This document discusses photoluminescence, specifically fluorescence and phosphorescence. It begins by explaining excited state phenomena that can occur when a molecule is excited by electromagnetic irradiation, such as vibrational relaxation, internal conversion, and intersystem crossing. It then describes fluorescence, noting that it is emission from the singlet excited state back to the ground state. Key characteristics of fluorescence mentioned are its red shift compared to absorption (Stokes shift) and that emission spectra are often a mirror image of absorption spectra. The document also briefly introduces phosphorescence, which differs from fluorescence in involving a transition from the triplet excited state.

1. UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PADOVA
DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA INDUSTRIALE
CORSO DI LAUREA IN INGEGNERIA CHIMICA E DEI MATERIALI
Tesi di Laurea in
Ingegneria Chimica e dei Materiali
(Laurea triennale DM 270/04 – indirizzo Materiali)
SYNTHESIS CHARACTERIZATION AND STUDY OF
PHOTOINDUCED ELECTRON TRANSFER IN Ag29
NANOCLUSTERS FOR SOLAR APPLICATIONS
Relatore: Prof. Giovanna Brusatin
Correlatori: Prof. Osman M. Bakr, Prof. Omar F. Mohammed Abdelsaboor
Laureando: ALBERTO TOSATO
ANNO ACCADEMICO 2014 – 2015

3. Summary
This thesis presents the work developed in a five month internship in collaboration with two
labs: Ultrafast laser spectroscopy lab, and Functional Nanomaterial lab at King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology (Saudi Arabia).
This work entails the synthesis and characterization of a new fluorescent nanocluster:
[Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
; and the photoinduced electron transfer from this nanocluster to a
cationic and neutral fullerene derivative.
The results obtained, besides showing that the synthesized silver nanoclusters are good electron
donors, point out the importance of electrostatic interaction, at the donor-acceptor interfaces, in
electron transfer: the process at the basis of a solar cells.

5. Table of Contents
1 Nanoclusters...................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Metal colloids .............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Nanoclusters and properties......................................................................................... 3
1.3 Synthetic methods of noble metal fluorescent nanoclusters........................................ 4
1.4 Applications................................................................................................................. 6
2 Photoluminescence ........................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Excited state phenomena ............................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Fluorescence......................................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Phosphorescence ................................................................................................ 10
2.2 Fluorescence quenching............................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 Forster resonance energy transfer.......................................................................11
2.2.2 Dexter energy transfer........................................................................................12
2.2.3 Photoinduced electron transfer...........................................................................12
3 Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectroscopy............................................................. 17
3.1 Principle of transient absorption spectroscopy.......................................................... 17
3.2 Experimental setup ....................................................................................................19
4 Synthesis and characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4 ...............................................21
4.1 Synthesis....................................................................................................................21
4.2 Characterization.........................................................................................................22
4.2.1 Mass spectroscopy and analytical ultracentrifugation........................................22
4.2.2 X-ray diffraction.................................................................................................23
4.2.3 Optical properties ............................................................................................... 26
5 Photoinduced electron transfer.....................................................................................27
5.1 Steady-state absorption and fluorescence..................................................................27
5.2 Femtosecond transient absorption .............................................................................31
5.2.1 Instrumentation for time-resolved measurement................................................35

