This document discusses different types of anemia. It begins by defining anemia as a decrease in red blood cells or hemoglobin. The most common types of anemia in adults are then listed as iron deficiency, pernicious, folic acid deficiency, and aplastic anemia. Anemia is divided into categories caused by blood loss, decreased red blood cell production, red blood cell destruction, or fluid overload. Common symptoms are then outlined. Risk factors, diagnostic tests, treatment options, and nursing considerations are provided for several specific types of anemia, including iron deficiency, aplastic, pernicious, and folic acid deficiency anemia.
This document provides an overview of anemia for nursing students. It defines anemia, discusses its causes and types. It covers the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation and management of anemia. Nursing management focuses on improving nutrition, managing activity intolerance, and monitoring for ineffective tissue perfusion. The document aims to help nursing students understand anemia and how to care for patients with this condition.
Anemia is a major health problem in India, especially among women. Some key points about anemia from the document include:
- Anemia is defined as a decrease in red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. It can be caused by blood loss, impaired red blood cell production, or increased red blood cell destruction.
- The main types of anemia are microcytic (small RBCs), macrocytic (large RBCs), and normocytic (normal sized RBCs). Common causes include iron deficiency, vitamin B12/folate deficiency, and aplastic anemia.
- Symptoms vary depending on the type and severity of anemia but can include pal
This PowerPoint presentation discusses thalassemia, a hereditary blood disorder characterized by abnormal hemoglobin formation. It defines thalassemia as a group of anemias caused by reduced or absent globin chain production. The presentation covers the different types of thalassemia including major and minor forms. It also discusses the clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management including blood transfusions and chelation therapy, nursing care, complications and recent studies showing increased life expectancy but ongoing risks of conditions like heart disease.
The document discusses hyperthyroidism, also known as thyrotoxicosis, which is a condition caused by an overactive thyroid gland producing excessive thyroid hormones. The main causes of hyperthyroidism are Graves' disease, toxic nodular goiter, thyroiditis, and pituitary tumors. The document outlines the signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, diagnostic tests, and treatment options including antithyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, surgery, and management of complications.
This document provides an overview of glomerulonephritis (GN), including its definition, types, causes, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management, complications, and nursing care. GN involves inflammation or damage to the glomeruli in the kidneys. It discusses the anatomy of the nephron and causes of GN, including infections and immune or genetic factors. Types of GN include acute and chronic forms. Treatment depends on severity and may include medications, lifestyle changes, and dialysis. Complications can include renal failure, hypertension, and fluid overload. Nursing care focuses on pain management, fluid balance, breathing exercises, and patient education.
Here are some key preventive measures to control the incidence of anemia among children:
- Promote exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months as breastmilk provides optimal nutrition including iron.
- Introduce iron-rich complementary foods like eggs, meat, fish, lentils and green leafy vegetables along with breastmilk after 6 months of age.
- Provide iron supplements to children between 6 months to 5 years as recommended.
- Treat and prevent intestinal worm infections as they cause blood loss and reduce iron absorption.
- Educate caregivers about a balanced diet rich in iron, folic acid and vitamin B12 and importance of hygiene.
- Screen children regularly for anemia and provide
Nephrotic syndrome is a kidney disorder characterized by protein in the urine, low protein levels in the blood, swelling, and high cholesterol levels. It is caused by damage to the glomeruli in the kidneys, which leads to increased permeability of proteins in the kidneys and their loss in the urine. Treatment involves medications like steroids to reduce protein in the urine, a low-sodium diet to control swelling, and monitoring for infections which patients are at higher risk for due to low immune function. Nursing care focuses on fluid management, preventing infections, providing emotional support, and educating patients and families on treatment and self-care at home.
This document provides an overview of anemia for nursing students. It defines anemia, discusses its causes and types. It covers the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation and management of anemia. Nursing management focuses on improving nutrition, managing activity intolerance, and monitoring for ineffective tissue perfusion. The document aims to help nursing students understand anemia and how to care for patients with this condition.
Anemia is a major health problem in India, especially among women. Some key points about anemia from the document include:
- Anemia is defined as a decrease in red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. It can be caused by blood loss, impaired red blood cell production, or increased red blood cell destruction.
- The main types of anemia are microcytic (small RBCs), macrocytic (large RBCs), and normocytic (normal sized RBCs). Common causes include iron deficiency, vitamin B12/folate deficiency, and aplastic anemia.
- Symptoms vary depending on the type and severity of anemia but can include pal
This PowerPoint presentation discusses thalassemia, a hereditary blood disorder characterized by abnormal hemoglobin formation. It defines thalassemia as a group of anemias caused by reduced or absent globin chain production. The presentation covers the different types of thalassemia including major and minor forms. It also discusses the clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management including blood transfusions and chelation therapy, nursing care, complications and recent studies showing increased life expectancy but ongoing risks of conditions like heart disease.
The document discusses hyperthyroidism, also known as thyrotoxicosis, which is a condition caused by an overactive thyroid gland producing excessive thyroid hormones. The main causes of hyperthyroidism are Graves' disease, toxic nodular goiter, thyroiditis, and pituitary tumors. The document outlines the signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, diagnostic tests, and treatment options including antithyroid medications, radioactive iodine therapy, surgery, and management of complications.
This document provides an overview of glomerulonephritis (GN), including its definition, types, causes, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management, complications, and nursing care. GN involves inflammation or damage to the glomeruli in the kidneys. It discusses the anatomy of the nephron and causes of GN, including infections and immune or genetic factors. Types of GN include acute and chronic forms. Treatment depends on severity and may include medications, lifestyle changes, and dialysis. Complications can include renal failure, hypertension, and fluid overload. Nursing care focuses on pain management, fluid balance, breathing exercises, and patient education.
Here are some key preventive measures to control the incidence of anemia among children:
- Promote exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months as breastmilk provides optimal nutrition including iron.
- Introduce iron-rich complementary foods like eggs, meat, fish, lentils and green leafy vegetables along with breastmilk after 6 months of age.
- Provide iron supplements to children between 6 months to 5 years as recommended.
- Treat and prevent intestinal worm infections as they cause blood loss and reduce iron absorption.
- Educate caregivers about a balanced diet rich in iron, folic acid and vitamin B12 and importance of hygiene.
- Screen children regularly for anemia and provide
Nephrotic syndrome is a kidney disorder characterized by protein in the urine, low protein levels in the blood, swelling, and high cholesterol levels. It is caused by damage to the glomeruli in the kidneys, which leads to increased permeability of proteins in the kidneys and their loss in the urine. Treatment involves medications like steroids to reduce protein in the urine, a low-sodium diet to control swelling, and monitoring for infections which patients are at higher risk for due to low immune function. Nursing care focuses on fluid management, preventing infections, providing emotional support, and educating patients and families on treatment and self-care at home.
The document discusses various types of anemia including their definitions, causes, clinical manifestations and treatments. It defines anemia as a reduction in red blood cells (RBCs) that decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It describes the three main classifications of anemia as hypoproliferative, bleeding disorders, and hemolytic. Several specific types are covered in detail including iron deficiency anemia, aplastic anemia, pernicious anemia and sickle cell anemia. Nursing management focuses on balancing rest and activity, maintaining nutrition, preventing injury from weakness, and protecting fragile skin.
