1) The document discusses the concept of fossilization in second language acquisition as proposed by Selinker in 1972. Fossilization refers to permanent errors that remain in a learner's interlanguage despite instruction and exposure to the target language.
2) It reviews different definitions and classifications of fossilization, including individual vs. group fossilization, and temporary vs. permanent fossilization.
3) Fossilization can occur at different linguistic levels, including phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic levels. Common examples of each type are provided from the errors Chinese students make when learning English.
4) The main causal factors of fossilization discussed are language transfer from the first language, transfer of training methods
This document discusses the concept of fossilization in second language acquisition. It provides background on the introduction of fossilization by Selinker in 1972 and discusses how definitions of fossilization have evolved over time. Specifically, it addresses five key issues in the conceptualization of fossilization: (1) whether fossilization is global or local, (2) the relationship between fossilization and ultimate L2 attainment, (3) whether fossilization is a product or process, (4) whether stabilization is synonymous with fossilization, and (5) the appropriate timespan for empirical studies of fossilization. The document aims to clarify differing interpretations of fossilization in the literature.
This document discusses fossilization in second language acquisition. It defines fossilization as the permanent cessation of learning before attaining native-like proficiency despite ability, opportunity, and motivation. The document then covers accepted concepts of fossilization, types including phonological and syntactic, causal factors such as language transfer, and strategies to reduce fossilization like adopting proper learning strategies and exposure to the target language culture and environment.
This document discusses crosslinguistic influence (CLI) and transfer in third language acquisition (TLA). It defines key terms like CLI, transfer, and interlanguage transfer. CLI considers how all previously acquired languages interact during TLA, not just the first language. Factors that determine which language is activated include typology, the learner's second language status, and proficiency levels in all known languages. The closer a language is typologically to the target language, the more likely it will influence acquisition. Learners also tend to transfer from their second language. Both high and low proficiency can impact CLI.
Robert Lado was influential in the development of SLA theory and methods. He studied how language transfer affects foreign language learning. Specifically, he hypothesized that aspects of a foreign language similar to one's native language will be easier to learn, while differences will be more difficult. This contrastive analysis hypothesis informed the Audiolingual method and focus on minimal pairs.
Fossilization refers to the phenomenon where a second language learner's development seems to stop at a certain level, and they are unable to achieve full native-like competence, no matter how much instruction or error correction they receive. There are three socio-cultural models of second language acquisition: 1) Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum, where a learner's language varies based on social context, 2) The acculturation model, where inability or unwillingness to adapt to a new culture can lead to pidginization, and 3) Social identity and investment, where a learner's commitment and identity construction impact their investment in language learning. Factors that influence interlanguage include first language transfer, consciousness, processing constraints, communication
The document defines inter-language as the language system produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a new language. Inter-language develops based on rules from the learner's first language and the target language, and may not reflect features of either. The inter-language system changes over time as rules are altered, deleted, or added. Learners progress through stages from early approximations of the target language to later intermediate and final stages. Fossilization occurs when errors become impossible to correct despite ability and motivation.
Larry Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage in 1972, building on Corder's earlier work on language learners' errors. Interlanguage refers to the transitional rule-based linguistic system that language learners develop between their native language and the target language they are learning. It is accepted as a basic principle in the field of second language acquisition. A learner's interlanguage preserves features of their first language and can overgeneralize rules of the target language as they progress toward proficiency but have not yet mastered it.
This document discusses contrastive analysis as a tool for comparing two languages to identify similarities and differences. It can be used to predict difficulties for language learners by examining differences between their first language (L1) and the target second language (L2). The document outlines the basic steps of contrastive analysis, including describing the phonemic inventories and comparing sounds, syntax, and other linguistic features between L1 and L2. Contrastive analysis was an early and influential theory for predicting language learning difficulties but has limitations and has been supplemented by other approaches.
This document discusses the concept of fossilization in second language acquisition. It provides background on the introduction of fossilization by Selinker in 1972 and discusses how definitions of fossilization have evolved over time. Specifically, it addresses five key issues in the conceptualization of fossilization: (1) whether fossilization is global or local, (2) the relationship between fossilization and ultimate L2 attainment, (3) whether fossilization is a product or process, (4) whether stabilization is synonymous with fossilization, and (5) the appropriate timespan for empirical studies of fossilization. The document aims to clarify differing interpretations of fossilization in the literature.
This document discusses fossilization in second language acquisition. It defines fossilization as the permanent cessation of learning before attaining native-like proficiency despite ability, opportunity, and motivation. The document then covers accepted concepts of fossilization, types including phonological and syntactic, causal factors such as language transfer, and strategies to reduce fossilization like adopting proper learning strategies and exposure to the target language culture and environment.
This document discusses crosslinguistic influence (CLI) and transfer in third language acquisition (TLA). It defines key terms like CLI, transfer, and interlanguage transfer. CLI considers how all previously acquired languages interact during TLA, not just the first language. Factors that determine which language is activated include typology, the learner's second language status, and proficiency levels in all known languages. The closer a language is typologically to the target language, the more likely it will influence acquisition. Learners also tend to transfer from their second language. Both high and low proficiency can impact CLI.
Robert Lado was influential in the development of SLA theory and methods. He studied how language transfer affects foreign language learning. Specifically, he hypothesized that aspects of a foreign language similar to one's native language will be easier to learn, while differences will be more difficult. This contrastive analysis hypothesis informed the Audiolingual method and focus on minimal pairs.
Fossilization refers to the phenomenon where a second language learner's development seems to stop at a certain level, and they are unable to achieve full native-like competence, no matter how much instruction or error correction they receive. There are three socio-cultural models of second language acquisition: 1) Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum, where a learner's language varies based on social context, 2) The acculturation model, where inability or unwillingness to adapt to a new culture can lead to pidginization, and 3) Social identity and investment, where a learner's commitment and identity construction impact their investment in language learning. Factors that influence interlanguage include first language transfer, consciousness, processing constraints, communication
The document defines inter-language as the language system produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a new language. Inter-language develops based on rules from the learner's first language and the target language, and may not reflect features of either. The inter-language system changes over time as rules are altered, deleted, or added. Learners progress through stages from early approximations of the target language to later intermediate and final stages. Fossilization occurs when errors become impossible to correct despite ability and motivation.
Larry Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage in 1972, building on Corder's earlier work on language learners' errors. Interlanguage refers to the transitional rule-based linguistic system that language learners develop between their native language and the target language they are learning. It is accepted as a basic principle in the field of second language acquisition. A learner's interlanguage preserves features of their first language and can overgeneralize rules of the target language as they progress toward proficiency but have not yet mastered it.
This document discusses contrastive analysis as a tool for comparing two languages to identify similarities and differences. It can be used to predict difficulties for language learners by examining differences between their first language (L1) and the target second language (L2). The document outlines the basic steps of contrastive analysis, including describing the phonemic inventories and comparing sounds, syntax, and other linguistic features between L1 and L2. Contrastive analysis was an early and influential theory for predicting language learning difficulties but has limitations and has been supplemented by other approaches.
