1) The study investigated Thai EFL students' perceptions of an academic reading class that incorporated contextualized grammar instruction.
2) A questionnaire and interviews found that most students found the course contents, such as analyzing sentences and locating main ideas, to be beneficial. Contextualized grammar exercises helped them understand how sentences form overall meanings.
3) Students also reported that effective learning strategies and supportive teaching helped them realize that contextualized grammar instruction is useful for improving English academic reading abilities.
This is an experimental study based on exploring the effectiveness of task based language teaching (TBLT) in improving graduate studentsā descriptive writing as well as their perception of task based language teaching. The accessible population taken in this study is 410 students enrolled in Graduation at Khawja Fareed Govt. Post Graduate College Rahim Yar Khan. 60 male students have been administered a TOEFL structure test to bring homogeneity. They have been divided into two equal groups randomly. Thus two groups were formed one the treatment group and the other control one. Experimental and control class data were collected through written tests and questionnaires. Written pre and post tests were administered to both classes. Questionnaires were given to the students in experimental group after each of 12 treatment tasks. Data from written pre and post-test and questionnaires were analysed quantitatively. Percentage analysis was run to observe improvement between the groups. Test results revealed highly significant difference in favour of the treatment group. The study also demonstrated treatment groupsā general perception of task based language teaching positively. Findings of this study are inspiring for the teachers to adopt task based language teaching to improve studentsā descriptive writing.
This document summarizes research on English language learning in Malaysia. It discusses studies that examine English learning as the mastery of autonomous skills, such as grammar and writing. Research shows students struggle with English grammar due to interference from their first language, Malay. Studies also find teaching focuses on exam preparation rather than communication. Research on higher education indicates students lack skills like note-taking, critical thinking, and vocabulary needed for university. Overall, the document reviews literature that conceptualizes English learning as acquiring discrete skills rather than a social practice.
A statistical analysis of corpus based approach on learning sentence patterns IJECEIAES
Ā
This research paper examines the adverse effect of theoretical explanation of the grammatical rules among the learners. Exploration of the methods and materials taught inductively or deductively is the panacea to achieve the required goal. The study throws light on the pedagogical implication of adopting appropriate methods and materials for building the learnersā grammar and language. It primarily intends to explore a new teaching method using language corpora that can be employed in the English grammar classes in colleges at the undergraduate level. It strives to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching sentence patterns through corpus-based activities comparing with the traditional based teaching. Thus, the methodology aims to encourage students to become independent corpus users.
A Comparative Study of American English File and New Headway English CourseAJHSSR Journal
Ā
ABSTRACT: Textbooks play an essential role in the language learning process. The difficulty is that among a wide range of textbooks in the market,there are a lot ofoptions which make the process of book selection even harder. Therefore, book evaluation is a vital process, and it has great impact on the process of learning and teaching. In order to evaluate ELT textbooks, theorists and writers have offered different kinds of evaluative frameworks based on a number of principles and criteria. To this end, two EFL textbooks namely New Headway English Courseand American English File which are commonly taught in language institutes in Iranwere selected for evaluation by seeking the teachersā viewpoints on the effectiveness of the two textbooks. Twenty ELT teachers helped the researcher rate the evaluative checklists. A modified version of [1] teacher textbook evaluation form was used to collect data.The results indicated that the differences between the two textbooks were not significant in four features including practical considerations, layout and design, activities, and skills, but they proved to be different in some other features including language type as well as subject and content.
Lexical Repetition and Written Textās Unity from Gender Perspective: A Case o...AJHSSR Journal
Ā
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written compositionās unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the studentsā written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written compositionās unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the studentsā written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
This is an experimental study based on exploring the effectiveness of task based language teaching (TBLT) in improving graduate studentsā descriptive writing as well as their perception of task based language teaching. The accessible population taken in this study is 410 students enrolled in Graduation at Khawja Fareed Govt. Post Graduate College Rahim Yar Khan. 60 male students have been administered a TOEFL structure test to bring homogeneity. They have been divided into two equal groups randomly. Thus two groups were formed one the treatment group and the other control one. Experimental and control class data were collected through written tests and questionnaires. Written pre and post tests were administered to both classes. Questionnaires were given to the students in experimental group after each of 12 treatment tasks. Data from written pre and post-test and questionnaires were analysed quantitatively. Percentage analysis was run to observe improvement between the groups. Test results revealed highly significant difference in favour of the treatment group. The study also demonstrated treatment groupsā general perception of task based language teaching positively. Findings of this study are inspiring for the teachers to adopt task based language teaching to improve studentsā descriptive writing.
This document summarizes research on English language learning in Malaysia. It discusses studies that examine English learning as the mastery of autonomous skills, such as grammar and writing. Research shows students struggle with English grammar due to interference from their first language, Malay. Studies also find teaching focuses on exam preparation rather than communication. Research on higher education indicates students lack skills like note-taking, critical thinking, and vocabulary needed for university. Overall, the document reviews literature that conceptualizes English learning as acquiring discrete skills rather than a social practice.
A statistical analysis of corpus based approach on learning sentence patterns IJECEIAES
Ā
This research paper examines the adverse effect of theoretical explanation of the grammatical rules among the learners. Exploration of the methods and materials taught inductively or deductively is the panacea to achieve the required goal. The study throws light on the pedagogical implication of adopting appropriate methods and materials for building the learnersā grammar and language. It primarily intends to explore a new teaching method using language corpora that can be employed in the English grammar classes in colleges at the undergraduate level. It strives to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching sentence patterns through corpus-based activities comparing with the traditional based teaching. Thus, the methodology aims to encourage students to become independent corpus users.
A Comparative Study of American English File and New Headway English CourseAJHSSR Journal
Ā
ABSTRACT: Textbooks play an essential role in the language learning process. The difficulty is that among a wide range of textbooks in the market,there are a lot ofoptions which make the process of book selection even harder. Therefore, book evaluation is a vital process, and it has great impact on the process of learning and teaching. In order to evaluate ELT textbooks, theorists and writers have offered different kinds of evaluative frameworks based on a number of principles and criteria. To this end, two EFL textbooks namely New Headway English Courseand American English File which are commonly taught in language institutes in Iranwere selected for evaluation by seeking the teachersā viewpoints on the effectiveness of the two textbooks. Twenty ELT teachers helped the researcher rate the evaluative checklists. A modified version of [1] teacher textbook evaluation form was used to collect data.The results indicated that the differences between the two textbooks were not significant in four features including practical considerations, layout and design, activities, and skills, but they proved to be different in some other features including language type as well as subject and content.
Lexical Repetition and Written Textās Unity from Gender Perspective: A Case o...AJHSSR Journal
Ā
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written compositionās unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the studentsā written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
This research aims at investigating lexical repetition and written compositionās unity produced by 60 Male and female students studying Languages and Translation at the University of Tabuk in Saudi Arabia for the academic year 2018 / 2019. The sample of the study was selected randomly. This study involves two research instruments are; Hoey's (1991) Matrix of Lexical Cohesion and a Semi-structured Interview. The findings indicated that lexical repetition plays a great role in the unity and coherence of the studentsā written compositions. This research recommends that further research be conducted to investigate other types of dialogues.
This study analyzed teacher-student interactions in two Korean middle school English classrooms over two weeks. The researcher recorded and transcribed 16 total class sessions to identify patterns in teacher talk, including eliciting responses from students, asking questions, and providing feedback. The analysis found that teacher talk dominated classroom interactions, while student responses were relatively low. However, the patterns of teacher-student exchange could vary depending on factors like the lesson or the teacher's intentions.
An Evaluation of the New Interchange SeriesAJHSSR Journal
Ā
ABSTRACT: In language teaching and learning, textbooks can play a very important role. As Riazi (2002)
stated,textbooks are the second effective factor in every classroom after the teacher. Therefore, choosing an
appropriate textbook for a class has been one of the most essential tasks for teachers and curriculum planners.