Thalassemia is a genetic blood disorder characterized by defective or reduced hemoglobin. There are two main types: alpha thalassemia affects alpha globin chain production and beta thalassemia affects beta globin chain production. Symptoms range from mild anemia to severe anemia requiring regular blood transfusions depending on which genes are affected. Treatment involves lifelong blood transfusions combined with iron chelation therapy to prevent iron overload, and potentially splenectomy or bone marrow transplant.
Diarrhea is defined as passing 3 or more loose stools per day and is the second leading cause of death in children under 5 globally. Every year around 1.5 to 2 billion cases of diarrhea occur resulting in death, with India seeing one in five child deaths due to contaminated food/water. Diarrhea is classified based on duration, clinical presentation, and physiology, and can be caused by infections, drugs, diet, surgery, or other miscellaneous factors. Management focuses on rehydration through fluid replacement, administering prescribed drugs, maintaining nutrition, and educating mothers on prevention.
Nursing diagnosis for hyper&hypo thyroidismASHRAF IBRAHIM
This document discusses hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism is a condition characterized by insufficient release of thyroid hormones, resulting in slowed body processes. It can be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Risk factors include iodine deficiency. Symptoms include fatigue, feeling cold, weight gain, dry skin, and puffy face/hands. Diagnosis involves thyroid function tests. Treatment is synthetic thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism is a condition of excessive thyroid function and metabolism. Causes include thyroiditis and Graves' disease. Symptoms include sweating, weight loss, increased heart rate, and nervousness. Diagnosis involves radioactive iodine uptake scans and blood tests. Treatment includes
Anemia is caused by a deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin. It can be caused by insufficient iron, vitamin B12, or folate intake; blood loss; or impaired red blood cell production. Dietary management of anemia focuses on improving intake of iron, vitamin B12, and folate through foods or supplements. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include iron supplementation, changes to diet, and treating the primary condition causing the anemia.
Polycythemia is a condition characterized by an abnormal increase in red blood cells. It can be primary, caused by bone marrow abnormalities, or secondary, caused by factors like smoking or lung diseases that result in hypoxia. Symptoms include headache, dizziness, and skin redness or itching. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing elevated red blood cell counts. Treatment may include phlebotomy to reduce blood volume, medications to suppress blood cell production, and lifestyle changes like exercise and avoiding tobacco. Nursing care focuses on monitoring for blood clots, managing pain and nutrition, and providing education.
This document discusses renal calculi (kidney stones). It defines kidney stones as solid masses that form in the kidneys from mineral deposits in urine. The main types are calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, struvite, uric acid, and cystine stones. Risk factors include certain foods, dehydration, and metabolic disorders. Symptoms include severe flank or abdominal pain. Diagnosis involves tests like ultrasound, IVU, or CT scan. Treatment includes pain medication, increased fluid intake, surgery like lithotripsy or percutaneous nephrolithotomy, and preventing recurrences through diet and lifestyle changes.
Hypothyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone. It most commonly occurs in older women and can be caused by autoimmune diseases, radiation therapy, thyroid surgery, medications, or iodine deficiency. Symptoms include extreme fatigue, hair loss, numbness, hoarseness, weight gain, cold sensitivity, constipation, and slowed thinking. Treatment involves lifelong synthetic thyroid hormone replacement through medications like levothyroxine. Nursing care focuses on monitoring for side effects, ensuring proper medication adherence, providing dietary guidance, and maintaining a warm environment for the patient.
it is method of feeding the baby ,for the full fill of nutritional requirement ,if mother milk is not available . it is vital for maintaining the nutritional level in baby.
Leukemia is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow that results in abnormal blood cell production and accumulation. The main types are acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Risk factors include genetic predispositions, environmental exposures, and prior chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Treatment involves chemotherapy, corticosteroids, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, targeted therapy, or biological therapy to destroy leukemia cells and restore normal blood cell production. Nursing care focuses on managing side effects, preventing infections, providing education and support, and monitoring the patient's condition and response to treatment.
This document discusses several hematological disorders including anemia, megaloblastic anemia, aplastic anemia, and provides details about their definitions, classifications, etiologies, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. It describes how anemia can be classified based on morphology and etiology. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type and can be caused by blood loss, insufficient iron intake or absorption. Megaloblastic anemia results from vitamin B12 or folate deficiencies, causing large immature red blood cells. Aplastic anemia is a condition where the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient new blood cells.
This document discusses peptic ulcers, including their definition, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. Peptic ulcers form in the stomach or duodenum when the protective mucus layer is damaged, allowing acid and pepsin to erode the lining. The primary cause is infection by H. pylori bacteria, though smoking, caffeine, alcohol, stress, and NSAIDs can also contribute. Common symptoms include belching, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Diagnosis involves endoscopy or blood tests. Treatment includes medications to reduce acid production, antibiotics to treat H. pylori, and sometimes surgery. Nursing care focuses on medication administration, diet, rest, monitoring for complications, education, and stress
.nephrotic syndrome- B.Sc. Nursing III yr Rahul Dhaker
This document provides an overview of nephrotic syndrome, including its definition, incidence, etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management, and complications. Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia, and edema. It most commonly affects children ages 2-6 and has many potential causes, either primarily affecting the kidneys or secondarily from other conditions. Diagnosis involves urine and blood tests showing proteinuria and low albumin levels. Treatment focuses on controlling edema, promoting nutrition, and in some cases using corticosteroids, diuretics, or immunosuppressants.
Constipation easy explanation -
Easy ppt for Student Nurses
Definition of Constipation
risk factors
Clinical manifestations of Constipation
Assessment & Diagnostic tests
Management of Constipation
Medical management of Constipation
Nursing Management of Constipation
This document provides an overview of leukemias, including:
- Leukemia is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow that results in an overproduction of immature white blood cells.
- There are four main types: acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and chronic myelogenous leukemia.
- Signs and symptoms vary depending on the type but can include fatigue, infections, anemia, bruising/bleeding, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.
- Diagnosis involves blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, and other exams. Treatment involves chemotherapy, targeted therapies, radiation, stem cell transplant, and management of symptoms.
This document discusses iron deficiency anemia, including its normal hemoglobin ranges, classification, etiological factors, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, and management. It is classified based on red blood cell morphology and etiology. Causes include low iron diet, growth spurts, GI problems, and blood loss. Diagnostic tests include hemoglobin measurement, complete blood count, peripheral smear, and iron studies. Management involves oral and parental iron therapy, blood transfusion, dietary changes including iron-rich foods, and preventive measures like exclusive breastfeeding and iron-fortified formula.
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism.
This document provides information about Cushing's disease/syndrome, which is a hormonal disorder caused by prolonged high levels of the cortisol hormone. It is usually due to a benign tumor in the pituitary gland that causes excessive production of ACTH, stimulating the adrenal glands to overproduce cortisol. Symptoms include weight gain, muscle wasting, high blood pressure, and mental disturbances. The condition is diagnosed through tests measuring cortisol and ACTH levels and imaging to identify tumors. Treatment involves medication to suppress cortisol production, adrenalectomy to remove the glands, or pituitary surgery to remove tumors.
This document provides information on appendicitis including its anatomy, causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. It begins with the anatomy of the appendix and describes appendicitis as an inflammation of the appendix. The main causes are obstructive causes like fecaliths blocking the appendix or non-obstructive causes like infections. The symptoms include pain localized to the lower right abdomen. Diagnosis involves physical exams looking for tenderness and signs. Treatment involves antibiotics initially but surgery to remove the appendix if infected. Laparoscopic removal has benefits over open surgery.