7. Introduction
In a period where energy consumption is tremendously increasing, and urge the necessity of a
sustainable current production; solar energy, the most abundant form of energy available on our
planet, could be a useful alternative to the conventional energy production methods. Thus, it is
essential to explore new ways for harvesting solar energy in order to develop cost-effective and
highly-efficient solar cells.
Fluorescence noble metal nanoclusters are a new class of nano-materials that have just stepped
into photovoltaic research. Metal nanoclusters are nanoparticles composed of 2 to roughly 150
metal atoms protected by a shell of ligands: organic molecules that bind to the surface atoms of
the cluster. They exhibit quantum-confinement effects, which result in several unique properties
including discrete electronic structure, defined HOMO-LUMO electronic transitions,
photoluminescence emission, size dependent catalytic activity, and magnetism. Research on
nanoclusters is showing their effectiveness in boosting the efficiency of dye-sensitize and
polymer solar cells and in developing new types of solar cells. The first Metal-nanocluster-
sensitized solar cell, “Au-nanoclusters-sensitized solar cell”, was recently assembled, showing
an efficiency greater than 2%. This is a promising success for this field that has just begun.
In the first part of this thesis, is presented in the synthesis, optical properties and structure of a
new atomically precise nanocluster: Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4. While, in the second part is presented
the study of the excited state interactions of the bimolecular system [Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
as
electron donor, and C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n as electron acceptor, using
steady state absorption-fluorescence spectroscopy, and femtosecond time resolved absorption
spectroscopy. Femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy is a powerful technique that
allows to study ultrafast processes such as electron transfer. Being able to determine whether
electron transfer occurs or not between two molecules, is a great advantage that permits to
forecast, without building any device, the current of the donor-acceptor system that is at the
basis of a solar cell. The system studied was than extended to a neutral fullerene, C60-(malonic
acid)n, to verify which role columbic-interaction plays in electron transfer and thus in the active
layer of a possible metal-nanoclusters-based solar cell. To prove definitely the role of
Coulumbic interaction in electron transfer, another system was then considered, substituting the
anionic nanoclusters with anionic carboxyl-capped CdTe quantum dots.

9. 1 Chapter 1 3
Nanoclusters
Recent advance in nanotechnologies have given rise to a new class of nanomaterials:
fluorescent metal nanoclusters. These nanoparticles are of great importance because their sizes,
from few to one hundred or so atoms, are comparable to the Fermi wavelength of electrons,
resulting in molecule-like properties, such as discrete electronic states and size-dependent
fluorescence.
To understand the synthetic methods and properties of nanoclusters is useful to consider another
structure that lies between bulk metals and nanoclusters: metal colloids.
1.1 Metal colloids
Metal colloids historically were the first nanoparticles to be investigated. Metal colloid is
intended to be a solution of metal particles, dispersed in a medium, that have at least one
direction roughly between 1 nm and 1 µm. The agglomeration of the nanoparticles to bulk
material is prevented by the buildup of charges or ligands (molecules of a certain dimension
that can bound to the surface metal atoms of the nanoparticles) on the surfaces. These charges
can be due to different oxidation states of the metal atoms, or to the presence of the ligand itself.
The interaction of metal colloids with light give rise to interesting phenomena. The oscillating
field of light interacts with the free electrons of nanoparticles, causing a concerted oscillation
of electron charge that is in resonance with the frequency of the visible light. These resonant
oscillations are known as surface plasmon resonance and result in the absorption of photons of
the resonance’s wavelength. As the particle size increases, the wavelength of the surface
plasmon resonance, shifts to higher wavelengths.
Although, when the size reduces under few nanometers, the metal nanoparticles are too small
to support plasmons, and another phenomenon takes place: quantum confinement.
1.2 Nanoclusters and properties
Metal nanoclusters typically have diameters below two nanometers (2-150 metal atoms), and
have properties that place them in between isolated atoms and bulk material. When a
nanoparticle size is of the order of the Fermi wavelength of the electron, the continuous density
of state (a characteristic of bulk metals), brakes up into discrete energy levels (quantum