Thus, it is clear that evaluating a textbook is of great importance in order to achieve the desired objectives.In
this paper, Littlejohnās framework (1998) is employed in this attempt with the aim of evaluating the New
Interchange Serieswritten by Richards, Hull and Proctor (2006). This framework evaluates theselected textbook
regardless of how it is used in the classroom. In sum, the analysis indicated that the New Interchange
Seriesdonātemploy learners or the teachers as a source for its content; rather, they pay attention mainly on pair
works and meaning. They also encourage students to use the language, andmore importantly they usually
require them to talk and discuss rather than to be a listener.However, there were some parts, including
retrieving, repetition and written extended discourse, that need to be taken into better consideration.
A Study of the Effects of Competitive Team-Based Learning and Structured Academic Controversy on the Language Proficiency of Iranian EFL College Seniors
Seyed Mohammad Hassan Hosseini, PhD (TESOL)
E-mail: mhhosseini73@yahoo.com
ā¢ This article was published at the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3 (2012): 54-69.
See http://beyondelt.blogfa.com
This study attempted to examine the effects of flipped classroom instruction on Iranian EFL learnersā writing skill. To fulfill the objective of the study, 48 Iranian upper-intermediate participants were selected through administrating the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Then, they were divided into two groups; one experimental group and one control group. Then, both groups were pretested by a writing test. After that, the researcher put the participants of the experimental group in a flipped classroom. The flipped classroom was equipped with Internet, computer and projector and participants in this classroom were allowed to bring their Smartphones to the classroom and use them during learning. The control group was exposed to traditional instruction in the class. This procedure continued till the last session. The results of independent samples t-test and one-way ANCOCA revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on the post-test. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the performances of the experimental group and the control group on the post-test.
Identifying gaps in academic writing of esl studentsRosmah Mustaffa
Ā
The document summarizes a study that investigated gaps in academic writing skills among English as a Second Language (ESL) students in a foundation studies program. The study examined 206 students' perceptions of academic writing challenges through feedback forms and analyzed students' writing assignments and instructor reflections to identify common errors. Key findings were that most students enjoyed writing tasks and working with peers to develop ideas, though many were unable to adequately evaluate their own work. The study aims to propose instructional strategies to better support ESL students' academic writing development.
Identifying gaps in academic writing of esl studentsRosmah Mustaffa
Ā
The document summarizes a study that investigated gaps in academic writing skills among ESL students in a foundation studies program. The study examined 206 students' perceptions of and challenges with academic writing. It identified common errors in students' writing and proposed techniques to support student writing. Key findings included that most students enjoyed writing tasks but many were unable to self-evaluate their work. The study aimed to develop instructional strategies to improve ESL students' academic writing abilities.
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Ā
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. Thatās why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
The document analyzes classroom discourse in four College English classes in China. It finds that teacher talk dominates class time, averaging 68.9% of class periods. The dominant discourse structure is Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF), accounting for 77.7% of exchanges. Teachers primarily use display questions that test recall of known information, rather than referential questions that elicit new student responses. The study aims to understand features of classroom discourse and offer suggestions for teachers to encourage more student talk.
The document summarizes a study that compares the effectiveness of two vocabulary learning strategies during reading: 1) a word-based strategy where students read target words aloud, and 2) a text-based strategy where students read silently. 46 Iranian EFL students were randomly assigned to either the word-based or text-based condition. Students were given passages containing underlined target words. The word-based group read the words aloud, while the text-based group read silently. Students were then tested on spelling, meaning, and text recall of the target words. The results showed the word-based strategy led to significantly better spelling and meaning learning of the words compared to the text-based strategy.
The document provides an overview of the historical evolution of theoretical grammar, covering four main approaches:
1) Traditional grammar focused on prescriptive rules based on Latin grammar and classified words into parts of speech. It described English syntax but was not suitable for describing the language.
2) Structural grammar rejected the mentalistic approach and focused on observable structures like phonemes and morphemes. It emphasized synchronic analysis and descriptive rules.
3) Transformational-generative grammar proposed that sentences are generated from deep structures through transformations. It aimed to distinguish competence from performance and generate all grammatical sentences.
4) Pedagogical grammar examines the implications of different theories for language teaching and learning. The researcher analyzes
The study investigated collaborative writing in an ESL classroom. Students were given a choice to write individually or in pairs on a short writing task. Pairs produced shorter but better quality texts than individuals in terms of task fulfillment, accuracy, and complexity. Collaboration allowed students to share ideas and provide feedback to each other. Most students viewed the collaborative experience positively, though some had reservations.
A case study on college english classroom discourseAzam Almubarki
Ā
This document analyzes classroom discourse in college English classes in China. It discusses how classroom discourse is studied through analyzing the amount of teacher talk, the initiation-response-feedback structure of exchanges, and types of teacher questions. The study collected audio recordings and observations from 4 teachers and their classes totaling 200 students. It analyzed the recorded discourse based on amount of teacher talk, discourse structure, and question types. The findings showed the classes were still teacher-oriented, with teachers controlling the subject matter and students in a passive role.
The aims of this study were to investigate the employment of Other-Initiated Repair Strategies (OIR Strategies) in solving understanding problem in EFL learnersā conversation and to examine the kinds of trouble sources that prompt the employment of OIR Strategies. The participants were nine EFL learners participating in a speaking class in small university in Indonesia. To elicit the learnersā conversations two communicative tasks, Spot the Difference and Desert Island were used. The learnersā conversations during task performance were video-recorded, then, transcribed using the conventions proposed by Markee (2000) and analyzed qualitatively using Conversation Analysis method. The results showed that EFL learners managed to employ eight types of OIR Strategies comprising of 62 instances in total. The strategies are unspecified repair, interrogative repair, partial repeat plus a question word repair, partial repeat repair, understanding check repair, request for repetition, request for definition, and correction repair. Three different types of trouble sources triggered the use of OIR Strategies, namely linguistic-related problem, interactional-related problem, and meaning-related problem. The study demonstrated that by employing different OIR Strategies, even EFL learners with limited proficiency in English managed to take initiatives to overcome the understanding problem in conversations as part of their learning process. Therefore, the EFL teachers need to consider incorporating the teaching of OIR Strategies as part of their speaking class to improve the studentsā fluency.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated instructor practices and student attitudes toward error feedback, or "error treatment", in second language writing courses. The study examined (1) what percentage of errors instructors marked in student work and why, and (2) student preferences between selective or comprehensive error treatment. Interviews with instructors and students revealed that instructors varied in their approaches but were flexible based on context, and students preferred comprehensive feedback but were satisfied with selective feedback from one instructor. The study also found discrepancies between how instructors and students described the same instructor's approach.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
L & L Energy's (LLEN) Dickson Lee Sentencing Memorandum - 2015GeoInvesting LLC
Ā
This document is a government sentencing memo recommending a 60 month prison sentence for Dickson Lee, the founder and CEO of coal company L&L Energy. It summarizes that Lee pled guilty to securities fraud for fabricating the existence of a CFO and lying on SEC filings to fraudulently obtain a NASDAQ listing, which boosted the company's stock price. It also claims that later, with the company desperate for cash, Lee secretly issued and dumped over 500,000 shares on the market without disclosure. The memo argues the fraud was severe and undermined market integrity, and that the sentencing guidelines fail to capture the full severity of Lee's actions.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
Ā
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
This study analyzed teacher-student interactions in two Korean middle school English classrooms over two weeks. The researcher recorded and transcribed 16 total class sessions to identify patterns in teacher talk, including eliciting responses from students, asking questions, and providing feedback. The analysis found that teacher talk dominated classroom interactions, while student responses were relatively low. However, the patterns of teacher-student exchange could vary depending on factors like the lesson or the teacher's intentions.
An Evaluation of the New Interchange SeriesAJHSSR Journal
Ā
ABSTRACT: In language teaching and learning, textbooks can play a very important role. As Riazi (2002)
stated,textbooks are the second effective factor in every classroom after the teacher. Therefore, choosing an
appropriate textbook for a class has been one of the most essential tasks for teachers and curriculum planners.