The document discusses anemia, including its definition, causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing care, and prevention. It provides details on iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, and the nursing process for patients with anemia. The document serves as an overview of anemia and aims to educate on this common blood disorder.
The document discusses various types of anemia including their definitions, causes, clinical manifestations and treatments. It defines anemia as a reduction in red blood cells (RBCs) that decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It describes the three main classifications of anemia as hypoproliferative, bleeding disorders, and hemolytic. Several specific types are covered in detail including iron deficiency anemia, aplastic anemia, pernicious anemia and sickle cell anemia. Nursing management focuses on balancing rest and activity, maintaining nutrition, preventing injury from weakness, and protecting fragile skin.
Thalassemia is a genetic blood disorder characterized by defective or reduced hemoglobin. There are two main types: alpha thalassemia affects alpha globin chain production and beta thalassemia affects beta globin chain production. Symptoms range from mild anemia to severe anemia requiring regular blood transfusions depending on which genes are affected. Treatment involves lifelong blood transfusions combined with iron chelation therapy to prevent iron overload, and potentially splenectomy or bone marrow transplant.
Diarrhea is defined as passing 3 or more loose stools per day and is the second leading cause of death in children under 5 globally. Every year around 1.5 to 2 billion cases of diarrhea occur resulting in death, with India seeing one in five child deaths due to contaminated food/water. Diarrhea is classified based on duration, clinical presentation, and physiology, and can be caused by infections, drugs, diet, surgery, or other miscellaneous factors. Management focuses on rehydration through fluid replacement, administering prescribed drugs, maintaining nutrition, and educating mothers on prevention.
Nursing diagnosis for hyper&hypo thyroidismASHRAF IBRAHIM
This document discusses hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism is a condition characterized by insufficient release of thyroid hormones, resulting in slowed body processes. It can be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Risk factors include iodine deficiency. Symptoms include fatigue, feeling cold, weight gain, dry skin, and puffy face/hands. Diagnosis involves thyroid function tests. Treatment is synthetic thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism is a condition of excessive thyroid function and metabolism. Causes include thyroiditis and Graves' disease. Symptoms include sweating, weight loss, increased heart rate, and nervousness. Diagnosis involves radioactive iodine uptake scans and blood tests. Treatment includes
Anemia is caused by a deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin. It can be caused by insufficient iron, vitamin B12, or folate intake; blood loss; or impaired red blood cell production. Dietary management of anemia focuses on improving intake of iron, vitamin B12, and folate through foods or supplements. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include iron supplementation, changes to diet, and treating the primary condition causing the anemia.
Polycythemia is a condition characterized by an abnormal increase in red blood cells. It can be primary, caused by bone marrow abnormalities, or secondary, caused by factors like smoking or lung diseases that result in hypoxia. Symptoms include headache, dizziness, and skin redness or itching. Diagnosis involves blood tests showing elevated red blood cell counts. Treatment may include phlebotomy to reduce blood volume, medications to suppress blood cell production, and lifestyle changes like exercise and avoiding tobacco. Nursing care focuses on monitoring for blood clots, managing pain and nutrition, and providing education.
This document discusses renal calculi (kidney stones). It defines kidney stones as solid masses that form in the kidneys from mineral deposits in urine. The main types are calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, struvite, uric acid, and cystine stones. Risk factors include certain foods, dehydration, and metabolic disorders. Symptoms include severe flank or abdominal pain. Diagnosis involves tests like ultrasound, IVU, or CT scan. Treatment includes pain medication, increased fluid intake, surgery like lithotripsy or percutaneous nephrolithotomy, and preventing recurrences through diet and lifestyle changes.
Hypothyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone. It most commonly occurs in older women and can be caused by autoimmune diseases, radiation therapy, thyroid surgery, medications, or iodine deficiency. Symptoms include extreme fatigue, hair loss, numbness, hoarseness, weight gain, cold sensitivity, constipation, and slowed thinking. Treatment involves lifelong synthetic thyroid hormone replacement through medications like levothyroxine. Nursing care focuses on monitoring for side effects, ensuring proper medication adherence, providing dietary guidance, and maintaining a warm environment for the patient.
it is method of feeding the baby ,for the full fill of nutritional requirement ,if mother milk is not available . it is vital for maintaining the nutritional level in baby.
Leukemia is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow that results in abnormal blood cell production and accumulation. The main types are acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Risk factors include genetic predispositions, environmental exposures, and prior chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Treatment involves chemotherapy, corticosteroids, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, targeted therapy, or biological therapy to destroy leukemia cells and restore normal blood cell production. Nursing care focuses on managing side effects, preventing infections, providing education and support, and monitoring the patient's condition and response to treatment.
This document discusses several hematological disorders including anemia, megaloblastic anemia, aplastic anemia, and provides details about their definitions, classifications, etiologies, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. It describes how anemia can be classified based on morphology and etiology. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common type and can be caused by blood loss, insufficient iron intake or absorption. Megaloblastic anemia results from vitamin B12 or folate deficiencies, causing large immature red blood cells. Aplastic anemia is a condition where the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient new blood cells.
This document discusses peptic ulcers, including their definition, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. Peptic ulcers form in the stomach or duodenum when the protective mucus layer is damaged, allowing acid and pepsin to erode the lining. The primary cause is infection by H. pylori bacteria, though smoking, caffeine, alcohol, stress, and NSAIDs can also contribute. Common symptoms include belching, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Diagnosis involves endoscopy or blood tests. Treatment includes medications to reduce acid production, antibiotics to treat H. pylori, and sometimes surgery. Nursing care focuses on medication administration, diet, rest, monitoring for complications, education, and stress
.nephrotic syndrome- B.Sc. Nursing III yr Rahul Dhaker
This document provides an overview of nephrotic syndrome, including its definition, incidence, etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation, management, and complications. Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia, and edema. It most commonly affects children ages 2-6 and has many potential causes, either primarily affecting the kidneys or secondarily from other conditions. Diagnosis involves urine and blood tests showing proteinuria and low albumin levels. Treatment focuses on controlling edema, promoting nutrition, and in some cases using corticosteroids, diuretics, or immunosuppressants.
Constipation easy explanation -
Easy ppt for Student Nurses
Definition of Constipation
risk factors
Clinical manifestations of Constipation
Assessment & Diagnostic tests
Management of Constipation
Medical management of Constipation
Nursing Management of Constipation
This document provides an overview of leukemias, including:
- Leukemia is a cancer of the blood and bone marrow that results in an overproduction of immature white blood cells.
- There are four main types: acute lymphocytic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and chronic myelogenous leukemia.
- Signs and symptoms vary depending on the type but can include fatigue, infections, anemia, bruising/bleeding, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.
- Diagnosis involves blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, and other exams. Treatment involves chemotherapy, targeted therapies, radiation, stem cell transplant, and management of symptoms.
This document discusses iron deficiency anemia, including its normal hemoglobin ranges, classification, etiological factors, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, and management. It is classified based on red blood cell morphology and etiology. Causes include low iron diet, growth spurts, GI problems, and blood loss. Diagnostic tests include hemoglobin measurement, complete blood count, peripheral smear, and iron studies. Management involves oral and parental iron therapy, blood transfusion, dietary changes including iron-rich foods, and preventive measures like exclusive breastfeeding and iron-fortified formula.