10. 4 1. Nanoclusters
confinement), leading to a dramatic change of optical, electrical and chemical properties, as
compared to larger size nanoparticles or bulk materials.
A nanocluster defines a group of metal atoms bound together through metal-metal bonds or
metal-ligand bonds. To guarantee the clusters stability and prevent their aggregation,
nanoclusters are, in fact, protected by a shell of ligand, that for noble metals usually consist of
a thiol or a phosphine, since S and P give rise to good interaction with noble metal atoms.
The syntheses of nanoclusters are generally made in solution. In the last few years many
reproducible methods were developed to obtain a single sized nanocluster with well-defined
structure and chemical composition.
Nanoclusters are generally soluble in organic solvents, giving clear and strongly colored
solutions, but the ligand can be functionalized to make the clusters water soluble.
The clusters have well defined HOMO and LUMO energy levels, and therefore characteristic
peaks are shown in the absorption spectra due to the electron transition from occupied to empty
delocalized molecular orbitals, an example is shown in Figure 1.1, left panel. The HOMO-
LUMO gap generally becomes smaller with the increasing of the cluster size, thus the
absorption peaks are blue shifted as the size decreases (Figure 1.1, right panel). Thanks to the
HOMO and LUMO gap, the clusters are often fluorescent and a wide Stoke shift is usually
observed between absorption and emission spectra.
1.3 Synthetic methods of noble metal fluorescent nanoclusters
There are mainly two ways to synthetize noble metal nanoclusters in solution, a bottom-up
approach, that consist in the reduction and aggregation of metal ions coming from a certain salt.
And a top-down approach that allows to obtain nanoclusters from larger nanoparticles.
Figure 1.1 On the left panel structure and absorption spectra of thiolated-protected Au23 (yellow
atoms: S; other atoms: Au).
On the right panel trends of bandgap energies (Eg) with size (n) of Aun(SR)m nanoclusters.

11. 2. Nanoclusters 5
Thiol and phosphine-containing small molecules are the most commonly adopted ligands in
gold and silver nanoparticle synthesis, owing to the strong interaction of both thiol and
phosphine with these two noble metals.
The bottom up synthesis proceeds as follows in Figure 1.2. A salt of the noble metal is dissolved
in a solvent and is then reduced in the presence of the ligand. The reduction can be either by
chemical reductant (e.g. sodium borohydride) or by light (visible or ultraviolet).
Figure 1.2 Schematic description of the synthesis of DPA-stabilized fluorescent Au nanoclusters
using THPC as a reductant.
Using the top down approach, fluorescent nanoclusters are produced by etching large noble
metal nanoparticles with the ligand (Figure 1.3). This reaction can follow two possible routes:
few atoms from the surface of a nanoparticle are extracted by the ligand, making metal particles
form a cluster. Or, the metal atoms are gradually removed from the surface of the nanoparticles
by the ligand, forming a complex with the ligand itself, and so that the nanoparticles become a
nanocluster.
Many other methods were developed for synthetizing fluorescence nanoclusters, using
polymers, proteins and DNA, however the two most common are the ones just presented.
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of two possible route for the formation of fluorescent Au
nanoclusters via etching of preformed MSA-protected Au nanoparticles.

12. 6 1. Nanoclusters
1.4 Applications
The precise number of atoms that nanoclusters are composed of, their selectivity to bind with
other molecules/biomolecules, the possibility to excite them in the visible range, their
fluorescence and their low toxicity are interesting features that make them suitable for many
applications.
Thanks to their luminescence, nanoclusters are widely used for detection of metal atoms, small
biomolecules, proteins, and nucleic acids. In biology, they are used for imaging, labeling and
drug delivery. Many studies are being carried out on their catalytic and photocatalytic
properties, and in the last few years, noble metal nanoclusters started to be used in photovoltaic
devices. In particular, successful results were obtained in boosting dye sensitized solar cells
with gold nanoclusters, and recently the first metal-clusters-sensitized solar cells were
developed, showing cell performance comparable to those of quantum-dot-based solar cells,
but with the advantage of a lower toxicity.