Interlanguage Analysis of Spanish LearnersArdiansyah -
The document analyzes the interlanguage of Spanish learners in their use of English. It finds that:
1) The learners did not have problems with plural "s" but did make errors with the copula "be" through intralingual and interlingual transfer from Spanish.
2) Possible causes of errors included false hypotheses, slips of the tongue, and incomplete application of rules.
3) While Spanish and English have similarities in copula "be" and plural "s", differences could lead to mistakes, though many errors resulted from general second language acquisition processes rather than differences between the languages.
Interlanguage refers to the language system that language learners develop as they learn a new language. This system is different from both the learner's native language and the target language. It is influenced by language transfer from the native language, overgeneralization of target language patterns, and use of known words and grammar to communicate. An interlanguage is systematic but dynamic, changing over time through a creative process as the learner interacts with the target language environment. It is also variable depending on context and reduced in complexity compared to the target language.
The document discusses hypotheses about second language learners' language development. It describes the interlanguage hypothesis proposed by Larry Selinker, which posits that learners develop an "interlanguage" between their native and target languages. This interlanguage is systematic and evolving. Selinker identified five processes in second language learning: language transfer, overgeneralization, transfer of training, learning strategies, and communication strategies. The document also discusses the approximative system hypothesis and the notion of learners developing idiosyncratic dialects that blend features of their native and target languages.
Interlanguage and the natural route of development ellis ch. 3Masrizal Mahmud
This document discusses interlanguage theory and how second language learners acquire a new language. It proposes that learners pass through distinct stages of development, constructing rule systems that are influenced by their first language but gradually become more like the target language. Several studies are summarized that examine how learners acquire language structures like negation, interrogation, and relative clauses over time, with their interlanguages transitioning from more error-prone to more target-like. Methodological issues with interlanguage research are also addressed.
Analysing interlanguage: how do we know what learners know?Pun Yanut
This document discusses analyzing interlanguage and the comparative fallacy. It outlines two major goals of second language acquisition research: determining learner's interlanguage competence and explaining how it develops over time. The purpose is to examine problems analyzing spontaneous speech, focusing on generative framework studies. It discusses interlanguage, processes that create it like generalizations and transfer, and research showing learners develop in similar sequences regardless of instruction type. The comparative fallacy, or comparing a learner's language to the target, is discussed and can underestimate learner competence. Examples analyze clause structure and tense marking in learner language to show how the comparative fallacy affects analysis.
This document discusses cross-linguistic influence and learner language. It covers the contrastive analysis hypothesis and how it evolved into considering cross-linguistic influence. Key topics include markedness theory, analyzing learner language and errors, sources of errors such as interlingual and intralingual transfers, stages of learner language development, and approaches to treating errors. The document provides frameworks for identifying and describing errors, as well as models for providing feedback and correcting errors in the classroom.
This document discusses social factors that influence language learning and the concept of interlanguage. It examines language learning in the contexts of immigrant English, indigenous minority varieties of English, pidgin and creole settings, local varieties of English, and English as a foreign language. The size of an immigrant group and their social status can impact the variety of English acquired. Pidgin and creole languages develop out of original pidgins that expand their resources. Interlanguages may become stabilized varieties under certain social conditions. English learned as a foreign language focuses on an overseas standard rather than local varieties.
Applied linguistics has evolved over time from focusing primarily on teaching English as a foreign language to incorporating various subfields like second language acquisition, corpus linguistics, and critical applied linguistics. It now grapples with real-world issues and seeks to balance serving practical needs with intellectual inquiry, though there are criticisms of overly grand or narrowly practical approaches. The future of applied linguistics may require more interdisciplinary work and mediating various stakeholder interests.
SLA ,Learning Theories , Second language Aquisitionmoji azimi
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition (SLA). It covers linguistic, psychological, and sociocultural theories including: Universal Grammar, Monitor Theory, Natural Order Hypothesis, Comprehension Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter Hypothesis, Behaviorism, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, Cognitive Psychology, Information Processing Theory, Connectionism, Processability Theory, Interactionist Perspectives, Sociocultural Perspectives, Interlanguage, Developmental Sequences, and the role of the first language and instruction in SLA. The document provides an overview of many influential theories that aim to explain how people learn a second language.
The interlanguage hypothesis proposes that second language learners develop their own language system, or "interlanguage", that is influenced by their native language and the target language they are learning. This interlanguage contains errors and patterns from both languages and evolves as the learner progresses. The hypothesis was introduced in the 1970s as an alternative to contrastive analysis for explaining second language acquisition. It views learner errors as part of a rule-governed developmental process rather than mother tongue interference.
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of two languages to identify their structural differences and similarities. It was originally used to establish language families but was later applied to second language acquisition in the 1960s. The contrastive analysis hypothesis claimed that elements similar between a learner's first and second language would be easier to acquire, while differences would be more difficult. However, empirical evidence showed this could not predict all errors, and some uniform errors occurred regardless of first language. This led to the development of error analysis and the concept of interlanguage, seeing second language acquisition as its own rule-governed linguistic system rather than an imperfect version of the target language.
Three social aspects of interlanguage are discussed:
1. Interlanguage consists of different styles based on social context like careful vs vernacular.
2. Social factors determine the input that shapes interlanguage through theories like accommodation and acculturation.
3. Learners negotiate social identities in interactions with native speakers, which influences investment and success, according to Pierce's view of social identity and power relations.
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition including behaviourist learning theory and interlanguage. It provides details on:
- Behaviourist learning theory which emphasizes observable learning through stimulus-response-reinforcement and does not account for internal cognitive processes.
- The concept of 'interlanguage', coined by Selinker, which refers to a learner's internal linguistic system that draws from their first language and the target language.
- Mechanisms of interlanguage structure including simplification and overgeneralization of rules.
- The idea of fossilization where certain first language features remain permanently engrained in a learner's second language system.
the linguistics of second linguistics acquisitionapril aulia
The document summarizes key concepts related to the nature of language and approaches to second language acquisition. It discusses how languages are systematic, symbolic, and social. It then covers various linguistic levels including lexicon, phonology, morphology, syntax, and discourse. Several approaches to SLA are outlined, including contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage, and Krashen's Monitor Model. Functional approaches focusing on language use and Universal Grammar theory are also summarized.
The document discusses theories of second language acquisition including behaviorist learning theory, mentalist theory, and the concept of "interlanguage". It defines interlanguage as the unique linguistic system that learners construct that draws on their first language but is different from both it and the target language. The document also presents a computational model of second language acquisition where input is processed into intake and stored as L2 knowledge before being produced as output.