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism.
This document provides information about Cushing's disease/syndrome, which is a hormonal disorder caused by prolonged high levels of the cortisol hormone. It is usually due to a benign tumor in the pituitary gland that causes excessive production of ACTH, stimulating the adrenal glands to overproduce cortisol. Symptoms include weight gain, muscle wasting, high blood pressure, and mental disturbances. The condition is diagnosed through tests measuring cortisol and ACTH levels and imaging to identify tumors. Treatment involves medication to suppress cortisol production, adrenalectomy to remove the glands, or pituitary surgery to remove tumors.
This document provides information on appendicitis including its anatomy, causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. It begins with the anatomy of the appendix and describes appendicitis as an inflammation of the appendix. The main causes are obstructive causes like fecaliths blocking the appendix or non-obstructive causes like infections. The symptoms include pain localized to the lower right abdomen. Diagnosis involves physical exams looking for tenderness and signs. Treatment involves antibiotics initially but surgery to remove the appendix if infected. Laparoscopic removal has benefits over open surgery.
The document discusses anemia, including its definition, causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing care, and prevention. It provides details on iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, and the nursing process for patients with anemia. The document serves as an overview of anemia and aims to educate on this common blood disorder.
This document provides an overview of how to approach and evaluate anemia. It begins by defining anemia and describing a complete blood count. It then discusses evaluating the size, hemoglobin content, and distribution of red blood cells to classify anemia as microcytic, normocytic, or macrocytic. For each type of anemia, the document lists potential causes and recommends further tests. It also covers evaluating reticulocyte count, peripheral smear, and bone marrow biopsy findings to determine if anemia is caused by blood loss, increased destruction, or decreased production of red blood cells. The goal is to systematically narrow down the cause of anemia through a series of blood tests and examinations.
This document discusses anemia, including its definition, classification, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. It covers iron deficiency anemia in depth and discusses its stages, signs, and tests. It also covers other nutritional anemias like megaloblastic anemia caused by vitamin B12 or folate deficiencies, copper deficiency anemia, and sideroblastic anemia. Non-nutritional anemias discussed include anemia of chronic disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and sports anemia. Proper diagnosis is important before providing nutritional or medical management of anemia.
Chronic diseases can be influenced or caused by environmental factors. Asthma and allergies are triggered by things in the environment like dust, mold, fumes and pet dander. Long term exposure to contaminated soil, air or water can lead to kidney disease, immune deficiency or cancer. Obesity rates are higher in areas that lack sidewalks or places to exercise. Heavy metal poisoning from lead and mercury can occur from ingesting or inhaling these substances, leading to issues like anemia, brain damage or neurological problems.
This document discusses anaemia and its causes in chronic kidney disease (CKD). It defines anaemia and outlines how it is diagnosed based on haemoglobin levels. The main causes of anaemia in CKD are decreased erythropoietin production and iron deficiency. Iron supplementation using oral or intravenous iron is recommended to treat iron deficiency anaemia in CKD, along with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) like epoetin and darbepoetin to treat all anaemia. Guidelines on monitoring haemoglobin levels and initiating/maintaining ESA therapy are provided. Red blood cell transfusion is indicated when rapid correction of anaemia is needed or ESA therapy is ineffective.
Anemia of chronic disease (ACD), also known as anemia of inflammation, is a common type of anemia associated with chronic infections, inflammatory disorders, and some cancers. It is characterized by inadequate red blood cell production, low serum iron levels, and low iron binding capacity. The anemia is usually mild to moderate in severity. Treatment involves addressing the underlying chronic condition causing the inflammation.
Management of anemia in chronic kidney disease -Boushra Alsaoor
This document provides an overview of the management of anemia in chronic kidney disease. It defines anemia according to WHO criteria and notes that nearly 90% of CKD patients with a GFR below 30 mL/min have anemia. The main causes of anemia in CKD are decreased erythropoietin production and a shorter red blood cell lifespan. Treatment with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents or ESAs like epoetin and darbepoetin can help increase hemoglobin levels and improve outcomes. The goals of ESA therapy are to raise hemoglobin by 1-2 g/dL per month until it reaches 10-11.5 g/dL without exceeding 13 g/dL. Iron supplementation is
Anemia is a common complication of chronic kidney disease that can cause fatigue. While the kidneys normally produce erythropoietin to stimulate red blood cell production, CKD patients have relative erythropoietin deficiency. This leads to anemia which, if left untreated, can negatively impact quality of life and cardiovascular health. Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents and iron supplementation are used to treat anemia in CKD, though the appropriate hemoglobin target level remains an area of ongoing research and debate given risks identified with higher targets in some studies.
The document discusses thalassemia, a genetic blood disorder. It defines thalassemia and describes its prevalence worldwide. There are two main types - alpha and beta thalassemia - depending on which globin chain is deficient. Symptoms range from mild to severe anemia. The disorder is diagnosed through blood tests and analysis of red blood cells. Treatment involves blood transfusions and medication.
This document provides an overview of hematopoiesis, the process by which blood cells are produced. It begins with a discussion of hematopoietic stem cells and their ability to differentiate into various blood cell types. The stages of red blood cell development from pronormoblast to reticulocyte to mature erythrocyte are described. Granulocyte development from myeloblast to mature neutrophil takes 5-12 days. Various hematopoietic growth factors that regulate blood cell production are also listed, including erythropoietin, GM-CSF, G-CSF, M-CSF, and others.
The document discusses anti-anemic drugs used to treat different types of anemia. It covers iron, cyanocobalamin, folic acid, erythropoietin, and hydroxyurea. Iron is used orally or parenterally to treat iron deficiency anemia. Cyanocobalamin and folic acid are given to treat megaloblastic anemia. Erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production and is used for anemia of renal failure. Hydroxyurea increases fetal hemoglobin levels and is used for sickle cell disease.
Chronic kidney disease is defined as kidney damage or reduced kidney function (glomerular filtration rate below 60 mL/min/1.73m2) lasting at least 3 months. It is a progressive condition that leads to complete kidney failure if left untreated. Common causes include diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. Symptoms are often nonspecific until late stages and include fatigue, pruritis, and neurological problems. Treatment focuses on slowing progression through blood pressure control and managing complications like anemia, bone disease, and fluid and electrolyte imbalances. Dialysis or kidney transplantation are required once kidney function has declined sufficiently.
The document discusses different types and causes of anemia. It classifies anemia into etiologic categories including impaired red blood cell production, excessive destruction of RBCs, and blood loss. It further describes morphologic classifications such as macrocytic, microcytic hypochromic, and normocytic normochromic anemia. Specific causes are provided for each category including deficiencies, diseases, and genetic disorders. Hemolytic anemia is discussed in more detail including hereditary and acquired causes. Laboratory findings associated with different types of anemia are also summarized.
This document provides information about anemia. It begins with an introduction stating that anemia is a major problem in India, affecting many women and contributing to maternal deaths. The objectives of the document are then outlined, including defining anemia, classifying types, and discussing causes, symptoms, investigations, treatment and prevention. Several types of anemia are described such as iron deficiency, megaloblastic, and sickle cell anemia. Risk factors, signs and symptoms, normal values, and investigations like hematocrit and hemoglobin levels are explained. The document concludes with sections on management, treatment recommendations including iron supplementation, and benefits of therapy like improved cognition and survival.