13. 2 Chapter 2 3
Photoluminescence
Photoluminescence is the emission of light from an atom or a molecule, which occurs after
excitation. It can be divided in two different processes, fluorescence and phosphorescence.
These two processes differ in the deactivation mechanism, from the excited state of the
molecule to its ground state.
2.1 Excited state phenomena
Many processes can occur after excitation of a molecule, all of which are presented in the
following paragraph with reference to Figure 2.2.
After excitation of a molecule i.e. through electromagnetic irradiation, the ground state of a
molecule is perturbed, and one of the electrons in the ground state S0 may have enough energy
to be promoted on one of the vibrational levels of a higher energy level Sn. Immediately after
excitation, the following processes might occur.
Through collision of the excited molecule with the solvents, the electrons lose energy going to
lower vibrational levels, this process is called vibrational relaxation, and is so rapid that the
lifetime of a vibrational excited molecule (<10-12
s) is lower than the lifetime of the
electronically excited state. For this reason, fluorescence of a solution always involves the
transition from the lowest vibrational level of the excited state.
If there’s an overlap between vibrational levels of two consecutive energy levels internal
conversion may occur: the electron can go from one excited energy level to the lower one,
through a non-radiative path. This transition, although less likely, is possible from level S1 to
the ground state S0.
Triplet excited
state
Singlet excited
state
Figure 2.2 Jablonski diagram

14. 8 2. Photoluminescence
According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, the spins of two electrons in the ground state must
be opposite. When a molecule is excited, the electron that reaches the higher energy level may
swap its spin and be oriented as the one in the ground state.
Thus, two different excited states are possible: the singlet excited state, in which the electrons
have antiparallel spins and the triplet excited state where the spins are parallel (Figure 2.1).
The transition from the singlet to the triplet excited state is called intersystem crossing. It is a
non-radiative transition between electronic states of different multiplicity (singlet to triplet).
This transition is enhanced by the overlapping of vibrational levels of the triplet and singlet
state. Intersystem crossing is most commonly observed with molecules that contains heavy
atoms such as Bromine or Iodine.
Once the electron of the excited molecule reaches the lowest vibrational level of the S1 energy
level, by undergoing the processes mentioned above, it can follow two emissive paths to go
back to the ground state: Fluorescence and phosphorescence.
2.1.1 Fluorescence
Fluorescence is the emission of a photon in the transition from the energy level S1 to one of the
vibrational level of the ground state S0 . This transition is slow (10-8
s), if compared to the ones
mentioned above, that’s why fluorescence always occurs from the lowest vibrational level of
the energy level S1 (Kasha’s rule).
Examination of the Jablonski diagram points out that the photons emitted have a lower energy
than the photon absorbed, because of the energy losses of the processes that occur before
fluorescence. In terms of wavelength this means that emission is always red shifted (shifted to
a higher wavelength) with respect to absorption (Figure 2.2). This phenomena is called Stoke
shift.
An interesting feature of fluorescence is that the emission spectra is often a mirror image of the
absorption spectra. The spacing of vibrational level of the ground state S0 and first excited state
S1 are in fact similar, this means that the energy of the photons absorbed by the transition from
S0 to one of the vibrational levels of S1, is similar to the energy of the emitted photons in
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of singlet and triplet excited state

15. 2. Photoluminescence 9
transition from S1 to one of the vibrational level of S0. Therefore every peak of absorption can
be considered as a particular transition from S0 to one of the vibrational levels of S1, as well as
every peak of emission can be considered as a particular transition from S1 to one of the
vibrational level of S0 (Figure 2.2 right).
The two most important measurable characteristic of fluorescence are quantum yield and
lifetime.
The quantum yield determines the efficiency of emission after excitation, the highest theoretical
quantum yield is 1. This means that for each photon absorbed, one photon is emitted, or in other
words, fluorescence is the only possible path for the electron from 𝑆1 to 𝑆0. However, there
are few cases where the quantum yield can be greater than 1. This happened when exciting the
molecule with very high energy radiation. This could cause the excitation of more than one
electron.
The quantum yield is therefore the ratio between the number of photons emitted and number of
photon absorbed, which equal the ratio of emission intensity 𝐼𝑒𝑚 against the absorption intensity
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠.
Another way to define the fluorescence quantum yield is by the ratio excited state decay rates.
𝜙 =
𝐼𝑒𝑚
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠
=
𝑘𝑓[ 𝐹∗]
∑ 𝑘𝑖[𝐹∗]𝑖
=
𝑘𝑓
∑ 𝑘𝑖𝑖
(2.1)
Figure 2.2 Stoke shift (left panel). Mirror-image rule for anthracene (right panel), the numbers 0, 1,
and 2 refer to vibrational energy levels.