Thus, it is clear that evaluating a textbook is of great importance in order to achieve the desired objectives.In
this paper, Littlejohnās framework (1998) is employed in this attempt with the aim of evaluating the New
Interchange Serieswritten by Richards, Hull and Proctor (2006). This framework evaluates theselected textbook
regardless of how it is used in the classroom. In sum, the analysis indicated that the New Interchange
Seriesdonātemploy learners or the teachers as a source for its content; rather, they pay attention mainly on pair
works and meaning. They also encourage students to use the language, andmore importantly they usually
require them to talk and discuss rather than to be a listener.However, there were some parts, including
retrieving, repetition and written extended discourse, that need to be taken into better consideration.
A Study of the Effects of Competitive Team-Based Learning and Structured Academic Controversy on the Language Proficiency of Iranian EFL College Seniors
Seyed Mohammad Hassan Hosseini, PhD (TESOL)
E-mail: mhhosseini73@yahoo.com
ā¢ This article was published at the International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 3 (2012): 54-69.
See http://beyondelt.blogfa.com
This study attempted to examine the effects of flipped classroom instruction on Iranian EFL learnersā writing skill. To fulfill the objective of the study, 48 Iranian upper-intermediate participants were selected through administrating the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). Then, they were divided into two groups; one experimental group and one control group. Then, both groups were pretested by a writing test. After that, the researcher put the participants of the experimental group in a flipped classroom. The flipped classroom was equipped with Internet, computer and projector and participants in this classroom were allowed to bring their Smartphones to the classroom and use them during learning. The control group was exposed to traditional instruction in the class. This procedure continued till the last session. The results of independent samples t-test and one-way ANCOCA revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on the post-test. In addition, the results showed that there was a significant difference between the performances of the experimental group and the control group on the post-test.
Identifying gaps in academic writing of esl studentsRosmah Mustaffa
Ā
The document summarizes a study that investigated gaps in academic writing skills among English as a Second Language (ESL) students in a foundation studies program. The study examined 206 students' perceptions of academic writing challenges through feedback forms and analyzed students' writing assignments and instructor reflections to identify common errors. Key findings were that most students enjoyed writing tasks and working with peers to develop ideas, though many were unable to adequately evaluate their own work. The study aims to propose instructional strategies to better support ESL students' academic writing development.
Identifying gaps in academic writing of esl studentsRosmah Mustaffa
Ā
The document summarizes a study that investigated gaps in academic writing skills among ESL students in a foundation studies program. The study examined 206 students' perceptions of and challenges with academic writing. It identified common errors in students' writing and proposed techniques to support student writing. Key findings included that most students enjoyed writing tasks but many were unable to self-evaluate their work. The study aimed to develop instructional strategies to improve ESL students' academic writing abilities.
The Effects of Communicative Language Teaching approach (CLT) on Grammar Teac...AJSERJournal
Ā
Grammar Translation Method or GTM, which greatly supports students for grammar-based written tests,
is the priority way of grammar teaching in Vietnam. Thatās why many students are gradually lacking communication
abilities. In the light of Communicative Language Teaching approach or CLT, grammar is now taught in more
interesting ways. Lately, many studies have found that teaching and learning grammar in communicative contexts
helps students gain better level of language proficiency especially more fluent and accurate speaking skill. Therefore,
this paper aims to evaluate the impact of CLT in grammar instruction for first year English majored students at Dong
Nai Technology University. In addition, how students respond to the lessons instructed by CLT method is also fully
described in the paper. The results show that CLT approach brings many benefits for EFL students. Moreover, students
gain strong motivation and positive attitude through the lessons with CLT
American Research Journal of Humanities & Social Science (ARJHSS) is a double blind peer reviewed, open access journal published by (ARJHSS).
The main objective of ARJHSS is to provide an intellectual platform for the international scholars. ARJHSS aims to promote interdisciplinary studies in Humanities & Social Science and become the leading journal in Humanities & Social Science in the world.
The document analyzes classroom discourse in four College English classes in China. It finds that teacher talk dominates class time, averaging 68.9% of class periods. The dominant discourse structure is Initiation-Response-Feedback (IRF), accounting for 77.7% of exchanges. Teachers primarily use display questions that test recall of known information, rather than referential questions that elicit new student responses. The study aims to understand features of classroom discourse and offer suggestions for teachers to encourage more student talk.
The document summarizes a study that compares the effectiveness of two vocabulary learning strategies during reading: 1) a word-based strategy where students read target words aloud, and 2) a text-based strategy where students read silently. 46 Iranian EFL students were randomly assigned to either the word-based or text-based condition. Students were given passages containing underlined target words. The word-based group read the words aloud, while the text-based group read silently. Students were then tested on spelling, meaning, and text recall of the target words. The results showed the word-based strategy led to significantly better spelling and meaning learning of the words compared to the text-based strategy.
The document provides an overview of the historical evolution of theoretical grammar, covering four main approaches:
1) Traditional grammar focused on prescriptive rules based on Latin grammar and classified words into parts of speech. It described English syntax but was not suitable for describing the language.
2) Structural grammar rejected the mentalistic approach and focused on observable structures like phonemes and morphemes. It emphasized synchronic analysis and descriptive rules.
3) Transformational-generative grammar proposed that sentences are generated from deep structures through transformations. It aimed to distinguish competence from performance and generate all grammatical sentences.
4) Pedagogical grammar examines the implications of different theories for language teaching and learning. The researcher analyzes
The study investigated collaborative writing in an ESL classroom. Students were given a choice to write individually or in pairs on a short writing task. Pairs produced shorter but better quality texts than individuals in terms of task fulfillment, accuracy, and complexity. Collaboration allowed students to share ideas and provide feedback to each other. Most students viewed the collaborative experience positively, though some had reservations.
A case study on college english classroom discourseAzam Almubarki
Ā
This document analyzes classroom discourse in college English classes in China. It discusses how classroom discourse is studied through analyzing the amount of teacher talk, the initiation-response-feedback structure of exchanges, and types of teacher questions. The study collected audio recordings and observations from 4 teachers and their classes totaling 200 students. It analyzed the recorded discourse based on amount of teacher talk, discourse structure, and question types. The findings showed the classes were still teacher-oriented, with teachers controlling the subject matter and students in a passive role.
The aims of this study were to investigate the employment of Other-Initiated Repair Strategies (OIR Strategies) in solving understanding problem in EFL learnersā conversation and to examine the kinds of trouble sources that prompt the employment of OIR Strategies. The participants were nine EFL learners participating in a speaking class in small university in Indonesia. To elicit the learnersā conversations two communicative tasks, Spot the Difference and Desert Island were used. The learnersā conversations during task performance were video-recorded, then, transcribed using the conventions proposed by Markee (2000) and analyzed qualitatively using Conversation Analysis method. The results showed that EFL learners managed to employ eight types of OIR Strategies comprising of 62 instances in total. The strategies are unspecified repair, interrogative repair, partial repeat plus a question word repair, partial repeat repair, understanding check repair, request for repetition, request for definition, and correction repair. Three different types of trouble sources triggered the use of OIR Strategies, namely linguistic-related problem, interactional-related problem, and meaning-related problem. The study demonstrated that by employing different OIR Strategies, even EFL learners with limited proficiency in English managed to take initiatives to overcome the understanding problem in conversations as part of their learning process. Therefore, the EFL teachers need to consider incorporating the teaching of OIR Strategies as part of their speaking class to improve the studentsā fluency.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated instructor practices and student attitudes toward error feedback, or "error treatment", in second language writing courses. The study examined (1) what percentage of errors instructors marked in student work and why, and (2) student preferences between selective or comprehensive error treatment. Interviews with instructors and students revealed that instructors varied in their approaches but were flexible based on context, and students preferred comprehensive feedback but were satisfied with selective feedback from one instructor. The study also found discrepancies between how instructors and students described the same instructor's approach.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
L & L Energy's (LLEN) Dickson Lee Sentencing Memorandum - 2015GeoInvesting LLC
Ā
This document is a government sentencing memo recommending a 60 month prison sentence for Dickson Lee, the founder and CEO of coal company L&L Energy. It summarizes that Lee pled guilty to securities fraud for fabricating the existence of a CFO and lying on SEC filings to fraudulently obtain a NASDAQ listing, which boosted the company's stock price. It also claims that later, with the company desperate for cash, Lee secretly issued and dumped over 500,000 shares on the market without disclosure. The memo argues the fraud was severe and undermined market integrity, and that the sentencing guidelines fail to capture the full severity of Lee's actions.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
Ā
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
Ā
This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
Ā
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
Ā
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
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This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
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Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
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Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
The document summarizes a study that examined undergraduate students' attitudes towards the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context at SBK Women's University in Quetta, Pakistan. A questionnaire was administered to 150 female undergraduate students to understand their perspectives. The results showed that students had a generally positive attitude towards GTM, finding grammar instruction and rules to be important. Their attitude was less favorable towards CLT approaches, though they acknowledged the value of practical exercises and communicating outside the classroom. Overall, the study provides insight into which language teaching methods Pakistani undergraduate students view more positively.