Anemia is a condition where the hemoglobin concentration in the blood is lower than normal, reducing its oxygen carrying capacity. It can be caused by blood loss, deficiencies in red blood cell production, or excessive red blood cell destruction. Types of anemia include iron deficiency, pernicious, folic acid deficiency, thalassemia, and aplastic anemia. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve supplements, medications, blood transfusions, or bone marrow transplants. Nursing care focuses on managing fatigue, maintaining nutrition and tissue perfusion, and promoting compliance with prescribed therapies.
The document provides information on several common blood disorders including an overview of blood typing and related antibodies, standard blood tests, components of blood, and details on specific disorders such as anemia, hemophilia, thrombocytopenia, hemochromatosis, Hodgkin's disease, leukemia, and acute lymphocytic leukemia and acute myelogenous leukemia.
Anaemia results from a lack of red blood cells or dysfunctional red blood cells in the body. This leads to reduced oxygen flow to the body's organs.
Symptoms may include fatigue, skin pallor, shortness of breath, lightheadness, dizziness or a fast heartbeat.
Treatment depends on the underlying diagnosis. Iron supplements may be used for iron deficiency. Vitamin B supplements maybe used for low vitamin levels. Blood transfusions may be used for blood loss. Medications to induce blood formation may be used if the body’s blood production is reduced.
Usman, age 7, presented with pallor, fatigue, and bruising. His blood tests showed very low red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet counts consistent with aplastic anemia. Aplastic anemia causes bone marrow failure resulting in pancytopenia. Treatment options include blood transfusions, growth factors, antibiotics, and immunosuppressive drugs or stem cell transplantation to restore bone marrow function.
Aplastic and hypoplastic anemias result from stem cell or bone marrow damage, causing low red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet production. They can develop from drugs, toxins, radiation, viruses, or unknown causes. Symptoms include fatigue, shortness of breath, and easy bruising. Treatment focuses on blood transfusions, immunosuppressants, bone marrow transplant, and managing infections. Iron deficiency anemia, another common type, results from inadequate iron intake or absorption and causes similar symptoms. Replacement with oral or intravenous iron is the typical treatment.
Haematopathology consists of dysplastic or neoplastic changes to normal blood and bone marrow cells. There are nearly 100 types of hematopoietic disorders categorized into anaemias, myeloid neoplasms, lymphoid neoplasms, and histiocytic/dendritic neoplasms. Advanced digital imaging technologies are used to diagnose these diseases by examining blood smears, bone marrow aspirates, and lymph node biopsies. The three major types of anaemia are those due to blood loss, poor red blood cell production, and red blood cell destruction.
Blood disorders can affect any of the three main components of blood:
Red blood cells, which carry oxygen to the body's tissues.
White blood cells, which fight infections.
Platelets, which help blood to clot.
Blood disorders can also affect the liquid portion of blood, called plasma.
This document provides an overview of iron deficiency anemia, including its definition, pathophysiology, detection, and management. It begins by defining anemia and describing the various causes, including blood loss, inadequate red blood cell production, and excessive red blood cell destruction. Common signs and symptoms of iron deficiency anemia are then outlined. The document concludes by discussing the evaluation, diagnosis, and management of iron deficiency anemia through a case study, focusing on identifying risk factors, signs and symptoms, laboratory findings, and treating with iron supplementation.
The document discusses iron deficiency anemia (IDA), including its definition, causes, signs and symptoms, classifications, treatment, nursing care, and complications. IDA is defined as anemia with biochemical evidence of iron deficiency, characterized by a low hemoglobin level and caused by blood loss, insufficient dietary iron intake, or impaired iron absorption. Common causes include heavy menstruation, ulcers, cancers, and dietary deficiencies. Treatment involves iron supplementation, vitamins, blood transfusions, and addressing the underlying cause. Nursing care focuses on managing fatigue, nutritional intake, and complications which can impact multiple organs if left untreated.
Aplastic anemia -medical information (definition,management, diagnosis, medic...martinshaji
Aplastic anemia is a condition that occurs when your body stops producing enough new blood cells. Aplastic anemia leaves you feeling fatigued and with a higher risk of infections and uncontrolled bleeding.
A rare and serious condition, aplastic anemia can develop at any age. Aplastic anemia may occur suddenly, or it can occur slowly and get worse over a long period of time. Treatment for aplastic anemia may include medications, blood transfusions or a stem cell transplant, also known as a bone marrow transplant.
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The document discusses various red blood cell disorders and anemias. It covers the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, laboratory evaluation, and management of different types of anemias including aplastic anemia, iron deficiency anemia, megaloblastic anemia, anemia of chronic disease, and hemolytic anemias like sickle cell disease. It provides details on the causes, symptoms, diagnostic criteria and treatment approaches for these conditions.
Anemia is a decrease in red blood cells or hemoglobin. It is common in India due to poor nutrition and diet. Anemia can be classified as microcytic, normocytic, or macrocytic based on red blood cell size. Common causes include iron deficiency, vitamin B12/folate deficiency, chronic diseases, genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia and thalassemia. Symptoms vary based on severity but can include fatigue, pallor, shortness of breath. Diagnosis involves blood tests. Treatment focuses on treating the underlying cause, iron supplementation, vitamin supplements, medications, and blood transfusions if severe. Nursing care emphasizes nutrition, rest, compliance with treatment, and managing complications.
The document discusses anemia, including its definition, causes, types, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, nursing care, and prevention. It provides details on iron deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, and the nursing process for patients with anemia. The document serves as an overview of anemia and aims to educate on this common blood disorder.
Usman Ghani, a 7-year-old boy, presented with pallor, easy fatigability, and bruising. Investigations revealed very low blood counts and a bone marrow biopsy showed hypoplastic/aplastic bone marrow. He was diagnosed with aplastic anemia. Aplastic anemia is a condition where the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient new blood cells, leading to pancytopenia. Treatment involves blood transfusions, antibiotics, growth factors, immunosuppressive drugs, and stem cell transplantation depending on the severity of the condition.
The blood, Thrombosis, Plasma substitutes, AnemiaSivabalanKumar2
The Blood:
Blood is a vital fluid that circulates throughout the human body, delivering essential substances like oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste products. It plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including transportation, defense, and regulation. Blood is composed of different components, including red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and plasma.
Red blood cells (RBCs) are responsible for carrying oxygen to tissues and organs. They contain a protein called hemoglobin that binds to oxygen and gives blood its characteristic red color. White blood cells (WBCs) are a crucial part of the immune system, defending the body against infections and foreign substances. Platelets are essential for blood clotting, preventing excessive bleeding when there is an injury.
Plasma is the liquid component of blood, making up about 55% of its volume. It is a yellowish fluid composed mainly of water, along with proteins, electrolytes, hormones, antibodies, and various other substances. Plasma carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body and also plays a significant role in maintaining the body's pH balance and regulating body temperature.
Thrombosis:
Thrombosis refers to the formation of a blood clot within a blood vessel, obstructing normal blood flow. It occurs when there is an imbalance in the clotting mechanism, leading to the formation of an excessive or inappropriate clot. Thrombosis can occur in both veins and arteries, and its severity can range from mild to life-threatening, depending on the location and size of the clot.