The universal hypothesis proposes that all human languages share certain basic structural properties, called linguistic universals. According to this hypothesis, humans are born with an innate, universal grammar (UG) that contains a set of rules for language acquisition. The study of linguistic universals can help explain second language acquisition in two ways. First, it can identify which properties of the target language will be more or less difficult to acquire based on their status as linguistic universals. Second, it allows researchers to predict which differences between the first and second language will cause difficulties in acquisition and which will not.
This document discusses interlanguage grammar in second language acquisition. It begins by defining what an "error" means in second language acquisition versus dictionary definitions. It then discusses the interlanguage hypothesis, which posits that learners have a systematic, evolving mental grammar at each stage of second language acquisition. Learners' errors provide insights into their developing grammatical hypotheses. The document also discusses how the interlanguage hypothesis relates to theories about the influence of learners' first language and universal grammar on second language acquisition.
This document summarizes several theories of first and second language acquisition:
- Behaviorist theory proposed by Skinner viewed language as learned through reinforcement of behaviors. Piaget's cognitive theory saw language emerging from cognitive development and representation of knowledge. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory emphasized the role of social interaction and the zone of proximal development.
- Theories of second language acquisition draw from first language acquisition research. Krashen's theory included five hypotheses, particularly the importance of a low affective filter. Lenneberg proposed a critical period for language acquisition. Chomsky viewed an innate universal grammar.
- Differences between first and second language acquisition include second language learners having prior language knowledge and more conscious learning,
1. Both first and second language learners pass through similar initial stages of language acquisition like a silent period and formulaic speech. They also acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, with some structures being acquired earlier than others.
2. However, there are also important differences. First language learners rely solely on universal grammar, while second language learners' first language provides a basis for learning. Younger learners spend more time listening before speaking, while older learners can use metacognitive skills.
3. Factors like age, opportunity to practice with native speakers, and differences in universal grammar access can impact whether second language learners attain native-like proficiency, unlike first language learners.
Second language acquisition and english language teachingOsnovna šola Pivka
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition and their influence on English language teaching. It examines key theories that have attempted to influence SLA over time, from behaviourism to cognitive approaches. While early theories focused on linguistic and psycholinguistic factors, more recent theories emphasize the importance of social and sociolinguistic factors in language learning. The document also discusses factors that influence the amount and type of language input learners receive, and how this impacts the development and success of second language acquisition.
Interlanguage Analysis of Spanish LearnersArdiansyah -
The document analyzes the interlanguage of Spanish learners in their use of English. It finds that:
1) The learners did not have problems with plural "s" but did make errors with the copula "be" through intralingual and interlingual transfer from Spanish.
2) Possible causes of errors included false hypotheses, slips of the tongue, and incomplete application of rules.
3) While Spanish and English have similarities in copula "be" and plural "s", differences could lead to mistakes, though many errors resulted from general second language acquisition processes rather than differences between the languages.
Interlanguage refers to the language system that language learners develop as they learn a new language. This system is different from both the learner's native language and the target language. It is influenced by language transfer from the native language, overgeneralization of target language patterns, and use of known words and grammar to communicate. An interlanguage is systematic but dynamic, changing over time through a creative process as the learner interacts with the target language environment. It is also variable depending on context and reduced in complexity compared to the target language.
The document discusses hypotheses about second language learners' language development. It describes the interlanguage hypothesis proposed by Larry Selinker, which posits that learners develop an "interlanguage" between their native and target languages. This interlanguage is systematic and evolving. Selinker identified five processes in second language learning: language transfer, overgeneralization, transfer of training, learning strategies, and communication strategies. The document also discusses the approximative system hypothesis and the notion of learners developing idiosyncratic dialects that blend features of their native and target languages.
Interlanguage and the natural route of development ellis ch. 3Masrizal Mahmud
This document discusses interlanguage theory and how second language learners acquire a new language. It proposes that learners pass through distinct stages of development, constructing rule systems that are influenced by their first language but gradually become more like the target language. Several studies are summarized that examine how learners acquire language structures like negation, interrogation, and relative clauses over time, with their interlanguages transitioning from more error-prone to more target-like. Methodological issues with interlanguage research are also addressed.
Analysing interlanguage: how do we know what learners know?Pun Yanut
This document discusses analyzing interlanguage and the comparative fallacy. It outlines two major goals of second language acquisition research: determining learner's interlanguage competence and explaining how it develops over time. The purpose is to examine problems analyzing spontaneous speech, focusing on generative framework studies. It discusses interlanguage, processes that create it like generalizations and transfer, and research showing learners develop in similar sequences regardless of instruction type. The comparative fallacy, or comparing a learner's language to the target, is discussed and can underestimate learner competence. Examples analyze clause structure and tense marking in learner language to show how the comparative fallacy affects analysis.
This document discusses cross-linguistic influence and learner language. It covers the contrastive analysis hypothesis and how it evolved into considering cross-linguistic influence. Key topics include markedness theory, analyzing learner language and errors, sources of errors such as interlingual and intralingual transfers, stages of learner language development, and approaches to treating errors. The document provides frameworks for identifying and describing errors, as well as models for providing feedback and correcting errors in the classroom.
This document discusses social factors that influence language learning and the concept of interlanguage. It examines language learning in the contexts of immigrant English, indigenous minority varieties of English, pidgin and creole settings, local varieties of English, and English as a foreign language. The size of an immigrant group and their social status can impact the variety of English acquired. Pidgin and creole languages develop out of original pidgins that expand their resources. Interlanguages may become stabilized varieties under certain social conditions. English learned as a foreign language focuses on an overseas standard rather than local varieties.
Applied linguistics has evolved over time from focusing primarily on teaching English as a foreign language to incorporating various subfields like second language acquisition, corpus linguistics, and critical applied linguistics. It now grapples with real-world issues and seeks to balance serving practical needs with intellectual inquiry, though there are criticisms of overly grand or narrowly practical approaches. The future of applied linguistics may require more interdisciplinary work and mediating various stakeholder interests.
SLA ,Learning Theories , Second language Aquisitionmoji azimi
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition (SLA). It covers linguistic, psychological, and sociocultural theories including: Universal Grammar, Monitor Theory, Natural Order Hypothesis, Comprehension Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter Hypothesis, Behaviorism, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, Cognitive Psychology, Information Processing Theory, Connectionism, Processability Theory, Interactionist Perspectives, Sociocultural Perspectives, Interlanguage, Developmental Sequences, and the role of the first language and instruction in SLA. The document provides an overview of many influential theories that aim to explain how people learn a second language.
The interlanguage hypothesis proposes that second language learners develop their own language system, or "interlanguage", that is influenced by their native language and the target language they are learning. This interlanguage contains errors and patterns from both languages and evolves as the learner progresses. The hypothesis was introduced in the 1970s as an alternative to contrastive analysis for explaining second language acquisition. It views learner errors as part of a rule-governed developmental process rather than mother tongue interference.
Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of two languages to identify their structural differences and similarities. It was originally used to establish language families but was later applied to second language acquisition in the 1960s. The contrastive analysis hypothesis claimed that elements similar between a learner's first and second language would be easier to acquire, while differences would be more difficult. However, empirical evidence showed this could not predict all errors, and some uniform errors occurred regardless of first language. This led to the development of error analysis and the concept of interlanguage, seeing second language acquisition as its own rule-governed linguistic system rather than an imperfect version of the target language.
Three social aspects of interlanguage are discussed:
1. Interlanguage consists of different styles based on social context like careful vs vernacular.
2. Social factors determine the input that shapes interlanguage through theories like accommodation and acculturation.
3. Learners negotiate social identities in interactions with native speakers, which influences investment and success, according to Pierce's view of social identity and power relations.
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition including behaviourist learning theory and interlanguage. It provides details on:
- Behaviourist learning theory which emphasizes observable learning through stimulus-response-reinforcement and does not account for internal cognitive processes.
- The concept of 'interlanguage', coined by Selinker, which refers to a learner's internal linguistic system that draws from their first language and the target language.
- Mechanisms of interlanguage structure including simplification and overgeneralization of rules.
- The idea of fossilization where certain first language features remain permanently engrained in a learner's second language system.
the linguistics of second linguistics acquisitionapril aulia
The document summarizes key concepts related to the nature of language and approaches to second language acquisition. It discusses how languages are systematic, symbolic, and social. It then covers various linguistic levels including lexicon, phonology, morphology, syntax, and discourse. Several approaches to SLA are outlined, including contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage, and Krashen's Monitor Model. Functional approaches focusing on language use and Universal Grammar theory are also summarized.
The document discusses theories of second language acquisition including behaviorist learning theory, mentalist theory, and the concept of "interlanguage". It defines interlanguage as the unique linguistic system that learners construct that draws on their first language but is different from both it and the target language. The document also presents a computational model of second language acquisition where input is processed into intake and stored as L2 knowledge before being produced as output.
The universal hypothesis proposes that all human languages share certain basic structural properties, called linguistic universals. According to this hypothesis, humans are born with an innate, universal grammar (UG) that contains a set of rules for language acquisition. The study of linguistic universals can help explain second language acquisition in two ways. First, it can identify which properties of the target language will be more or less difficult to acquire based on their status as linguistic universals. Second, it allows researchers to predict which differences between the first and second language will cause difficulties in acquisition and which will not.
This document discusses interlanguage grammar in second language acquisition. It begins by defining what an "error" means in second language acquisition versus dictionary definitions. It then discusses the interlanguage hypothesis, which posits that learners have a systematic, evolving mental grammar at each stage of second language acquisition. Learners' errors provide insights into their developing grammatical hypotheses. The document also discusses how the interlanguage hypothesis relates to theories about the influence of learners' first language and universal grammar on second language acquisition.
This document summarizes several theories of first and second language acquisition:
- Behaviorist theory proposed by Skinner viewed language as learned through reinforcement of behaviors. Piaget's cognitive theory saw language emerging from cognitive development and representation of knowledge. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory emphasized the role of social interaction and the zone of proximal development.
- Theories of second language acquisition draw from first language acquisition research. Krashen's theory included five hypotheses, particularly the importance of a low affective filter. Lenneberg proposed a critical period for language acquisition. Chomsky viewed an innate universal grammar.
- Differences between first and second language acquisition include second language learners having prior language knowledge and more conscious learning,
1. Both first and second language learners pass through similar initial stages of language acquisition like a silent period and formulaic speech. They also acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, with some structures being acquired earlier than others.
2. However, there are also important differences. First language learners rely solely on universal grammar, while second language learners' first language provides a basis for learning. Younger learners spend more time listening before speaking, while older learners can use metacognitive skills.
3. Factors like age, opportunity to practice with native speakers, and differences in universal grammar access can impact whether second language learners attain native-like proficiency, unlike first language learners.
Second language acquisition and english language teachingOsnovna šola Pivka
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition and their influence on English language teaching. It examines key theories that have attempted to influence SLA over time, from behaviourism to cognitive approaches. While early theories focused on linguistic and psycholinguistic factors, more recent theories emphasize the importance of social and sociolinguistic factors in language learning. The document also discusses factors that influence the amount and type of language input learners receive, and how this impacts the development and success of second language acquisition.
Exploring Pragmatic Failure into the Writing of Young EFL Learners: A Critica...frequent
This document analyzes pragmatic failure in the writing of young EFL learners in China. It investigates 34 short student compositions and finds both pragmalinguistic and sociopragmatic failures. Pragmalinguistic failures include verbose appositions, incorrect use of conjunctions, misunderstandings of word meanings, Chinese sentence structures, run-on sentences, improper use of subordinate clauses, and omission of relative pronouns. Sociopragmatic failure is rare but includes incorrect perceptions of social conventions. The causes are attributed to limited language proficiency and transfer of pragmatic norms from the learners' first language. The author proposes introducing target language pragmatic knowledge and culture awareness to improve pragmatic appropriateness in writing.
This document discusses cross-linguistic issues in teaching English as a foreign language. It explores how a learner's first language (L1), in this case Arabic, can interfere with their acquisition of English grammar. The author analyzes writing samples from English learners in Saudi Arabia and finds evidence that their L1 influences aspects of English grammar. The study aims to understand this cross-linguistic influence in order to develop effective teaching strategies. It recommends innovative e-learning strategies to help minimize negative transfer from L1 to L2.
1. The document discusses several theories of first and second language acquisition, including imitation theory, innateness theory, cognition theory, input theory, and behaviorism.
2. It notes key differences between first and second language acquisition, such as L1 acquisition typically occurring before age 5 while L2 occurs later, and L2 learners being unable to fully process language like native speakers.
3. Several theories of second language acquisition are also covered, including accomodation theory, the acculturation model, discourse theory, and Krashen's Monitor model which distinguishes acquisition vs. learning.
This document discusses theories of first (L1) and second (L2) language acquisition from several perspectives. It summarizes the views of Freeman, Cook, and Krashen on key aspects of L1 and L2 acquisition. All agree that motivation, needs, interests and meaningful input are important. While L1 and L2 acquisition are separate processes, L1 can positively influence L2 acquisition in some cases, such as when learning certain grammar structures. The document also notes that correcting errors frequently in L1 acquisition may hinder language development, and the same is true for L2 learning - teachers should focus on understanding meaning rather than constant correction.
The Input Learner Learners Forward Throughout...Tiffany Sandoval
This document provides an analysis of Robert Frost's poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" through a linguistic and stylistic lens. It introduces stylistics as the study of appropriate language use and style in writing. The analysis will examine Frost's style and how it shapes the interpretation of the poem. It describes Frost as an American poet known for his philosophical poetry dealing with existential questions about life, death, and humanity's place in the universe. The analysis will observe Frost's style in this particular poem.