This document summarizes an academic journal article that explores the beliefs of two exemplary Thai EFL teachers toward teaching efficacy. The following key points are made:
1. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two Thai university EFL teachers who had received teaching awards to understand their pedagogical beliefs and practices.
2. Both teachers agreed that eclectic teaching methods combining different techniques were most effective. They also agreed that teaching grammar cannot be ignored.
3. While the teachers differed on using Thai or English as the language of instruction, they both stressed the importance of building trust with students and emphasizing the importance and utility of English knowledge.
The document summarizes an interview study exploring the beliefs of two exemplary Thai EFL teachers toward teaching efficacy. The key findings from interviews with the teachers are:
1. Both teachers believed building trust with students is important for effective teaching and emphasized using the target language and being available to students.
2. The teachers agreed grammar instruction is important but should be taught based on students' needs and proficiency.
3. They saw their role as inspiring students through meticulous teaching and serving as a role model who uses English.
4. The teachers suggested following curriculum with caution and adapting it to students' needs but saw assessing learning as important to do following university guidelines.
Adopting An SFL Approach To Teaching L2 Writing Through The Teaching Learning...Mary Calkins
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This document summarizes a study that applied a Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) model to explore how 27 first-year Japanese university students improved their writing of analytical exposition essays during a 15-week English course using the Teaching Learning Cycle (TLC) approach. The study assessed students' understanding of metafunctions (ideational, experiential, and textual meanings) and linguistic resources in their pre- and post-essays. The results demonstrated that applying an SFL framework for writing assessment can explicitly examine students' improvements in understanding the target genre of essay writing.
Analyzing Verbs In The Discussion Section Of Master S Theses Written By Irani...Jim Jimenez
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This study analyzes the verbs used in the discussion section of 60 master's theses written by Iranian students studying English as a foreign language. The theses were categorized based on their research approach as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. The verbs were analyzed based on their reporting or nonreporting status, as well as their tense, aspect, and voice. The findings showed there were no differences in verb use across the different research approaches, except for a higher use of progressive aspect for reporting verbs in qualitative theses and passive voice for nonreporting verbs in mixed methods theses. The study aims to contribute to understanding of verb use in academic writing by non-native English speakers.
A comparison between elt and ell graduates with regard to their perceptions o...Alexander Decker
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This document compares the perceptions of effective teaching behaviors between graduates from two English teacher training programs in Turkey - the English Language Teaching (ELT) department and the English Language and Literature (ELL) department. The ELT program spreads methodology courses across four years, while the ELL program concentrates these courses into the final 1.5 years. A questionnaire was administered to 22 ELT and 22 ELL pre-service teachers to investigate differences in their perceptions. Interviews were also conducted with 4 participants from each group. The study aims to determine if perceptions differ between the two groups who receive different amounts and timing of methodology training.
A comparison between elt and ell graduates with regard to their perceptions o...Alexander Decker
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This document reports on a study that compared the perceptions of effective teacher behaviors between graduates from two English teacher preparation programs in Turkey: the English Language and Literature (ELL) department and the English Language Teaching (ELT) department. The study administered a questionnaire to ELL and ELT pre-service teachers and conducted independent samples t-tests to analyze differences between the groups. Interviews were also conducted with select participants. The results found no significant differences between the groups' perceptions of most categories, except for error correction, where perceptions differed significantly.
An Investigation Into The Grammatical Errors Of Students WritingNicole Adams
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11.[22 32]a means to improve language skills and encourage student engagement...Alexander Decker
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This study explored the grammatical development of 30 Iranian university students through mobile assisted language learning using Telegram. The students took a pre-test before receiving instructor feedback via Telegram for 8 weeks. After, they took a post-test which showed significant improvement in their grammatical accuracy. Interviews found that students found the mobile learning convenient and helpful for improving their grammar. The study demonstrated that instructor feedback through mobile applications can effectively help develop L2 learners' grammar.
This study investigated the effects of strategy-based instruction on developing learner autonomy and improving writing ability. 37 students received an 8-week metacognition training program focused on planning, monitoring, and evaluating writing tasks, while 54 students served as controls. Students who received training improved their use of metacognitive strategies and writing ability more than the control groups. The training group maintained improvements on a delayed writing test. The study suggests that strategy-based instruction can effectively promote learner autonomy and writing skills.
The document discusses three cognitive linguistic approaches to teaching vocabulary to EFL learners: categorization, prototype, and metaphor. Categorization involves grouping words based on similarities. The prototype approach recognizes that some words are better representations of categories than others. Metaphor allows words to take on figurative meanings beyond their literal definitions. Studies have found that lessons applying these cognitive linguistic concepts can improve students' vocabulary retention compared to traditional memorization methods.
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Perceived Satisfaction on Learning Environment of Science-based and Non- Scie...Dhanapala R.M.
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Abstract- The emphasis placed for Learning Environment and Resources in ELT study programmes has not been duly recognized although they are so immense for the improvement of ESL proficiency of university students. This study was a survey research in nature and was a part of the PhD study conducted in selected peripheral universities in Sri Lanka. In the study, five areas namely; convenience of lecture room facilities, availability of technology and other resources, availability of language laboratory facilities, convenience of library facilities, and convenience of time tabling and allocation of periods were tested with special reference to Science-based and Non science- based faculties. Descriptive analysis of data using SPSS software was performed in the study. Based on the results, students of Science-based faculties have shown almost equally high and moderate satisfaction for most of the areas. In contrast, Non science-based faculties needed further improvements in selected cases as the studentsā satisfaction was low and moderate in majority of the cases in addition to few values of high satisfaction in limited cases.
The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of Task Base Language Teaching (TBLT) on tertiary ESOL learnersā academic writing achievement in tertiary level. Therefore, the experimental research was applied to this study. The control group was taught through Classical Method (CM) while the experiment group was taught through Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) method. Furthermore, the pre-test and post-test were administered to students in control group and experiment group (30 students in each group). The data were tabulated by employing t-test in Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21. Based on the data analysis, the result indicated that the null hypothesis (Ho) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted. It can be concluded that there was a significant effect of Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) method on tertiary ESOL learnersā writing achievement compared to Classical Method (CM) of teaching.
This summary provides an overview of recent developments in research on teaching grammar:
1) With the rise of communicative language teaching, the role of explicit grammar instruction was downplayed. However, recent research demonstrates the need for formal grammar instruction for learners to develop accuracy.
2) The chapter examines two issues: whether grammar teaching makes a difference, and what types of grammar teaching facilitate learning. It reviews research on integrating formal instruction with communicative activities.
3) While some arguments were made against teaching grammar, current research supports the role of grammar instruction. Noticing grammar helps learning, learners have developmental sequences, meaning-focused teaching is insufficient, and studies show instruction's positive effects on accuracy.
An evaluation of_communicative_language_teaching_in_bangladeshAbdus Sobhan
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This document summarizes a study that evaluates Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Bangladesh. The study uses a mixed methodology including questionnaires and interviews to examine CLT implementation at the secondary level. Specifically, it aims to understand teachers' perceptions of CLT principles, whether they have moved from traditional teaching views, and what training is needed for successful CLT. The summary identifies challenges implementing CLT in Bangladesh and objectives to improve English teaching and learning based on observations of teachers, students, teaching methods and materials.