16. 10 2. Photoluminescence
Where [ 𝐹∗] is the concentration of the excited molecule, 𝑘𝑓 is the rate of fluorescence and 𝑘𝑖
are the rates of all the reactions that bring the molecule back to a ground state (fluorescence,
internal conversion, quenching, energy transfer, etc).
Life time is the average time that the excited molecule, in a specific environment, remains in
the excited state before emitting a photon. This is really important because it determines the
time available for the fluorophore (the specie that undergo to fluorescence) to interact with the
environment. For a first order decay (equation 2.2) life time is represented by 𝜏
[ 𝐹∗] = [ 𝐹∗]0 𝑒−𝑡/𝜏 (2.2)
The lifetime is
𝜏 =
1
∑ 𝑘𝑖𝑖
(2.3)
Note that since [ 𝐹∗] is directly proportional to 𝐼𝑒𝑚 (𝐼 ∝ 𝑑[ 𝐹∗] 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑜
/𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘𝑓[𝐹∗
]), equation 2.2
can be written as
𝐼𝑒𝑚 = 𝐼𝑒𝑚,0 𝑒−𝑡/𝜏
(2.4)
So the lifetime can be inferred through time-resolved fluorescence measurements.
2.1.2 Phosphorescence
Molecules in the excited state 𝑆1 can undergo to a spin conversion from the excited singlet state
to the excited triplet state 𝑇1, as explained before. Emission from 𝑇1 to the ground state 𝑆0 is
called phosphorescence. This transition is forbidden (Pauli Exclusion Principle), and as a result
the rate constants for triplet emission are several order of magnitude smaller than those from
fluorescence.

17. 2. Photoluminescence 11
In the following table all the rates of the processes described above are reported for comparison.
Process Rate (seconds) Comments
Photon Absorption 10-14
to 10-15
vibrational relaxation <10-12
Internal conversion ~10-10
Fluorescence emission 10-5
to 10-10
singlet to singlet transition
Phosphorescence Emission 10-4
to 10 Slow: forbidden transition
2.2 Fluorescence quenching
Fluorescence quenching refers to any process that decreases the fluorescence intensity of a
sample. A variety of molecular interactions can result in quenching. These include excited-state
reactions, energy transfer, ground-state complex formation, and collisional quenching. In the
following paragraphs these different processes are presented.
2.2.1 Forster resonance energy transfer
The Förster energy transfer (FRET) is the phenomenon that an excited donor transfers energy
to an acceptor group through a non-radiative process. This non-radiative transfer mechanism is
schematically represented in Figure 2.2.3. Donor group (D) is excited by a photon and then
relaxes to the lowest excited singlet state, S1 (by Kasha’s rule). If the acceptor group is not too
far, the energy released when the electron returns to the ground state S0 may simultaneously
excite the donor group. This non-radiative process is referred to as “resonance”. After
excitation, the excited acceptor returns to the ground state either through a radiative or non-
radiative decay.
For the FRET to happen, overlap of the emission spectrum of the donor and absorption spectrum
of the acceptor (Figure 2.2.3 right), is important. This means that the energy lost from excited
donor to ground state could excite the acceptor group.