The work of speech organs necessary for making speech sounds is called articulation. According to
The specific character of articulation, especially according to the presence or absence of the obstruction speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The most substantial difference between vowels and consonants is that in the articulation of vowels the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in making consonants an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity or in the pharynx and the flow of the air meets a narrowing or complete obstruction. Vowels have no fixed place of articulation, the whole of the speaking apparatus takes part in their formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized, and an obstruction or a narrowing for each consonant is formed at a definite place of the speaking apparatus. In producing vowels all the organs of speech are tense, while in making consonants, the organs of speech are tense only in the place of obstruction. Voice prevails in vowels while in most consonants noise prevails over voice. Vowels are syllable forming sounds while consonants are not, as a rule.
This document discusses factors that influence first and second language acquisition. It identifies biological, psychological, socio-cultural, and linguistic factors. Biological factors include the critical period hypothesis, which proposes there is an optimal time period for acquiring language skills, as well as neurobiological considerations like brain lateralization. Psychological factors encompass cognitive processes like different stages of cognitive development, and affective factors such as attitudes and identity. Socio-cultural factors refer to the role of culture and acculturation. Linguistic factors analyze how aspects of language itself, such as differences between the first and second languages, influence acquisition.
Linguistic typology (or language typology) is a field of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features to allow
This document discusses key concepts in second language acquisition (SLA) research. It covers Universal Grammar and how it relates to both first and second language learning. It also describes Stephen Krashen's Monitor Theory and its hypotheses about acquisition vs learning, the role of comprehensible input, and the affective filter. The concept of interlanguage is introduced, which refers to a learner's developing mental grammar system that draws on their first language but is also distinct from both the first and target languages. Research on developmental sequences in language learning is also mentioned.
- Error analysis involves observing, analyzing, classifying, and explaining deviations from the rules of the target language made by language learners.
- There are two main sources of errors: interlingual transfers from the first language and intralingual transfers arising from faulty or incomplete learning of the target language itself.
- Errors provide valuable information to teachers and researchers about learners' developing language systems and can help improve teaching techniques.
The document discusses two main branches of linguistics:
1) Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time. It focuses on connections between languages and their historical development.
2) Descriptive linguistics investigates the structure of language at a single point in time without considering historical changes.
Historical linguistics and descriptive linguistics are interdependent, as the current state of a language is influenced by its history and synchronic variations can lead to diachronic changes.
The document discusses historical linguistics and how languages change over time. It covers two main branches - diachronic linguistics which studies how languages change through time, and synchronic linguistics which looks at languages at a single point in time. Languages undergo various types of changes including sound changes, grammatical changes, semantic changes, and borrowing of words from other languages. Both linguistic and non-linguistic factors can influence how and why languages evolve.
Language change occurs over time through various causes like economy, analogy, language contact, language acquisition, and social differentiation. Historical linguists study language change over long periods while sociolinguists examine how social factors influence language variations between groups. Common causes of change include reducing effort through simplification, making irregular forms more regular, adopting words and constructions through contact between languages, differences in how children and adults acquire language, and distinguishing social group norms.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the influence of social factors on language and how language varies between social groups. It examines how language is used to categorize individuals in social classes.
2) Language changes over time due to factors like economy, analogy, language contact, acquisition, and sociolinguistic explanations. Changes occur at the lexical, grammatical, and sound levels.
3) Speech communities are groups that share language norms. Sociolinguistics studies high and low prestige varieties and tight versus loose social networks. It also examines internal language within the mind and external language in social contexts.
This document provides an overview of language change from both a historical and sociological perspective. It discusses the different types and levels of language change, including sound changes, lexical changes, semantic changes, and syntactic changes. Several theories of language change are presented, such as functional theory, random fluctuation theory, substratum theory, and the S-curve theory. The document also examines the routes language change can take, such as through language learning, contact, social differentiation, and natural usage processes. Finally, it outlines the major levels of language change - phonological, syntactic, semantic, and lexical - providing examples of sound changes like assimilation, dissimilation, and the Great Vowel Shift.
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language including its structure, use, and the implications of these. It can be divided into theoretical linguistics, which studies the structural properties of language through topics like phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax, and experimental and applied linguistics, which studies language in relation to other fields through topics like bilingualism, dialectology, historical linguistics, and language acquisition. Linguistics allows for many different approaches including descriptive/theoretical, synchronic/diachronic, and functional. It has wide applications in fields such as artificial intelligence, forensic linguistics, lexicography, machine translation, speech therapy, speech recognition, and language teaching.
9300AWEEK 1 What is language Our relationship with language. T.docxblondellchancy
9300A
WEEK 1: What is language? Our relationship with language. The Study of L2 Acquisition.
Readings:
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Chapter 1.
· As never before, people have had to learn a second language, not just as a pleasing pastime, but often as a means of obtaining an education or securing employment. At such a time, there is an obvious need to discover more about how second languages are learned. (学习二语的原因:why do you need to learn English? Is there have some special reason to learn [academic, daily life])
· ‘L2 acquisition’, then, can be defined as the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or out side of a classroom, and ‘Second Language Acquisition’ (SLA) as the study of this. [do you think you are a successful second language learner? Why? How you did it?]
· What are the goals of sla: learner language [how learners’ accents change over time. Another might be the words learners use; how learners build up their vocabulary.]
· What type of input facilitates learning? [do learners benefit more from input that has been simplified for them or from the authentic language of native-speaker communication?
· The goals of SLA, then, are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others.
·
WEEK 2: First Language Acquisition
Readings:
Yule, G. (2016). The study of language. Cambridge university press. P.170-181 Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. Oxford
University Press. Chapter 1
Yule: By the age of two-and-a-half, the child’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and the child is initiating more talk while increased physical activity includes running and jumping. By three, the vocabulary has grown to hundreds of words and pronunciation has become closer to the form of adult language. At this point, it is worth considering what kind of influence the adults have in the development of the child’s speech.
Morphology; syntax
Lightbown: How do children accomplish this? What enables a child not only to learn words, but to put them together in meaningful sentences? What pushes children to go on developing complex grammatical language even though their early simple communication is successful for most purposes? Does child language develop similarly around the world? How do bilingual children acquire more than one language?
【Which stage do you think is the fastest progress in your second language?】
【How the interviewee’s knowledge of English grammar developed during the time? (if you cannot remember the learning processes, you can think what did you do, how does you try to learn an L2)】p.008
[学习者有没有背单词,是long-term memory 还是working memory?(cognition)]
Negation对立面p.9
WEEK 3: Behaviourism and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
Readings:
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. P.69-71
Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second ...
The document discusses various topics related to second language acquisition including definitions of language, applied linguistics, trends in SLA, and language teaching methodology. It specifically describes the Grammar-Translation method, noting its key characteristics are teaching grammar rules through mother tongue explanation and translation exercises with little active use of the target language. Critics argue this method does not enhance communicative ability and is not advocated due to its reliance on memorization without theory.