Exploring ESL Teacher Beliefs and Classroom Practices of CLT: A Case StudyMohammad Mosiur Rahman
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This paper presents a case study that investigated and compared the stated beliefs
and observed classroom practices relating to Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT) of two ESL teachers. The findings of the study revealed that both the
teachers hold similar complex beliefs that mostly contradict the philosophy of
CLT. The practices were not in line with their stated belief or CLT principles
either. The findings also indicate that teachers indeed possess a set of complex
beliefs that are not always realized in their classroom practices for a variety of
potential reasons: some of these might be directly related to the context of
teaching. Additionally, this study found that by articulating and reflecting on his
beliefs, the teacher became more aware of the meaning and impact of these beliefs on his classroom practices. Some implications of future studies have also discussed.
Running head THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 1 .docxtoltonkendal
Ā
Running head: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 1
The Effectiveness of Using a Narrative Input Chart on Learning Advanced Vocabulary
Student Name
EDGR 601
Instructor: Instructor Name
A Literature Survey Presented to
The Graduate Program in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Masters in Education
Concordia University - Portland
May, 2012
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 2
Literature Review
This literature review was undertaken in an effort to investigate the question: how does
the use of narrative input charts improve the understanding of advanced science vocabulary
among seventh grade science students? In order for students to be ready for entry level college
coursework they must have excellent reading comprehension skills. The relationship between
vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is herein considered. Additionally, ineffective
and effective vocabulary instruction strategies are described.
In 2005, ACT college admissions test results showed that high school students in the
United States do not have the reading comprehension skills needed for entry level college
coursework (ACT, Inc. 2006). According to the 2005 ACT-scores for high school graduates,
51% were ready for college level reading (ACT, Inc. 2006). The percentage of college readiness
was even lower for some groups. It is known that 49% of male students demonstrated readiness
and 33% of students with family incomes less than $30, 000/year demonstrated readiness.
Minority studentās scores were low as well. The results showed that 21% African American,
33% Hispanic, and 36% Native American students met the readiness benchmark for reading
(ACT, Inc. 2006). ACT further reports that since 1996 scores have steadily declined resulting in
the 51% being the lowest in the past twelve years (ACT, Inc. 2006).
The Relationship between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension
In this literature review the relationship between the acquisition of academic vocabulary
and improved reading comprehension is examined. The purpose of learning new words is to
improve reading comprehension (Beck, McKowen & Kucan, 2008). Many research studies
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NARRATIVE INPUT CHARTS 3
conducted over the course of many years have concluded that acquiring rich and varied
vocabulary is critical in improving student reading comprehension (National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). Harmon,
Hedrick and Wood (2005) report that student difficulty in understanding their textbooks results
from a lack of vocabulary knowledge. It has been shown that students that received high scores
on vocabulary tests also scored high on reading comprehension tests. It is also known that early
vocabulary knowledge can predict reading comprehension skills well into high school (Beck et
al., 2008). Of g ...
Applying Corpus-Based Findings To Form-Focused Instruction The Case Of Repor...Justin Knight
Ā
The document summarizes a study that compared how reported speech is presented in English language textbooks versus how it is used in real language based on corpus data. The study found that textbooks focus mainly on indirect reported speech and backshifting verbs to past tense, but neglect many structures used in natural language. Corpus data from two studies of reported speech was then used to identify 10 principles for how it should be taught. The document proposes applying these corpus-based findings to design classroom activities and materials for teaching reported speech that are grounded in theories of second language acquisition.
Similar to 11.scaffolding english l0002www.iiste.org call for paper academic reading through contextualized grammar (20)
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This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
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A study to evaluate the attitude of faculty members of public universities of...Alexander Decker
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This study evaluated faculty members' attitudes toward shared governance in public universities in Pakistan. It used a questionnaire to assess attitudes on 4 indicators of shared governance: the role of the dean, role of faculty, role of the board, and role of joint decision-making. The study analyzed responses from 90 faculty across various universities. Statistical analysis found significant differences in perceptions of shared governance based on faculty rank and gender. Faculty rank influenced perceptions of the dean's role and role of joint decision-making. Gender influenced overall perceptions of shared governance. The results indicate a need to improve shared governance practices in Pakistani universities.
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Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
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The History of NZ 1870-1900.
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"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
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The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analyticsā feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
11.scaffolding english l0002www.iiste.org call for paper academic reading through contextualized grammar
1. Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 3, No 5, 2012
Scaffolding English L2 Academic Reading through
Contextualized Grammar
Saksit Saengboon
School of Language and Communication, the National Institute of Development Administration
(NIDA), 118 Serithai Road, Bangkapi, Bangkok 10240, Thailand
E-mail: saksit2505@gmail.com
Abstract
This study investigated the perceptions of Thai EFL students at the university level towards their
English learning experiences. The two-pronged approach to data collection comprised a 27-item
questionnaire administered to graduate students (n = 26) enrolled in an academic reading class and,
following the dictum of triangulation, semi-structured interviews with three participants representing
three levels of English proficiency. Aiming to shed light on the role of contextualized grammar in an
academic reading class, the findings suggest that most participants considered course contents (e.g.,
analyzing sentences and locating main ideas) of great benefit. Moreover, doing focus-on-form
exercises enabled them to see how English sentences were strung together to form a holistic meaning.
In conjunction with this are the reported appropriate use of learning strategies and supportive teaching
performances which helped them to realize that English L2 academic reading through contextualized
grammar is useful and practical.
Key words: perceptions; contextualized grammar; English L2 academic reading
1. Introduction
The issue of grammar teaching in the L2 English class has received considerable attention. In fact,
there have been arguments and counterarguments concerning the exact nature of grammar teaching
(Batstone & Ellis, 2009). According to Macaro (2010), grammar has always been the sine qua non of
language learningāfirst and second. He argues that second language acquisition landscape includes
ā[t]he acquisition of the rule systemā¦[t]he development of language skillsā¦[t]he beliefs that teachers
and learners hold about second language learningā¦ā(p. 9). Suffice it to say that grammar teaching is a
topic worth investigating, especially given the English as a foreign language context to which most, if
not all, Thai learners of English belong.
This study examined the perceptions of a group of Thai EFL learners at tertiary level towards English
grammar teaching in an academic reading class. This line of research should be of sufficient relevancy
given that the L2 teaching landscape has shifted from āmethod to postmethodā (Kumaravadivelu,
2006), suggesting that close attention should be paid more to factors other than the so-called best
teaching method. That is, of equal significance is a study on L2 learnersā perceptions that potentially
inform existing pedagogical practices. It is believed that findings reported in this study could shed light
on the current teaching of LC 4001: Reading Skills Development in English for Graduate Studies, an
English foundation course that the participants of this study enrolled in. Granted the focus of this study,
it sought to answer the following research question:
What are salient perceptions of the participants towards course contents, their learning strategies, and
teaching performances?
2. Focused Literature Review
2.1. Formal instruction
Saying that language learning cannot occur without some input is stating the obvious. But several
second language acquisition researchers (e.g., Doughty & Varela, 1998; Muranoi, 2000) have pointed
out that second language (L2) learners need not only natural language input but also sufficient
opportunity to be taught grammar if they are to succeed in their L2 endeavors, construed as being
fluent and accurate alike. That is to say, teacher intervention in the form of grammar instruction may
yield educational benefits to students because some linguistic features need to be made salient for
noticing by L2 learners; they cannot afford to be āpicked upā by learners themselves.
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2.2. Grammar
In this study, grammar is defined as a type of focus on form, which according to Doughty and Williams
(1998), refers to the explanation of language structures not as an end in themselves but as ones used in
combination with meanings and functions. Hence, grammar as used in this investigation entails not
only authentic text but also context of use. In this sense, the focus of this study is on descriptive and
discourse grammar, a topic discussed below.
2.2.1.Descriptive grammar
DeCarrico and Larsen-Freeman (2002) explain that descriptive grammar, unlike prescriptive grammar,
focuses on how people, not the grammar book, go about using language in real-life situations.