When a clot forms in a vein, it is called venous thrombosis. This can manifest as deep vein thrombosis (DVT), where the clot forms in the deep veins of the legs or arms, or as pulmonary embolism (PE), where a clot travels to the lungs and blocks blood flow. Arterial thrombosis occurs when a clot forms in an artery, leading to a reduction or blockage of blood supply to vital organs or tissues.
Thrombosis can be caused by various factors, including prolonged immobility, surgery, trauma, certain medical conditions (such as cancer or autoimmune disorders), hormonal changes, and genetic predisposition. Treatment for thrombosis typically involves blood thinners (anticoagulants) to prevent further clotting and measures to dissolve or remove existing clots.
Plasma Substitutes:
Plasma substitutes are solutions or products used to temporarily replace or supplement the function of plasma when it is unavailable or insufficient. These substitutes are mainly employed in emergency situations or during medical procedures where blood loss or volume expansion is required. Plasma substitutes can be categorized into two broad groups: colloid and crystalloid solutions.
Colloid solutions contain large molecules that remain within the blood vessels for a longer duration, exerting an osmotic effect and helping to maintain fluid balance. Examples of colloid solutions include a
This document discusses different types of anemia. It defines anemia as a condition where the blood does not have enough healthy red blood cells. The main types discussed are iron-deficiency anemia, anemia of chronic disease, hemolytic anemia, aplastic anemia, pernicious anemia, folate-deficiency anemia, sickle cell anemia, and thalassemia. Causes, symptoms, and treatments are provided for each type.
This document discusses pediatric anemia. It defines anemia based on hemoglobin and hematocrit levels below certain thresholds defined by age and sex. Anemia results in physiological adaptations like increased cardiac output to maintain oxygen delivery to tissues. Causes of anemia vary by age and can be multifactorial, including nutritional deficiencies, blood loss, infections, and genetic disorders. Iron deficiency is a common cause, presenting with microcytic indices and low iron studies. Evaluation involves a complete blood count and smear to classify anemia, along with testing to identify the underlying cause.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Kat...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
2. Anemia is usually defined as a decrease in the
amount of red blood cells (RBCs) or the amount of
hemoglobin in the blood. It can also be defined as
a lowered ability of the blood to carry oxygen.
Iron deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, folic
acid deficiency anemia and aplastic anemia are the
anemias most commonly seen in adults.
3. There are more than 400 types of anemia, which are
divided into three groups:
Anemia caused by blood loss
Anemia caused by decreased or faulty red blood
cell production
Anemia caused by destruction of red blood cells
Anemia caused by fluid overload
4. Anemia symptoms vary depending on the cause of
your anemia but may include:
Fatigue
Weakness
Pale skin
A fast or irregular heartbeat
Shortness of breath
Chest pain
Dizziness
Cognitive problems
Cold hands and feet
Headache
5.
6. These factors place you at increased risk of anemia:
A diet lacking in certain vitamins. Choosing a diet
that is consistently low in iron, vitamin B-12 and
folate increases your risk of anemia.
Intestinal disorders. Having an intestinal disorder
that affects the absorption of nutrients in your
small intestine — such as Crohn's disease and
celiac disease — puts you at risk of anemia.
Surgical removal of or surgery to the parts of your
small intestine where nutrients are absorbed can
lead to nutrient deficiencies and anemia.
7. Menstruation. In general, women who haven't
experienced menopause have a greater risk of iron
deficiency anemia than do men and
postmenopausal women. That's because
menstruation causes the loss of red blood cells.
Pregnancy. If you're pregnant, you're at an
increased risk of iron deficiency anemia because
your iron stores have to serve your increased blood
volume as well as be a source of hemoglobin for
your growing baby.
8. Chronic conditions. For example, if you have
cancer, kidney or liver failure, or another chronic
condition, you may be at risk of anemia of chronic
disease. These conditions can lead to a shortage of
red blood cells.
Slow, chronic blood loss from an ulcer
or other source within your body can deplete your
body's store of iron, leading to iron deficiency
anemia.
9. Family history. If your family has a history of an
inherited anemia, such as sickle cell anemia, you
also may be at increased risk of the condition.
Other factors. A history of certain infections, blood
diseases and autoimmune disorders, alcoholism,
exposure to toxic chemicals, and the use of some
medications can affect red blood cell production
and lead to anemia.
10. Common types of anemia
Common types of anemia and their causes
include:
Iron deficiency anemia: It is a condition in which the
total body iron content is decreased below the
normal level, affecting hemoglobin synthesis.
This type of anemia is often caused by
blood loss, such as from heavy menstrual bleeding,
an ulcer, cancer, a polyp somewhere in your
digestive system, and prolonged use of aspirin or
drugs known as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), pregnancy, a lack of iron supply in
diet, inability to absorb iron.
11. Iron deficiency anemia is caused by a
shortage of the element iron in your body.
our bone marrow needs iron to make
hemoglobin. Without adequate iron, our
body can't produce enough hemoglobin for
red blood cells. Decreased hemoglobin may
result in insufficient oxygen delivery to the
tissue. And cause anemia.
12. Headache, dizziness, fatigue, tinnitus.
Palpitations, dyspnea on exertion, pallor of
skin and mucous membrane
In developing countries: smooth, sore
tongue, cheilosis, koilonchia( spoon shaped
nails) and pica
13. CBC and iron profile: decreased hemoglobin,
hematocrit, serum iron, and ferritin; eleveted
red cells in distribution width and normal or
elevated total iron binding capacity.
Determination of source of chronic blood loss
may include sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy,
upper and lower GI studies, stools and urine
for occult blood examination.
14. Early diagnosis and correction of chronic
blood loss
Oral and parenteral iron therapy
15. Nursing Assessment
Obtain history of symptoms, dietary intake, past
history of anemia, possible sources of blood loss.
Examine for tachycardia, pallor, dyspnea, and signs of
GI or other bleeding.
Nursing Diagnoses
Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body Requirements
related to inadequate intake of iron
Activity Intolerance related to decreased oxygen-
carrying capacity of the blood
Ineffective Tissue Perfusion related to decreased
oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
16. Nursing Interventions
Promoting Iron Intake
Assess diet for inclusion of foods rich in iron.
Arrange nutritionist referral as appropriate.
Administer iron replacement as ordered. Technique
of parenteral iron administration:
◦ Allow small amount of air in syringe and use new 2-inch
needle for injection to avoid tracking medication through
subcutaneous tissue and resulting painful induration.
◦ Retract skin over muscle of upper outer quadrant of
buttock laterally before inserting needle (Z-track technique)
to prevent leakage along track and staining of skin.
17. This very rare life-threatening anemia is caused by bone
marrow hypopalsia or aplasia resulting in pancytopania(
insufficient numbers of RBCs, WBCs and platelets). . A
variety of diseases, such as leukemia, myelodysplasia or
myelofibrosis, can cause anemia by affecting blood
production in your bone marrow. The effects of these
types of cancer and cancer-like disorders vary from a mild
alteration in blood production to a complete life-
threatening shutdown of the blood-making process.
Other cancers of the blood or bone marrow
— such as multiple myeloma, myeloproliferative disorders
and lymphoma — also can cause anemia.
Causes of aplastic anemia include infections, drugs ,
chemical toxins and autoimmune diseases.