Unlock the Future of Search with MongoDB Atlas_ Vector Search Unleashed.pdfMalak Abu Hammad
Discover how MongoDB Atlas and vector search technology can revolutionize your application's search capabilities. This comprehensive presentation covers:
* What is Vector Search?
* Importance and benefits of vector search
* Practical use cases across various industries
* Step-by-step implementation guide
* Live demos with code snippets
* Enhancing LLM capabilities with vector search
* Best practices and optimization strategies
Perfect for developers, AI enthusiasts, and tech leaders. Learn how to leverage MongoDB Atlas to deliver highly relevant, context-aware search results, transforming your data retrieval process. Stay ahead in tech innovation and maximize the potential of your applications.
#MongoDB #VectorSearch #AI #SemanticSearch #TechInnovation #DataScience #LLM #MachineLearning #SearchTechnology
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/building-and-scaling-ai-applications-with-the-nx-ai-manager-a-presentation-from-network-optix/
Robin van Emden, Senior Director of Data Science at Network Optix, presents the “Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
In this presentation, van Emden covers the basics of scaling edge AI solutions using the Nx tool kit. He emphasizes the process of developing AI models and deploying them globally. He also showcases the conversion of AI models and the creation of effective edge AI pipelines, with a focus on pre-processing, model conversion, selecting the appropriate inference engine for the target hardware and post-processing.
van Emden shows how Nx can simplify the developer’s life and facilitate a rapid transition from concept to production-ready applications.He provides valuable insights into developing scalable and efficient edge AI solutions, with a strong focus on practical implementation.
Threats to mobile devices are more prevalent and increasing in scope and complexity. Users of mobile devices desire to take full advantage of the features
available on those devices, but many of the features provide convenience and capability but sacrifice security. This best practices guide outlines steps the users can take to better protect personal devices and information.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
Prompting language models is hard, while programming language models is easy. In this talk, I will discuss the state-of-the-art framework DSPy for programming foundation models with its powerful optimizers and runtime constraint system.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
CAKE: Sharing Slices of Confidential Data on BlockchainClaudio Di Ciccio
Presented at the CAiSE 2024 Forum, Intelligent Information Systems, June 6th, Limassol, Cyprus.
Synopsis: Cooperative information systems typically involve various entities in a collaborative process within a distributed environment. Blockchain technology offers a mechanism for automating such processes, even when only partial trust exists among participants. The data stored on the blockchain is replicated across all nodes in the network, ensuring accessibility to all participants. While this aspect facilitates traceability, integrity, and persistence, it poses challenges for adopting public blockchains in enterprise settings due to confidentiality issues. In this paper, we present a software tool named Control Access via Key Encryption (CAKE), designed to ensure data confidentiality in scenarios involving public blockchains. After outlining its core components and functionalities, we showcase the application of CAKE in the context of a real-world cyber-security project within the logistics domain.
Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61000-4_16
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
Removing Uninteresting Bytes in Software FuzzingAftab Hussain
Imagine a world where software fuzzing, the process of mutating bytes in test seeds to uncover hidden and erroneous program behaviors, becomes faster and more effective. A lot depends on the initial seeds, which can significantly dictate the trajectory of a fuzzing campaign, particularly in terms of how long it takes to uncover interesting behaviour in your code. We introduce DIAR, a technique designed to speedup fuzzing campaigns by pinpointing and eliminating those uninteresting bytes in the seeds. Picture this: instead of wasting valuable resources on meaningless mutations in large, bloated seeds, DIAR removes the unnecessary bytes, streamlining the entire process.
In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
- These are slides of the talk given at IEEE International Conference on Software Testing Verification and Validation Workshop, ICSTW 2022.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
AI 101: An Introduction to the Basics and Impact of Artificial IntelligenceIndexBug
Imagine a world where machines not only perform tasks but also learn, adapt, and make decisions. This is the promise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), a technology that's not just enhancing our lives but revolutionizing entire industries.
Things to Consider When Choosing a Website Developer for your Website | FODUUFODUU
Choosing the right website developer is crucial for your business. This article covers essential factors to consider, including experience, portfolio, technical skills, communication, pricing, reputation & reviews, cost and budget considerations and post-launch support. Make an informed decision to ensure your website meets your business goals.
Building Production Ready Search Pipelines with Spark and MilvusZilliz
Spark is the widely used ETL tool for processing, indexing and ingesting data to serving stack for search. Milvus is the production-ready open-source vector database. In this talk we will show how to use Spark to process unstructured data to extract vector representations, and push the vectors to Milvus vector database for search serving.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Mind map of terminologies used in context of Generative AI
Al,fo silization
1. English Language Teaching June, 2008
127
Implication of IL Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition
Xueping Wei
Graduate School of Foreign Language, Beijing Language and Culture University
10#215, 15 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China
Email: Xueping.wei@gmail.com
Abstract
Since the phenomenon of fossilization in intelanguage is proposed by Selinker in 1972, it has drawn much attention and
commonly acknowledged at home and abroad. This paper introduces the definition, classification, presentation, and
causal factors of fossilization in an attempt to help Chinese students better understand the phenomenon and avoid its
influence by the proposal of some suggestions.
Keywords: Fossilization, Interlanguage (IL), Target Language (TL), Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
1. Notion of Fossilization
Selinker first put forwarded the notion of fossilization in the paper Interlanuage in 1972. He noted that 95% of L2
learners failed to reach the same level of L1 competence from his observation. This kind of phenomenon is defined by
Selinder (1972) as fossilization. Fossilization, a mechanism…underlies surface linguistic material which speakers will
tend to keep in their IL productive performance, no matter what the age of the learner or the amount of instruction he
receives in the TL.
Selinker and Lamendella (1978) redefined fossilization as a permanent cessation of IL learning before the learner has
attained TL norms at all levels of linguistic structure and in all discourse domains in spite of the learner’s positive ability,
opportunity, and motivation to learn and acculturate into target society.
The notion of fossilization has been interpreted differently by different scholars since it was proposed. For instance,
there are terms like backsliding, stabilized errors, learning plateau, typical error, persistent non-target-like performance,
de-acceleration of the learning process, ingrained errors, systematic use of erroneous forms, cessation of learning,
structural persistence, ultimate attainment, long-lasting free variation, persistent difficulty, and inability to fully master
target language features describing the similar meaning, which lead to confusion for quite a long time.
This paper is also based on some commonly accepted concept about fossilization. (1) it may appear at different
language levels; (2) it may occur at different learning stages among age groups; (3) it may be either structure
fossilization or competence fossilization; (4) it is usually manifested as the deviant forms from the TL norms; (5) there
are soft and hard degrees of fossilization.
2. Classification of Fossilization
2.1 Individual fossilization and group fossilization
According to Selinker (1978), interlanguage fossilization falls into two categories, namely individual fossilization and
group fossilization. The former is the persistence of individual learner’s IL development, while the latter is the plateau
in the diachronic development of a community language.