Grammar rules serve as āā¦a blueprint for building well-formed structuresā¦ this approach focuses on
how native speakers actually do speak and does not prescribe how they ought to speakā (p. 19). In this
regard, descriptive grammar does not pass any value judgment, similar to the tenet of sociolinguistics
that stresses that all language forms in real use are of equal importance and dignity.
2.2.2. Discourse grammar
Similar to descriptive grammar, discourse grammar, both spoken and written, takes into consideration
language forms, functions and its uses in various contexts. DeCarrico and Larsen-Freeman (2002) put
forth that in discourse grammar, analysis is placed on the functional roles of grammatical structures in
discourse. āSpeakers and writers make grammatical choices that depend on contextual features and
how they wish to position themselves in the worldā (p. 24).
Studies abound in which the role and efficacy of grammar teaching in an ESL/EFL classroom are
investigated (Loewen, 2004; McDonough, 2004; Norris & Ortega, 2001). Such studies, however,
concern grammar classes mostly taught by native speaker teachers, although the interactions under
study have been between non-native speaker learners with other non-native speaker learners in either
homogenous or heterogeneous classes.
In the next section, I will discuss studies conducted to date concerning the role of grammar instruction
in an L2 classroom.
2.3. Studies about grammar instruction
The past decade has witnessed an array of studies focusing on the role of grammar instruction in an L2
classroom (e.g., Erlam, 2003; Han, 2002). For example, Erlam (2003) investigated the effects of
deductive and inductive instruction on the acquisition of direct object pronouns in French as a second
language. She defined deductive teaching as isolated grammar instruction involving rule presentation
and metalinguistic information, and inductive teaching as the teaching that focuses on meaning without
explicit grammar instruction. The study also investigated the interaction between type of instruction
and the morphological and syntactical features involved in the grammatical features under the study.
The results revealed that those subjects in the deductive instructional group performed better at the
task. Moreover, this study highlighted the difficulty of designing language measures that access
implicit language knowledge.
Han (2002) conducted a small-scale study of recastsāa form of corrective feedbackāemploying eight
adult L2 learners of English. These subjects were asked to complete written and oral narratives, and
with the recasts provided by the instructor, they were able to improve their grammatical accuracy. More
specifically, conditions that appeared to enable them to improve their grammar through the tasks
provided were individualized attention, consistent focus and developmental readiness. Consistent focus
refers to the pedagogical focus for the recast group during the instruction period (test consistency).
āDuring the instruction sessions, the subjects consistently received recasts whenever the researcher
noticed instances of tense inconsistency in their oral narratives,ā as Han (2002) puts it. In short, the
findings of this study suggest that recast (a type of grammar instruction) is beneficial.
With reference to the Asian EFL context, Chan et al. (2002) conducted an empirical study involving
form-focused remedial instruction. The main goal of their study was to explore the effectiveness of
giving oral remedial instruction to secondary and university students, focusing on such grammar points
as the connective āon the contrary. ā The instrument consisted of two identical tests before treatment
and after treatment, as well as a delayed post-test with different test items. The subjects (n = 80) were
two classes of university students majoring in English in a Hong Kong university. Major findings
suggested that ā¦effective acquisition took place and both the experimental and control groups show
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significant improvement in their performance. Where conditions of treatment were the same, students
in the experimental group slightly outperformed those in the control group, suggesting that a model of
remedial instruction structured in the form of proceduralized steps supported by explicit rules is more
manageable and therefore more conducive to acquisition. (p. 24)
The aforementioned studies of the role of form-focused instruction indicate that grammar instruction is
still viable; that is, grammar is strongly believed to exert much influence on the teaching effectiveness.
At the same time, it has been found that teacher intervention in the form of grammar explanation in
various forms (e.g., enhanced input, input flooding, recast, or corrective feedback) yield differing L2
acquisition outcomes, depending on the context of study.
In conclusion, the role of āappropriateā grammar teaching still needs to be considered, given the fact
that both theories and empirical studies have provided even more avenues for further research in this
area. Of course, the teaching of grammar that takes account of real use of grammar by real speakers of
English will only help us to better understand the underlying principles of SLA. Indeed, the grammar
war should now be stopped; the dichotomous thinking about to teach or not to teach grammar no longer
holds true.
2.4. English L2 Academic Reading
According to Grabe and Stoller (2002), academic reading is an active process involving linguistic,
cognitive and world-knowledge factors. The act of reading is not simply the ability to decode and
encode; rather, success or failure in L2 academic reading hinges on the L2 learner ability to actively
engage in the reading process. Research abounds that delves into the challenging nature of L2
academic reading. In this study, I will briefly discuss four studies that are germane to the focus of the
study.
Baker and Boonkit (2004) investigated learning strategies of Thai university students (n = 195) of a
local university. The study focused on their use of learning strategies in reading and writing in the
English for academic purposes context. The study intended to identify the most frequently used
strategies and different strategy use between the more and less able students. The findings as reported
revealed that, in the main, the subjects managed to use metacognitive, cognitive and compensation
strategies. The most frequent use of these strategies, according to the authors, was due to the emphasis
on academic English instruction. Another important finding reported is that āā¦students do use a
number of social and affective strategies in their everyday reading in Englishā (p. 320).
Gorsuch and Taguchi (2010) conducted a longitudinal study ascertaining whether the use of repeated
reading (RR) increased the reading fluency and comprehension of 30 young adult EFL learners in
Vietnam. The findings reported showed evidence of the positive effects RR has on the subjectsā
reading fluency and comprehension development. Moreover, it was found that the subjects considered
RR as having a meaningful role in increasing the use of metacognition in reading strategy use.
Based on the aforementioned studies on academic reading from both the learner and teacher foci, it
may be concluded that English L2 academic reading is an area worth investigating, especially when
dealing with the EFL context because of the ubiquity of reading as a source of L2 acquisition.
2.5. Learning Strategies
Given the fact that learning strategies have always been of great importance to L2 learners, the next
section will briefly discuss extant studies with regard to L2 learning strategies that appear to be
relevant to this study.
Huang (2011) examined the effects of classroom assessment events on English L2 Taiwanese learnersā
motivation and learning strategies. 105 college students took part in this study. Results revealed that the
subjects in the more traditional test differed in their acceptances of the more innovative test as far as
listening and reading abilities are concerned. But, concerning speaking ability, the more innovative test
was considered better. This suggested that assessing learning strategies and motivation should be re-
conceptualized, bearing in mind that the decision to employ any learning strategies could be motivated
by factors other than the learner him/herself.
Qingquan et al. (2008) investigated learning strategy use of successful and unsuccessful Chinese EFL
learners (n = 184). The study found that more able students used a wider range of learning strategies
than less able ones, that the former were more active in class, having positive attitude toward the
lessons, whereas the latter tended to use surface, L1-based, world-level, rote memory and gesture
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strategies. It was also found that word-for-word translation did not help the less able students perform
better at the reading tasks. The authors went on to report that, ā[u]nlike their successful peers, the
unsuccessful students often used out-of-context word-buildingā¦ that entails shallow processing of
language information that contributes less to language learningā (p. 351).
The studies reviews above indicate that learning strategies are of great importance to English L2
development. The more able students tend to use numerous strategies in tacking their reading or
learning in English. Although learning strategies alone do not bring about durable success in L2
learning, they are useful in most cases of L2 acquisition/learning.
3 Method
3.1. Participants
All the respondents (n = 26) were first year students enrolled in LC 4001, a foundation course required
of all entering students who had not been exempted based on their scores earned in the NIDA Entrance
Exam (English Paper). They represented different fields of study in their first degree programs, ranging
from public administration to human resource development. All of them had not been to an English-
speaking country at the time of their participation in this study, nor had they studied in the English-
medium programs. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents exemplified a homogeneous
group of participants as far as their English proficiency is concerned.
3.2. Instruments
3.2.1. Questionnaire
I first administered a set of questionnaires to students in my LC 4001 class titled āReading Skills
Development in English for Graduate Studiesā. Forty copies of the questionnaire were distributed to
the students and 26 copies were returned with 24 completed and two not completely answered.