18. 12 2. Photoluminescence
2.2.2 Dexter energy transfer
This interaction occurs between a donor D and an acceptor A. The excited donor has an electron
in the LUMO, and this electron is transferred to the acceptor. The acceptor then transfers an
electron from the HOMO back to the HOMO of the donor, so the acceptor is left in an excited
state (Figure 2.2.4). Electron exchange is similar to FRET because energy is transferred to an
acceptor.
Dexter energy transfer is therefore a process where the donor and the acceptor exchange their
electrons. Hence, besides the overlap of emission spectra of D and absorption spectra of A, the
exchange in energy transfer needs the overlap of wavefunctions. In the other words, it needs
the overlap of the electron cloud. The overlap of wavefunctions also implies that the excited
donor and ground-state acceptor should be close enough so the exchange could happen.
2.2.3 Photoinduced electron transfer
Photoinduced electron transfer has been extensively studied to understand quenching and to
develop photovoltaic devices. In photoinduced electron transfer (PET), after excitation of the
fluorophore, the electron can jump from the LUMO of the fluorophore to the LUMO of the
quencher, or from the HOMO of the quencher to the HOMO of the fluorophore. In both cases
a complex is formed between the electron donor D and the electron acceptor A, yielding the
Figure 2.2.3 FRET Jablonski diagram representation on the left, and overlapping requirement on the
right.
Figure 2.2.4 Schematic representation of Dexter energy transfer.

19. 2. Photoluminescence 13
charge-transfer complex [D+
A–
]*. This complex may emit as an exciplex or be quenched and
return to the ground state (Figure 2.2.5).
The energy change for PET is given by the Rehm-Weller equation:
𝛥𝐺 = 𝐸 𝑟𝑒𝑑( 𝐷+
𝐷⁄ ) − 𝐸 𝑟𝑒𝑑( 𝐴 𝐴−⁄ ) − 𝛥𝐺00 −
𝑒2
𝜀𝑑
(2.5)
In this equation the reduction potential Ered
(D+
/D) describes the process
𝐷+
+ 𝑒 → 𝐷 (2.6)
and the reduction potential Ered
(A/A–
) describes the process
𝐴 + 𝑒 → 𝐴−
(2.7)
ΔG00 is the energy of the S0 → S1 transition of the fluorophore, which can be either D or A.
The last term on the right is the coulombic attraction energy experienced by the ion pair
following the electron transfer reaction, ε is the dielectric constant of the solvent, and d is the
distance between the charges. This term is taken into account only in case that the radical anion
and cation separate.
For the charge-transfer complex [D+
A–
]* to happen, there are two possible ways, either the
quencher diffuses to the fluorophore during the lifetime of the excited state, or a complex is
formed between the fluorophore and the quencher, and this complex is non fluorescent. The
first process is called collisional quenching, because the quenching occurs only if quencher and
fluorophore collide, and the second static quenching, because no diffusion is needed, given that
Figure 2.2.5 Energy diagram for photoinduced electron transfer. The excited molecule is assumed to be the
electron donor. νF and νE are emission from the fluorophore and exciplex, respectively

20. 14 2. Photoluminescence
a complex between fluorophore and quencher is formed. Nevertheless, in both collisional and
static quenching, fluorophore and quencher must be in contact.
2.2.3.1 Theory of collisional quenching
The processes that occur when exciting a fluorophore are the following:
(2.8)
(2.9)
The number of photons absorbed and emitted by a fluorophore depends respectively on the
concentration of the fluorophore [𝐹] , and of the concentration of excited state of the
fluorophore [𝐹∗
]
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑏𝑠[𝐹] (2.10)
𝐼𝑒𝑚 = 𝑘𝑓[𝐹∗
] (2.11)
In the presence of a quencher Q, the following process is added
(2.12)
The experimentally observed rate constant for the quenching reaction kq, also called
bimolecular quenching constant, is equal to γ kd, where γ is the efficiency of quenching:
𝑘 𝑐/(𝑘 𝑐 + 𝑘−𝑑). When the quenching reaction is completely diffusion-limited (𝑘−𝑑 = 0),
then kq= kd.
The quantum yield in the absence of a quencher 𝜙0
becomes
𝜙0
=
𝐼𝑒𝑚
0
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠
0 =
𝑘𝑓[𝐴∗
]
𝑘𝑓[ 𝐴∗] + 𝑘𝑖[𝐴∗]
=
𝑘𝑓
𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑖
(2.13)
In the presence of a quencher the quantum yield results
𝐹∗
𝑘 𝑓
𝑘𝑖
𝐹 + ℎ𝜈
𝐹 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Radiative process
Internal radiationless process
𝐹∗
+ 𝑄
𝑘 𝑑
𝑘−𝑑
[ 𝐹 𝑄]∗
𝑘 𝑐
→ 𝐹 + 𝑄 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐹 + ℎ𝜐
𝐾 𝑎𝑏𝑠
→ 𝐹∗
Absorption of a photon