18. Many diseases, conditions, and factors can cause
aplastic anemia, including:
Toxins, such as pesticides, arsenic, and benzene.
Radiation and chemotherapy (treatments for cancer).
Medicines, such as chloramphenicol (an antibiotic
rarely used in the United States).
Infectious diseases, such as hepatitis, Epstein-Barr
virus, cytomegalovirus, parvovirus B19, and HIV.
Autoimmune disorders, such as lupus and
rheumatoid arthritis.
Pregnancy. (Aplastic anemia that occurs during
pregnancy often goes away after delivery.)
19. Anemia with malaise, pallor and associated
symptoms such as palpitations
Thrombocytopenia (low platelet counts), leading to
increased risk of hemorrhage, bruising and
petechiae
Leukopenia (low white blood cell count), leading to
increased risk of infection
Reticulocytopenia (low counts of reticulocytes, that
is, immature red blood cells)
20. CBC and peripheral blood smear show decreased
RBC, WBC, platelets (pancytopenia)
Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy: bone marrow
is hypocellular or empty with greatly reduced or
absent hematopoiesis.
21. 1.Remove of causative agent or toxin.
2.Allogenic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) –
treatment of choice for patient with severe
aplastic anemia. This treatment option provides
long-term survival for 75% to 90% of patients,
depending on the age of the patient, history of
prior blood transfusions, and source of marrow.
3.Immunosuppressive treatment with
cyclophosphamide and antirhymocyte globulin or
cyclophospamide. This treatment option provides
long-term survival for 60% to 70% of patients.
22. 4. Androgens (oxymetholone or testosterone
enanthate) may stimulate bone marrow
regeneration; significant toxicity
encountered. They may be used when other
treatments have failed.
5. Supportive treatment includes platelet and
RBC transfusions, antibiotics, and antifungals.
23. Untreated severe aplastic anemia is almost
always fatal, generally because of
overwhelming infection. Even with treatment,
morbidity and mortality caused by infections
and bleeding are high.
Late complications, even after successful
treatment, include clonal hematologic
diseases such as paroxysmal nocturnal
hemoglobinuria, myelodysplasia, and acute
myelogenous leukemia
24. Nursing Assessment
Obtain thorough history that includes
medications, past medical history,
occupation, hobbies.
Monitor for signs of bleeding and infection.
Nursing Diagnoses
Risk for Infection related to granulocytopenia
secondary to bone marrow aplasia
Risk for Injury related to bleeding
25. Nursing Interventions
Minimizing Risk of Infection
Care for patient in protective environment while
hospitalized in private room with strict hand
washing and avoidance of any contaminants (see
Patient Education Guidelines, page 944).
Encourage good personal hygiene, including daily
shower or bath with mild soap, mouth care, and
perirectal care after using the toilet.
Monitor vital signs, including temperature,
frequently; notify health care provider of oral
temperature of 101° F (38.3° C) or higher.
Minimize invasive procedures or possible trauma
to skin or mucous membranes.
Obtain cultures of suspected infected sites or
body fluids.
26. Minimizing Risk of Bleeding
Use only soft toothbrush or toothette for mouth care
and electric razor for shaving; keep nails short by
filing.
Avoid I.M. injections and other invasive procedures.
Prevent constipation with stool softeners as
prescribed.
Restrict activity based on platelet count and active
bleeding.
Monitor pad count for menstruating patient; avoid
use of vaginal tampons.
Control bleeding by applying pressure to site, using
ice packs and prescribed topical hemostatic agents.
Administer blood product replacement as ordered;
monitor for allergic reaction, anaphylaxis, and
volume overload.
27. A megaloblast is a large, nucleated
erythrocyte with delayed and abnormal
nuclear maturation. Pernicious anemia is a
type of megaloblastic anemia associated with
vitamin B12 deficiency because of lack of
intrinsic factor in gastric secretion.
28. Vitamin B12 is necessary for normal deoxyribonucleic
acid synthesis in maturing RBCs.
Pernicious anemia demonstrates familial incidence
related to autoimmune gastric mucosal atrophy.
Normal gastric mucosa secretes a substance called
intrinsic factor, necessary for absorption of vitamin
B12 in ileum. If a defect exists in gastric mucosa, or
after gastrectomy or small bowel disease, intrinsic
factor may not be secreted and orally ingested B12 not
absorbed.
Some drugs interfere with B12 absorption, notably
ascorbic acid, cholestyramine, colchicine, neomycin,
cimetidine, and hormonal contraceptives.
Primarily a disorder of older people.
29. pernicious anemia, disease in which the
production of red blood cells (erythrocytes) is
impaired as the result of the body’s inability
to absorb vitamin B12, which is necessary for
red blood cells to mature properly in the
bone marrow. Pernicious anemia is one of
many types of anemia, a disease marked by a
reduction in red blood cells or in the oxygen-
carrying substance hemoglobin found in
those cells.
30. Clinical Manifestations
Of anemia:”pallor, fatigue, dyspnea on exertion,
palpitations. May be angina pectoris and heart
failure in the elderly or those predisposed to
heart disease.
Of underlying GI dysfunction:”sore mouth,
glossitis, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, loss of
weight, indigestion, epigastric discomfort,
recurring diarrhea or constipation.
Of neuropathy (occurs in high percentage of
untreated patients): paresthesia that involves
hands and feet, gait disturbance, bladder and
bowel dysfunction, psychiatric symptoms caused
by cerebral dysfunction.
31. A diagnosis of PA requires several different tests. It
requires a:
complete blood count (CBC) test
vitamin B-12 deficiency test
IF deficiency test
proof of stomach destruction
CBC measures the amount of:
- hemoglobin - protein bound to oxygen
to carry it throughout the blood
- hematocrit - used to measure how much
space red blood cells use within the blood
32. Management
Parenteral replacement with
hydroxocobalamin or cyanocobalamin (B12) is
necessary by I.M. injection from health care
provider, generally every month.
Complications
Neurologic: paresthesia, gait disturbances,
bowel and bladder dysfunction, and cerebral
dysfunction may be persistent.
33. Nursing Assessment
Assess for pallor, tachycardia, dyspnea on
exertion, exercise intolerance to determine
patient's response to anemia.
Assess for paresthesia, gait disturbances,
changes in bladder or bowel function, altered
thought processes indicating neurologic
involvement.
Obtain history of gastric surgery or GI
disease.
34. Nursing Diagnoses
Disturbed Thought Processes related to
neurologic dysfunction in absence of vitamin
B12
Impaired Sensory Perception (kinesthetic)
related to neurologic dysfunction in absence
of vitamin B12
35. Nursing Interventions
Improving Thought Processes
Administer parenteral vitamin B12 as
prescribed.
Provide patient with quiet, supportive
environment; reorient to time, place, and
person if needed; give instructions and
information in short, simple sentences and
reinforce frequently.
.
36. Minimizing the Effects of Paresthesia
Assess extent and severity of paresthesia,
imbalance, or other sensory alterations.
Refer patient for physical therapy and
occupational therapy as appropriate.
Provide safe, uncluttered environment; make
sure personal belongings are within reach;
provide assistance with activities as needed
37. Patient Education and Health Maintenance
Advise patient that monthly vitamin B12
administration should be continued for life.