3.2.2. Semi-structured interview
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with three students. Initially, ten students volunteered to be
interviews, but in order to make certain that the interview should represent students at three different
levels of English proficiency, namely excellent, good and poor. I decided to select from among the ten,
using their mid-term test scores as the criteria. The three students were Choengchai (excellent),
Piromrasamee (good), and Duriyatipmontri (poor). This purposive sampling attempted to triangulate
the interview data sources that would lead to a high level of trustworthiness. According to Merriam
(1998), āā¦triangulation strengthens reliability as well as internal validityā (p. 207).
4. Findings
4.1. The questionnaire data
The questionnaire contained questions focusing on 1) course contents; 2) learning strategies; and 3)
teaching performances. The following section will report the findings from 26 respondents as follows.
4.1.1. Course Contents
As far as course contents are concerned, 9 respondents strongly agreed that the overall contents were
useful for reading; 14 agreed and 2 were undecided, resulting in 1 respondent thinking the content was
of little use.
When it comes to more specific grammar points that concern types of sentences, one respondent
strongly agreed that the teaching of the sentence types mentioned was very useful; 19 were in
agreement, whereas 4 were undecided, thus leaving 2 respondents finding such teaching not that useful.
Concerning the teaching of noun clause, adjective clause and adverb clause, the results are as follows.
Two respondents strongly agreed that the focus on those subordinate clauses was very helpful in their
reading with 18 agreeing, 4 being undecided and 2 finding such teaching of little use.
As regards the teaching of core part, the results are as follows. Four respondents strongly agreed the
core part helped them to read better; 11 respondents were in agreement; 7 were undecided and 3 found
core part of little use.
When asked further whether they found the teaching of headwords and modifiers of use, one
respondent strongly agreed that focusing on headwords and modifiers did help him/her to better
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understand English with 8 people agreeing; 11 respondents were undecided and 2 found the study of
headwords and modifiers less useful. It should be noted, however, that three respondents failed to
respond to this and the remaining questions. Therefore, the report of the findings concerning item 6
onward was from 22 respondents rather than 26 as in previously reported items.
In this item, the respondents were asked about the teaching of sentence comprehension. Sentence
comprehension is part of the exercises that allows students to apply the grammar points previously
taught to the task of reading. And the pattern of responses is as follows. Two strongly agreed that the
sentence comprehension exercises were useful; 10 respondents agreed, whereas 8 respondents could
not decide, leaving 2 other respondents finding this exercise not that useful.
This item has to do with sentence interpretation, another major exercise that forces students to read
critically while at the same time applying previously taught grammar points to the task of āreading
between the linesā. The response pattern is as follows. Three respondents strongly agreed that this
exercise was useful; 10 other respondents agreed; 8 remained undecided with 1 respondent finding it
not of much use.
Items 9 and 10 are concerned with vocabulary learning. Specifically, item 9 asked whether the teaching
of contextual clues in determining the meaning of an unknown word was useful, and item 10 focused
on the use of a monolingual dictionary, a skill that is becoming less and less common in the teaching of
foundation English. I will describe results of items 9 and 10, respectively.
As for item 9, one respondent lent strong support to this kind of teaching with 10 respondents agreeing.
However, 9 respondents were undecided as to the utility of contextual clues, leaving 2 finding the
teaching of contextual clues of little use.
Concerning item 10, the response pattern is the following. Two strongly agreed; 10 agreed, 8 remained
undecided with 2 considering the teaching of dictionary usage of little use.
The teaching of main idea and topic sentence of the reading passage is also of concern here. When
asked about the usefulness of this paragraph-level exercise, the respondents came up with the following
response patterns. One respondent strongly agreed to the utility of it; 15 were in agreement; five were
undecided and one found it less useful.
In conjunction with the teaching of main ideas and topic sentences, movement of thoughts is also
another exercise that should help respondents see the big picture of how ideas are discussed by a given
author. It is believed that this reading technique would enable learners to read at the discourse level,
focusing on cohesion and coherence of the reading paragraph or passage. Results from item 12
revealed an interesting pattern of responses as follows. One respondent was very supportive of the
teaching of movement of thoughts; 8 others were in agreement. However, 11 respondents seemed
ambivalent about its usefulness with 2 others considering the topic of little use.
Item 13 focused on one of the important reading skills, drawing inferences. The respondents varied in
their responses as follows. One strongly agreed that the teaching of drawing inferences was of great
help; 10 agreed with 10 other being ambivalent and one found it of little use.
Item 14 asked about the appropriate number of paragraph-level reading exercise. The respondents
thought that 30 paragraphs were quite right (n =2), that the number was acceptable (n = 13), that they
did not have any comment about the number (n= 5) and that the number was not appropriate (n = 1)
and the number was absolutely unacceptable (n=1).
After all those detail questions concerning grammar points and the teaching of reading, item 15 shifted
the focus to the overall contents once again, inviting the respondents to express their views about
content appropriateness. The response patterns are as follows. A total of five found the contents much
to their liking with 12 more agreeing that the contents were appropriate. However, four respondents felt
ambivalent about the contents and one respondent did not seem to enjoy it.
Overall, the majority of respondents found effective the course contents that had been arranged
structurally from word analysis to sentence analysis. The teaching of sentence types and phrases as
well as core parts and headwords/modifiers was not only the case of explicit teaching but also
conforming to the Processing Instruction (PI) framework (VanPatten and Uludag, 2011). According to
VanPatten and Uludag (2011), PI enables L2 learners to āā¦ receive structured input activities, which
contain input manipulated in particular ways to push learners away from less-than-optimal processing
strategiesā (p. 45). In particular, the respondents appeared to suggest that explicit, teacher-led teaching
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allowed them sufficient opportunities to interact with the teacher and text in ways that better
understanding could be fostered. In this sense, the respondents believed that teacher talk led to their
learning opportunities (Walsh, 2002).
4.1.2. Learning Strategies
Items 16 to 22 are concerned with learning strategies. The respondents varied in their response patterns
as would be expected. Item 16 focuses on the use of sentence structure in dividing sentence elements.
In this regard, one respondent strongly agreed that he/she had used it; seven agreed that they had
resorted to sentence parsing; 12 were not certain about their use and two did not report using it.
The contextual clues strategy, item 17, provided the following response pattern. Three respondents
reported having greatly used the strategy with 9 others agreeing they had used it, whereas 8 participants
were not clear about their use and two stated that they had hardly used it.
Also included in this subheading is the use of a monolingual dictionary as a learning strategy. The
respondents answered this item as follows. One respondent reported having extensively used it; five
others agreed that they used it regularly; 10 participants were ambivalent and 6 others reported having
rarely used it.
Item 19 asked if the respondents had analyzed the sentences in order to come up with the correct
interpretation of a given sentence. And the answers are as follows. Nine respondents agreed that they
had done so; 11 were not certain whether they had done it, and the remaining two reported not having
used it.
Item 20 questioned whether the respondents had used English-Thai translation techniques in reading
the sentences and paragraphs provided. The response patterns are the following. Two stated that they
had extensively translated the text; 13 agreed that they also had translated from English into Thai; five
were reluctant to commit themselves to either yes or no and two others reported having rarely used it.
Item 21, which is concerned with the strategy of looking for key words in a given paragraph for better
understanding, revealed the following response patterns. Fourteen respondents reported having used
key words in identifying the meaning; six others were not forthcoming about whether they were using
the strategy or not, and two others reported having rarely used it.
Item 22, which asked if the respondents had used mixed methodsātranslation and grammarāin
helping themselves to understand the text, gave the following patterns. Three respondents clearly stated
that they had used both methods; 11 others agreed that they also had used both translation and
grammar, whereas 6 remained uncommitted to either of the methods with 2 more respondents reporting
having barely used either of them.