21. 2. Photoluminescence 15
𝜙 =
𝐼𝑒𝑚
𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑠
=
𝑘𝑓[𝐴∗
]
𝑘𝑓[ 𝐴∗] + 𝑘𝑖[ 𝐴∗] + 𝑘 𝑞[ 𝑄][𝐴∗]
=
𝑘𝑓
𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑖+𝑘 𝑞[ 𝑄]
(2.14)
Combining equation 2.13 and 2.14 the Stern-Volmer equation is obtained
𝜙0
𝜙
=
𝐼𝑒𝑚
0
𝐼𝑒𝑚
= 1 + 𝑘 𝑞 𝜏0[𝑄] (2.15)
Where 𝜏0 is the lifetime of the fluorophore in the absence of the quencher 𝜏0 = 1/(𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑖),
and 𝐼𝑒𝑚
0
and 𝐼𝑒𝑚 are the fluorescence intensity in the absence and in the presence of a quencher
respectively.
The Stern-Volmer equation, can be expressed in terms of lifetime. If we consider the lifetime
of the fluorophore alone 𝜏0 = 1/(𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑖), against the lifetime of the fluorophore in the
presence of the quencher 𝜏 = 1/(𝑘𝑓 + 𝑘𝑖 + 𝑘 𝑞[𝑄])
𝐼𝑒𝑚
0
𝐼𝑒𝑚
=
𝜏0
𝜏 (2.16)
2.2.3.2 Theory of static quenching
In the case of static quenching, the formation of a non-fluorescent ground-state complex
between the fluorophore and the quencher occurs (equation 2.16 and 2.17).
𝐹 + 𝑄
𝐾 𝑠
[𝐹𝑄] (2.17)
𝐾𝑠 =
[ 𝐹𝑄]
[ 𝐹][ 𝑄]
(2.18)
When this complex absorbs light, immediately returns to the ground state without emission of
a photon (equation 2.18).
[ 𝐹 𝑄]∗
𝑘 𝑐
→ [𝐹 𝑄] + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 (2.19)
As for dynamic quenching, the Stern-Volmer can be derived and results in
𝐼𝑒𝑚
0
𝐼𝑒𝑚
= 1 + 𝐾𝑠[𝑄] (2.20)

22. 16 2. Photoluminescence
Since the effect of the formation of a complex simply reduces the concentration of the
fluorophore, the lifetime of the excited fluorophore doesn’t change in the presence or absence
of a quencher: 𝜏 = 𝜏0.
The measurement of the lifetime is a definitive method to distinguish static and dynamic
quenching.
2.2.3.3 Combined static and dynamic quenching
In real experiments, often happened that collisional and static quenching occur at the same time.
In this case the quenching effect will be greater of both the mechanisms described above, indeed
the fraction of quencher that is not bounded to the fluorophore can still quench the fluorophore
by dynamic quenching.
The modified Stern-Volmer can be obtained by multiplying: the ratio of fluorescents in the case
of static quenching, by the ratio of fluorescents in the case of collisional quenching. This yield
a second order equation in [Q].
𝐹0
𝐹
= (1 + 𝑘 𝑞 𝜏0[ 𝑄])(1 + 𝐾𝑠[ 𝑄]) (2.21)