Usually, individual fossilization consists of two types: error reappearance, and language competence fossilization. Error
reappearance refers to the inappropriate interlanguage structures that are thought to have been corrected but continue to
appear regularly. It can be found in IL of beginners or learners with low proficiency. Language competence fossilization
refers to the plateau in the development of L2 learners’ phonological, grammatical, lexical and pragmatic competence. It
is found in L2 learners who have been learning TL for a long period of time and arrived at a relatively high level. In fact,
repeated errors are often the demonstrations of competence fossilization.
If fossilized language competence becomes pervasive in a community, group fossilization comes into being. Such
pervasion often leads to a new dialect. Indian English and Singapore English are good cases in point.
2.2 Temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization
Selinker also classified fossilization into temporary fossilization and permanent fossilization. (See Figure 1)
Temporary fossilization, also called stabilization, indicates that fossilized interlanguage consists of learning plateaus,
2. Vol. 1, No. 1 English Language Teaching
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“where development of given TL features is simply ‘arrested’ or ‘inhibited’ for shorter or longer periods of time. (Sims,
1989) It has become one of the heated topics in the current fossilization studies.
Permanent fossilization takes place s a result of social, psychological and interactive variables. Researchers that
temporarily arrested IL development can be susceptible to defossilization. It has also been referred to by Sims as soft
fossilization or jellification.
3. Types of Fossilization
Fossilization is a linguistic phenomenon in its own right and manifested as deviant forms from TL. It occurs at all levels,
from phonological layer to pragmatic layer.
3.1 Phonological fossilization
The difference of phonology is possibly the greatest difference between languages. Phonological fossilization refers to
the repetition of phonological errors which result from the incorrect acquisition of pronunciation of L2, usually affected
by L1. In English, there are certain pronunciations such as [ ] which do not exist in Chinese. Therefore, it is difficult for
Chinese English learners to pronounce this consonant [ ] correctly. It is often heard that Chinese students say “Thank
[snk] you” instead of “Thank [ æ k] you”. When such phonological errors are repeatedly made and eventually stay
stable in the incorrect manner, phonological fossilization occurs.
3.2 Morphological fossilization
English has got a variety of changes in morphology and therefore has various grammatical morphemes. The most
common problems lay in two aspects, inflectional morpheme and article. The third-person singular –s is a facet of
syntactic agreement such as drinks and is suffixed to lexical verbs and auxiliaries such as has. However, there are other
markers for third-person singular, such as buses, crises, and criteria. Since such linguistic phenomenon does not exist in
Chinese, it often leads Chinese students to forget the transformation or to misuse the form. Articles are also big
headaches for Chinese students, because there are no corresponding words or expression in Chinese. When and where
to put which article stays as a mystery for certain amount of learners even those who with higher proficiency.
3.3 Syntactic fossilization
Different languages have their own syntactic rules. The most typical manifestation of syntactic fossilization among
Chinese students is presented in tense. Chinese does not have obvious tense differentiation, whereas English has present
tense and past tense in general that can be further divided into sixteen categories. Not to mention complicated marker
system for past tense and past participle tense, it often takes time for Chinese students to decide the right kind of tense.
In the situation that they cannot make clear distinction, they have to turn to their instinct for help from time to time and
thus fossilization occurs.
3.4 Semantic fossilization
Semantic fossilization refers to the use of language forms that exist in TL but do not represent the meanings L2 learners
intend to express in the context. For example, the word individualism is commendatory in the capitalism world but
derogatory in socialism China, dragon is the symbol of evil in the western culture but the symbol of power in China. If
a Chinese wants to describe a past patient but forget the word die, he may use go to the west, the euphemism form for
die, but western listeners may feel confused.
3.5 Pragmatic fossilization
Due to the close relationship between pragmatics and semantics, fossilization in the two aspects is interrelated and
overlapping. A pragmatic deviance is also termed “pragmatic failure” by Thomas (1983). In her view, pragmatic failure
takes place in the cross-cultural communication and refers to the “inability to understand what is meant by what is said”.
Inappropriate language use results in misunderstanding, embarrassment, and even insult.
4. Causal Factors of Fossilization
Selinker contends that “the most interesting phenomena in IL performance are those items, rules and sub-systems which
are fossilizable in terms of the five processes: Language transfer, transfer of training, strategies of second language
learning, strategies of second language communication, and overgeneralization of TL linguistic material.” (Ellis, 1999:
351) He also states that combinations of the five processes produce entirely fossilized IL competence.
4.1 Language transfer
Selinker (1972) believed that some language rules in the learner’s IL are transferred from his/her L1. The errors in the
use of L2 result mainly from L1, and the difference between L1 and the L2 is the reason for the occurrence of errors.
That’s why the transfer of L1 rules can lead to fossilization.
The transfer of L1 can be positive or negative. Positive transfer refers to that the similarities shared by the L1 and L2
help second language acquisition. Likewise, negative transfer refers to the differences between L1 and L2 that interfere
3. English Language Teaching June, 2008
129
second language acquisition. The negative transfer of L1 is what the behaviorists believe to be proactive inhibition; that
is to say, the influence of what has been previously learned appears in the context of and interrupts what is learned
afterwards.
Then Selinker and Lakshamanan examined adult and child L2 learners that illustrate aspects of TL that are candidates
for fossilization (e.g., clauses with no tenses, IL morphological forms). In all cases, language transfer seems to be either
the main factor or a cofactor. Their study clearly shows that there is a link between fossilization and language transfer.
4.2 Training transfer
Graham (1981) suggested that one of the major causes for fossilization of incorrect language forms is the lack of formal
instruction in English. This researcher argued that “learning simply by contact has led many students to devise IL or
idiosyncratic languages with rules often wildly different from those of Standard English”. A similar position was voiced
by Valette who made a distinction between “street” learners and school learners. She claimed that “fossilization often
occurs among ‘street’ learners who have had extensive opportunity to communicate successfully albeit with inaccurate
lexical and syntactic patterns. As a result, their errors have become systematized and are almost impossible to eradicate”
(Valette, 1991). “Street” learners are never corrected, nor do they correct themselves.
Valette’s conclusions are shared by Higgs and Clifford’s position. These researchers remarked that learners at
Government language schools are “hopelessly stranded on various sorts of developmental plateau” (Sims, 1989). Higgs
and Clifford called those learners “terminal cases.” They explained that “these learners have been affected by prior
language experience of some informal nature…such as street learning in the target culture, which then inhibits their
progress in formal classroom instruction” (Sims, 1989, 65).