Instruct patient to see health care provider
approximately every 6 months for
hematologic studies and GI evaluation; may
develop hematologic or neurologic relapse if
therapy inadequate.
38. Chronic megaloblastic anemia caused by folic acid
(folate, B9) deficiency.
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Dietary deficiency, malnutrition, marginal diets,
excessive cooking of foods; commonly associated
with alcoholism.
Impaired absorption of iron in jejunum (eg, with
small bowel disease).
Increased requirements (eg, with chronic hemolytic
anemia, exfoliative dermatitis, pregnancy).
Impaired utilization from folic acid antagonists
(methotrexate) and other drugs (phenytoin, broad
spectrum antibiotics, sulfamethoxazole, alcohol,
hormonal contraceptives).
39. Clinical Manifestations
Of anemia: fatigue, weakness, pallor,
dizziness, headache, tachycardia.
Of folic acid deficiency: sore tongue, cracked
lips.
Diagnostic Evaluation
Vitamin B12 and folic acid level: folic acid will
be decreased.
CBC will show decreased RBC, hemoglobin,
and hematocrit with increased mean
corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration.
40. Management
Oral folic acid replacement on daily basis.
Complications
Folic acid deficiency has been implicated in
the etiology of congenitally acquired neural
tube defects.
41. Nursing Assessment
Obtain nutritional history.
Monitor level of dyspnea, tachycardia, and
development of chest pain or shortness of
breath for worsening of condition.
Nursing Diagnosis
Imbalanced Nutrition: Less Than Body
Requirements related to inadequate intake of
folic acid
42. Nursing Interventions
Improving Folic Acid Intake
Assess diet for inclusion of foods rich in folic
acid: beef liver, peanut butter, red beans,
oatmeal, broccoli, asparagus.
Arrange nutritionist referral as appropriate.
Assist alcoholic patient to obtain counseling
and additional medical care as needed.
43. Community and Home Care Considerations
Encourage pregnant patient to maintain prenatal
care and to take folic acid supplement.
Provide alcoholic patient with information about
treatment programs and Alcoholics Anonymous
meetings in the community.
Patient Education and Health Maintenance
Teach patient to select balanced diet that
includes green vegetables (asparagus, broccoli,
spinach), yeast, liver and other organ meats,
some fresh fruits; avoid overcooking vegetables.
Encourage patient to follow up periodically to
monitor CBC.
44.
45. Introduction
Sickle cell anemia is an inherited form of anemia
— a condition in which there aren't enough
healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen
throughout your body.
Normally, your red blood cells are flexible and
round, moving easily through your blood vessels.
In sickle cell anemia, the red blood cells become
rigid and sticky and are shaped like sickles or
crescent moons. These irregularly shaped cells
can get stuck in small blood vessels, which can
slow or block blood flow and oxygen to parts of
the body.
46. There's no cure for most people with sickle
cell anemia. However, treatments can relieve
pain and help prevent further problems
associated with sickle cell anemia.
47.
48. Sickle cell anemia is caused by a mutation in the gene that tells
your body to make hemoglobin — the red, iron-rich compound
that gives blood its red color. Hemoglobin allows red blood cells
to carry oxygen from your lungs to all parts of your body. In
sickle cell anemia, the abnormal hemoglobin causes red blood
cells to become rigid, sticky and misshapen.
The sickle cell gene is passed from generation to generation in a
pattern of inheritance called autosomal recessive inheritance.
This means that both the mother and the father must pass on
the defective form of the gene for a child to be affected.
If only one parent passes the sickle cell gene to the child, that
child will have the sickle cell trait. With one normal hemoglobin
gene and one defective form of the gene, people with the sickle
cell trait make both normal hemoglobin and sickle cell
hemoglobin. Their blood may contain some sickle cells, but they
generally don't experience symptoms. However, they are carriers
of the disease, which means they can pass the defective gene on
to their children.
49. The loss of red blood cell elasticity is central to the
pathophysiology of sickle-cell disease. Normal red blood
cells are quite elastic, which allows the cells to deform to
pass through capillaries. In sickle-cell disease, low-
oxygen tension promotes red blood cell sickling and
repeated episodes of sickling damage the cell membrane
and decrease the cell's elasticity. These cells fail to return
to normal shape when normal oxygen tension is restored.
As a consequence, these rigid blood cells are unable to
deform as they pass through narrow capillaries, leading to
vessel occlusion and ischaemia.
The actual anaemia of the illness is caused by haemolysis,
the destruction of the red cells, because of their shape.
Although the bone marrow attempts to compensate by
creating new red cells, it does not match the rate of
destruction. Healthy red blood cells typically function for
90–120 days, but sickled cells only last 10–20 days.
50.
51. Severe pain
Anemia
Chest pain and difficulty breathing
Strokes
Joint pain and arthritis and bone infarctions
Blockage of blood flow in the spleen or liver
Severe infections
Vision problems
Delayed growth
52. The patient with sickle trait usually has a
normal hemoglobin level, normal hematocrit,
and a normal blood smear. In contrast the
patient with the sickle cell anemia has a low
hematocrit and sickled cells on the smear.
The diagnosis is confirmed by hemoglobin
electrophoresis.
53. Treatment for sickle cell anemia is the focus
of continued research. However, aside from
the equally important aggressive
management of symptoms and
complications, there are currently few
primary treatment modalities for sickle cell
disease.
Peripheral blood stem cell transplant
Pharmacologic therapy
Transfusion therapy
Supportive therapy
54. Peripheral blood stem cell transplant
It may cure sickle cell anemia. However, this
treatment modality is available to only a small
subset of affected patients, because of either the
lack of a compatible donor or because severe organ
damage( eg, renal, liver, lung) that may be already
present in the patient is a contraindication for
PBSCT.
55. Pharmacologic therapy
Hydroxyurea(Hydrea) a chemotherapy agent has
been shown to be effective in increasing fetal
hemoglobin levels in patients with sickle cell
anemia, thereby decreasing the formation of sickle
cells.
Transfusion therapy
RBC transfusion therapy has been shown to be
highly effective in several situations: in acute
exacerbation of anemia, in the prevention of severe
complications from anesthesia and surgery, in
improving the response to infection.
56. Supportive therapy
supportive care is equally important. Pain
management is a significant issue. The use of
medication to relieve is important. Aspirin is
very useful in diminishing mild to moderate
pain; it also diminishes inflammation and
potential thrombosis. NSAIDs are useful for
moderate pain or combination with opiod
analgesics.
57. Acute pain related to tissue hypoxia due to
agglutination of sickled cell with in blood
vessels
Risk for infection
58. Managing pain
- Guide the rate of pain using pain scale.
- Provide analgesic agent.
- Apply relaxation techniques, breathing exercise
and distraction to the patient
Prevention and managing infection
- Monitor patient for sign and symptom of
infection
- Provide the prescribed antibiotics
- Assess for the sign of dehydration
59. Promoting coping skills
- Establish therapeutic relationship to the patient
- Encourage patient on their strength rather than
defecit.
- Allow the patient to make dicisions about daily
care and explain the rationale.
Minimizing Deficient knowledge
- Explain all the potential side effects of the used
drugs
- Give the sufficient knowledge about the disease
process to the patient
60. Promoting home and community based care
- Provide knowledge on self care and hygiene
- Provide follow up care.
- Encourage for communication
- Guidelines should be given regarding when to
seek the urgent care.