In responding to items concerning the use of learning strategies in relation to grammar points
previously taught, namely types of sentences and subordinate clauses, phrases and core parts, including
headwords/modifiers, the respondentsā answers pointed to the ambivalence they held towards the
incorporation of the two in the task of reading. For example, they were uncertain whether dissecting
sentences was what they were doing when reading, even if they may have found it a useful strategy. Or
when asked about the use of monolingual dictionary as a learning strategy, many of them were not
certain, which could suggest that they never used it. In the case of sentence interpretation, many
respondents seemed unaware whether they had used sentence parsing in so doing. This may have been
due to their overreliance on vocabulary knowledge rather than sentence structure knowledge in
unlocking the implied meaning of the sentence. Interestingly enough, when asked about their use of
English-Thai translation in reading the sentences, many of them tended to use this strategy a great deal.
This should not be surprising, given the fact that L2 readers are more inclined to rely on their first
language background knowledge in reading the L2, especially if their L2 proficiency is somewhat low.
The use of English-Thai translation was also reaffirmed in the responses to item 22, which was about
the use of mixed methodsātranslation and grammar. In this case, many respondents said that they had
used both in a given reading task
4.1.3. Teaching Performances
Items 23 to 27 invited the respondents to evaluate teaching performances of the teacher. Specifically,
the question items focused on whether the teacher had prepared his lessons methodically (item 23);
whether the lecture was given in an effective manner (item 24); whether the teacher could
professionally handled student questions (item 25); whether the teacher was punctual (item 26); and
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whether the teacher behaved properly in class (item 27). I will discuss each of these items below.
The respondents gave the following responses for item 23. Ten respondents strongly agreed that the
teacher had prepared his lessons very well; 12 also agreed.
Concerning item 24, the pattern of responses could be reported as follows. Fifteen respondents strongly
agreed that the lecture was effectively executed and the remaining seven thought that the teaching was
well conducted.
When it comes to the teacherās ability to handle questions in class, the respondents thought that the
teacher did an excellent job (n =14) and that the teacher did well (n = 8).
Regarding punctuality, the teacher also was rated well with 18 respondents strongly agreed that the
teacher was very punctual, thus leaning four others rating the teacher punctuality well.
The last item which is concerned with the teacherās behavior in class revealed the following patterns.
Fifteen respondents thought that the teacherās behavior was quite appropriate, and seven respondents
provided a positive answer as well.
As can be seen from the findings reported above, most respondents found the teaching performances
acceptable. This suggests that non-native English speaking teachers could teach as well as or, in this
case, could be a better choice because the course contents focused on grammar points and low-ability
students. Had they had a native-speaking teacher teach the course, they could have produced different
response patterns. However, this study did not aim to compare and contrast teaching effectiveness of
native- and non-native-speaking teachers.
To properly answer the main research question concerning salient perceptions of the participants
towards course contents, their learning strategies, and teaching performances, one cannot afford to rely
on survey results. The following section will be results of the semi-structured interviews conducted
with the three participants as mentioned earlier: Choengchai (excellent), Piromrasamee (good) and
Duryatipmontri (poor). Their ideas are discussed below.
4.2. The semi-structured interview data
When asked why they found the course contents acceptable, all three were in agreement that the
contents appeared to help them better understand sentence mechanics. For example, Choengchai said,
āBecause unit 1 started from sentence analysisā¦you seeā¦I had a good chance to review my
understanding of English sentences. But of course, there were many difficult words. Thatās another
thing.ā Choengchaiās belief about the usefulness of sentence analysis was corroborated by
Piromrasamee, who asserted that āWhen you began teaching types of sentences and subordinate
clauses, I think they were useful because now I could see how strings of words were put togetherā¦But
then again, the problem is too many hard vocabularyā¦sometimes itās discouraging.ā However, when
the same question was asked to Duriyatipmontri, the least able student, she quipped, āI donāt know.
Admittedly, I really donāt know whatās going on in class. I had to force myself to come to class because
I felt that the teacher was so very eager to teach. You knowā¦I think itās not OK to skip class. But in
terms of understanding, I found the lessons, especially those sample sentences somewhat hard to
understand.ā
Once probed further about other content details, such as the teaching of core part, headwords/modifiers
and so on, the three interviewees were of interesting opinion. Choengchai said, āthe core part exercises
really forced me to look closely at all the words in the sentencesā¦thatās good because I had never
thought before that all the words in a sentence have a function to play.ā Piromrasamee, on the other
hand, believed that focusing on core part is not that necessary. She said, āI donāt knowā¦but the thing is
trying to find core part seems to confuse me because a core part doesnāt give any meaningful elements.
So why bother?ā And Duriyatipmontri put it that, ā when we did the core part exercise, I was at a total
loss because I still had to struggle with understanding words, so how could I jump to the level of
having to divide up sentence elementsā¦Just forget it.ā
In terms of learning strategies, their answers revealed the following. Choengchai said that he managed
to apply the sentence knowledge to the task of comprehending and interpreting sentences. However,
Piromrasamee and Duriyamontri were not quite certain. In fact, both of them believed that because
most of the vocabulary found in the text and exam were beyond their understanding, no matter how
hard they tried to analyze them, eventually they could not really make full use of the sentence
knowledge. As Piromrasamee put it, āI know that I should have applied the sentence knowledge taught
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to trying to comprehend or interpret the sentences, but because of the overwhelming difficulty level of
vocabulary, I had to give up.ā Or Duriyatipmontri said, ātrying to understand and interpret the
sentences both in the exercises and the exam was very hard for me. Poor vocabulary is the real problem
hereā¦Who could help me?ā
As for teaching performances, all three considered the teaching and explanations successful. As
Choengchai put it, āyou seemed to know how to explain difficult concepts to less able students.
Because you provided lots of exercises, I could see your points clearly.ā Piromrasamee said, āYou were
Ok, although I wish you had spoken more slowly. You were very patient when some of us appeared not
to get the point you were trying to make.ā And Duriyatipmontri said, āI was very afraid that you would
be impatient with me. I think you must have liked to teach only smart students. But it turned out that
you also could handle less able students well. When we gave you wrong answers, you didnāt laugh at
us, but tried to helpā¦ You must have been very tired teaching usā¦I thinkā¦but thank you.ā
5. Conclusion
This study intended to find out about the perceptions of a group of university students concerning their
experiences of studying an English foundation course at a local university. Salient perceptions are that
the majority of the participants found course contents useful, albeit difficult for some of them. Explicit
grammar instruction in this academic reading class was not only relevant but also supportive of their
understanding of the lessons. This finding was in congruence with most of the studies reported in the
literature. In fact, the findings reported here about the utility of grammar teaching lend further support
of the enabling role of grammar in the English class, even the reading one. While most participants
viewed sentence samples used in the lessons somewhat hard, they realized that those represent ārealā
English that they would eventually encounter in their other content classes.
As far as learning strategies are concerned, the majority of them appeared to have used English to Thai
translation for the most part. In this sense, translation could be viewed as a scaffold that helped many of
them make some sense of the reading task at hand. However, it should be noted that many of them
were ambivalent about the other uses of learning strategies. To confirm this finding, a follow-up study
could be conducted that would allow the researcher to directly observe their learning behaviors in class.
It could be that they were not aware that they had used some of the strategies but such use was not
properly documented, thus resulting in their disregard of the strategies employed.
Concerning teaching performances, the interviewees brought up key factors suggesting that teachers
should teach with passion. The use of Thai, the shared language, turned out to be conducive to proper
understanding for most of the students. The teacherās eagerness to teach and studentsā willingness to
learn are key ingredients that made this class a success from the teaching performance perspective.
Certainly, the challenges that lie ahead need to be confronted with care. As much as it takes the whole
village to raise a child, it takes the whole teaching community, especially the teacher, to enable
students to learn successfully.
If as Littlewoodās (2010) study focusing on studentsā conceptions of the āideal English lessonā reveals
that ā[A]ttention has moved away from set methods and towards ways in which teachers can develop
their own pedagogy based not only on general principles but also on their understanding of the specific
situation and learnersā (p. 46) rings true, then the findings as reported in this study suggest that we now
must stop being confined to rigid teaching methods and dispel the myth as to whether grammar should
be taught. The overwhelming majority of the participants in this study turned out to rely heavily on
contextualized grammar, which can be construed as scaffolding their L2 academic reading
improvement.
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