Moreover, Higgs and Clifford argued that “contemporary approaches to second language teaching…place a premium on
communication, often at the expense of accuracy; under such methodologies, learners will tend to fossilize at relatively
low levels, because systematic errors in their IL will usually go unremediated” (Sims, 1989, 65). In conclusion, they
argued that in the absence of formal instruction, some areas of L2 learners’ IL appear to be at least stagnant if not
necessarily fossilized. Likewise, they claimed that particular L2 structures can be candidates for fossilization, while
others are not. Incorrect teaching method can prevent successful second language learning in the sense that the use of
inadequate teaching methodologies has also been suggested as an explanation for the occurrence of fossilization.
4.3 Learning strategy
In the process of learning a second language, fossilization caused by the incorrect application of learning strategies is
the most common. Sims (1989) suggested that “someplace along the IL continuum, inappropriate or misapplied learning
strategies could lead to fossilization of some features (phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, psycholinguistic,
or socio-cultural).”
Learning strategies refer not only to the overall strategies but also to the explicit methods the learner adopts in the
process of second language learning, and the former is more likely to cause fossilization of language competence. The
appropriate application of learning strategies helps process the TL input and therefore improves L2 learning quality.
Some learners, however, may turn to learning strategies to such an extent as overgeneralization, simplification,
incomplete rule application and inadequate declarative knowledge of L2.
According to Sims, the repeated use of unsuccessful strategies, i.e., those strategies which do not enable competition of
a given language learning task, could impede a learner’s progress. Finally, Sims concluded that the “proposed
relationship of fossilization and learning strategies… could be a key to the remediation of systematized errors, as the
role of the learner information processing in the second language acquisition process becomes more clearly understood”
(Sims, 1989).
4.4 Communication strategy
As Ellis (2002) defined, the cognitive component of procedural knowledge is composed of the various mental process
involved in both internalizing and automatizing new L2 knowledge and using L2 knowledge along with other
knowledge sources to communicate in L2. It’s evident that these processes involve L2 learning and using, where the
former concerns learning strategy and the latter communication strategy.
In real communication, learners may turn to communication strategy, a systematic skill that a speaker resorts to while
having difficulties in expression to keep the communication going on. Unfortunately, sometimes such “successful use of
communication strategies will prevent acquisition”, Ellis (2002) said, for the learner may become so “skillful” in
making up for lack of linguistic knowledge by the use of various communication strategies such as avoidance or
paraphrase.
Also, the learner inclines to simplify the target language, especially to simplify the grammatical rules, for instance, the
use of the articles, plural forms and the use of tenses. And this reflects the unsatisfactory effect of communicative
teaching methods. If the learner pays too much attention to the fluency but neglects the accuracy, some language errors
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can be easily fossilized. If the learner only stresses the cultivation of communicative competence but neglects the
language competence, his/her language competence can also be easily fossilized.
4.5 Overgeneralization
Overgeneralization (Ellis, 2000) involves the use of existing L2 knowledge by extending it to new IL forms. It happens
when people apply a grammatical rule across all members of a grammatical class without making the appropriate
exceptions. In fact, language overgeneralization always indicates the ignorance of rule restrictions, including semantic
restrictions of lexis or other linguistic items. For instance, using the -ed suffix to indicate past tense for verbs like "go"
and "think."
The reason for which overgeneralization is important in L2 acquisition is that it leads to failure in detecting the errors
for language learners. The phenomenon always occurs unconsciously. Without timely instruction and correction, the
errors will stay for as long as it can do.
4.6 Others
There is no consensus concerning the actual causes of fossilization. As broadly conceived, the causal factors fall into the
following categories: environmental, cognitive, neurobiological, and socio-affective. And in turn, on the whole, all of
these causal factors can be put into two groups: internal factors and external factors. (Han, 2003: 104) (See Table 1)
5. Fossilization Reduction
5.1 Adoption of proper learning strategies
A lot of the research has been based on the assumption that there are “good” learning strategies. Although this concept
is questionable, there are successful learners. Their learning experience is of great value to others.
First, successful learners appear to use strategies more frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learners who
are less successful. For example, memory strategies are used in vocabulary learning and dictionaries are used in
vocabulary testing. Second, successful language learning involves attention to both form and meaning. Good language
learners appear able to switch the focus of their attention while they are performing a task. They tend to treat language
as a system by making effective cross-lingual comparisons, analyzing the target language, and using reference books.
Third, different kinds of learning strategies may contribute to different aspects of L2 proficiency. Thus, strategies that
involve formal practice may contribute to the development of linguistic competence, while strategies involving
functional practice aid the development of communicative competence. L2 learners need to employ strategies flexibly
by selecting those strategies that are appropriate for performing a particular learning task.
5.2 Reduction of negative transfer of L1
It is quite obvious in beginning learners of English as a second language because of their insufficient knowledge of the
target language. Therefore, Krashen (1983) suggested that the learners are not expected to use the target language too
early until the learners’ oral competence is facilitated with sufficient input and without relying on their native language
to form systems. Otherwise, some inappropriate expressions can be fossilized. Corder (1978) pointed out that the native
language of the learners offers various hypotheses concerning the target language, and only through abundant input of
the target language can the negative transfer of the native language be lessened. The learners should not be encouraged
to read paragraphs or articles and to analyze the grammar or the usage of the words in each sentence, for the reason that
context is very important in mastering vocabulary, and the sufficient input of the target language is the effective method
to overcome the negative transfer of native language.
5.3 Exposure to TL and TL culture
Natural exposure to TL has similarly been proposed as a factor that promotes L2 learning and therefore helps learners
overcome fossilization. One way to expose learners to the natural target language is by allowing them to stay for some
time in the native environment abroad. While this is not possible for the majority of L2 learners, they need to seek
exposure to TL and TL culture in other ways.
As suggested by Krashen (1982), providing sufficient and optimal input from te very beginning should be the right way
to reduce fossilization. First, multimedia instruments are highly recommended. Those materials not only contain
standard pronunciation, but also reflect target culture. Second, textbooks with original passages by foreign authors
should be adopted in that its way of thinking and expression can help L2 learners better understand and master the
language.
6. Conclusion
Fossilization is an inevitable state in and has significance influence on second language acquisition. It deserves our
attention and research to solve fossilization problems in all aspects of language. Only in this way can the level of
English teaching and learning be improved.
5. English Language Teaching June, 2008
131
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Han, Z-H. (2003). Fossilization: From Simplicity to Complexity. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 6/2: pp. 95-128.
Krasen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: Pergman.
Krashen, S. D. (1983). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL 10(2): pp. 209-31.
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Table 1. A Taxonomy of Putative Causal Factors of Fossilization
External Environmental Eg. Absence of instruction, lack of input
Knowledge representation Eg. L1 influence, lack of access to UG
Knowledge processing Eg. Lack of attentionCognitive
Psychological Eg. Avoidance, simplification
Nero-biological Eg. Age, lack of talent
Internal
Social-affective Eg. Lack of acculturation
Table 1 is a simplified summary of the explanation.
Figure 1. Temporary Fossilization and Permanent Fossilization