loss of state revenue (resources)
– Proliferation of new states – 26 since 1990
– 70+ separatist movements around globe
• Asia-Pacific examples:
– East Timor; Aceh (Indonesia)
– Moro (Philippines)
– Tamils (Sri Lanka)
– Tibet and Xinjiang (China)
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12. How do separatism and ethnic violence
end?
• Stalemate
• Counterinsurgency
• Peace agreement
• Nation-building
• Autonomy arrangements
• Referendum on independence
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13. Case study 1: Bougainville
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14. Case study 1: Bougainville cont.
• History:
– 1880s – Colonised by Germany (German New
Guinea)
– 1921 – Australia granted mandate over German New
Guinea
– 1947 – Australia merged New Guinea and Papua
• Differences between Bougainville and the rest of
PNG:
– Matrilineal vs. patrilineal language and culture groups
– Catholics vs. Protestants
– Physical appearance
– Geographical remoteness
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15. Case study 1: Bougainville cont.
• Bougainvillean ethnic identity → national
identity:
– 1972 – Panguna mine opened
• No consultation and strong opposition
• Environmental and social costs of mine
• Sentiment in favour of separatism
• 45% of PNGs GDP
– 1975 – first unilateral declaration of independence
– 1988 – demand for US$10 billion compensation
– 1989 – Bougainville ‘crisis’ began
– 1990 – Blockade imposed; second unilateral
declaration of independence
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16. Case study 1: Bougainville cont.
• Bougainville crisis – two dimensions:
– Separatist struggle; and
– Internal conflict (factionalism)
• Impact of crisis:
– 20,000 Bougainvillean deaths
– 60,000 Bougainvilleans
internally displaced
– Infrastructure and private sector assets
destroyed
– Massive economic impact on PNG
– Challenged legitimacy of PNG state
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17. Case study 1: Bougainville cont.
• Solving separatist struggle:
– 1997: Sandline affair
– 1997-2001: Peace talks (NZ, Aus)
– 2001: Bougainville Peace Agreement:
• Referendum on independence
• Autonomy
• Demilitarisation
• Foreign Peacekeeping
– 2005: Autonomous Bougainville Government &
Int. capacity building/state-building
– 2015-2020?: Independence Referendum?
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18. Case study 2: South Sudan
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19. Case study 2: South Sudan cont.
• History:
– 1869: colonised by the British
– 1954: Sudanese independence
– 1955: First Sudan Civil War
– 1972: Addis Ababa Agreement (Southern Autonomy)
– 1983: Declaration of Shari’a law/end of Southern Autonomy.
– 1983-2005: Second Sudan Civil War (against north and in south)
• Differences between South Sudan and the rest of
Sudan:
– Religion: Christian/Animist vs. Muslim
– Appearance: Black African vs Arab
– Geography: wetlands vs desert
– Governance: Limited autonomy ever provided to South 13

20. Case study 2: South Sudan cont.
• Separatist struggle:
– 1983-2005: Sudan People’s
Liberation Army (SPLA) and
warring southern factions
– 2 million dead (direct &
indirect)
– 2005 Comprehensive Peace
Agreement + UN PKO
– 2011 Referendum on South
Sudan’s Independence
– July 2011: South Sudan
Independence
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21. Case study 2: South Sudan cont.
2011-2014:
– UN Peace keeping operation
and state building support
– Divisions in military and
Government of South Sudan re
control of major political party.
– Coup attempt December 2013
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– Civil war and ethnic violence
– Raises question of sovereignty and preventative
intervention or R2P (Responsibility to Protect)?
– Challenge of addressing roots of conflict (Sudan
& South Sudan)

22. Summary
• Societal security useful to understanding role of identity
in conflict.
• Criticism: fails to consider degree of fluidity/volatility in
feelings of belonging and identity (individual, collective
and national).
• Nation-making is highly dialectic process: ie interaction
between state and it’s constituent parts, influenced by
history (Bougainville, South Sudan, West Papua).
• Degradation to ethnic violence/cleansing raises q. of
sovereignty and R2P.
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