23. 3 Chapter 3 3
Ultrafast Transient Absorption
Spectroscopy
Ultrafast transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy is a wide spread technique that permits to
investigate ultrafast processes. This technique provides a large amount of information regarding
the dynamics and nature of photo-induced processes, such as chemical reaction, conformational
change, energy and electron transfer and the like, both in solution and in solid state.
3.1 Principle of transient absorption spectroscopy
Ultrafast TA experiments involve two femtosecond laser pulses, a pump and a probe. The
monochromatic pump pulse, which goes through a certain volume of the sample, is resonant
with a transition of the photosystem of interest, and is used to trigger the studied photoreaction.
Thus is induced a vertical Franck Condon transition to the excited state, of a certain amount of
molecules (usually a few percent, depending on the pump power and absorption cross section
of the molecule). The probe is a weak femtosecond white laser pulse of variable wavelength,
which reaches the same volume of the sample hit by the pump after a certain delay. The light
of the probe not absorbed by the sample is diffracted on a grating and collected by a detector
(photodiode array detector or CCD), thus the absorption spectra at a certain delay is obtained
(Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Schematic depiction of transient absorption spectroscopy principle. On the right,
transient absorption spectroscopy applied to a simple reaction.

24. 18 3. Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectroscopy
For each time delay, absorption spectra will before and after the pump, be registered. In this
way, the difference of absorption spectra before and after excitation is calculated, to emphasize
the signal variation (equation 1.1).
∆𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑡 − 𝐴0 (3.1)
The measurement 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) is the sum of four single contributions from different physical
phenomena, as shown in Figure 3.2.
The first contribution is given by ground-state bleach. As a consequence of the excitation of
the molecule, from the ground state to the excited state by the probe, the number of molecules
in the ground state is decreased. Hence the absorption of the ground state after excitation is
lower than the one before excitation. Consequentially, a negative 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) contribution is given
in the wavelength region where the ground state absorbs.
The second contribution is by stimulated emission. A photon from the probe pulse can induce
the emission of a photon, with the same phase and direction of the incident photon, from an
excited molecule, which returns to the ground state. This phenomena will result in an increase
in light intensity on the detector, thus the 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) contribution for stimulated emission will be
negative. The stimulated emission’s spectral profile will follow more or less, the same emission
spectra of the fluorophore. The peak of stimulated emission, thus, will be Stoke-shifted with
respect to the ground state bleach.
The third contribution is provided by excited-state absorption. Upon excitation with the probe
beam, optically allowed transitions from the excited state of the Chromophore, to higher excited
states may be possible in a certain wavelength region, and absorption of the probe beam in this
wavelength region will occur. In this case a positive 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) contribution is given in the spectra
region where the excited state absorbs.
A fourth contribution is possible if the pump triggers a reaction, therefore the 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) is given
by product absorption. The absorption of the product results in a positive contribution in the
wavelength region where the product is absorbed. As a consequence of this phenomena, a
further ground state bleach will be observed.
Note that the intensity of the probe beam is so weak that the excited-state population is not
appreciably affected by excited-state absorption and stimulated emission.
As shown in the figure below, the spectra of the single contributions are most likely overlapped.

25. 3. Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 19
3.2 Experimental setup
In Figure 3.3 is shown a typical scheme of ultrafast absorption spectroscopy setup.
A laser pulse is generated by an oscillator, and then amplified by a regenerative amplifier
(USP). The output from the laser system, in the considered setup, is a 40 fs pulse at an energy
of 2.5 mJ, centered on the 800 nm wavelength, with a bandwidth of 30 nm, and a repetition rate
of 1 KHz. In order to be able to shift the wavelength, is used an optical parametric amplifier or
generator coupled with non-linear mixing processes such as frequency-doubling, sum-
frequency generation and difference frequency generation. Thus a broad range pulse can be
now obtained, from the UV to mid-IR. This pulse, that is the pump pulse, is sent through an
optical delay line, which consist of a retroreflector mounted on a high precision motorized
computer-controlled translation stage. A 1 μm shift of the retroreflector correspond to 6.7 fs of
delay. The pump beam is focused in the sample to a diameter of 130-200 μm and blocked after
the sample.
Regarding the probe beam, a part of the pump beam is deflected after the 800 nm beam
amplification. The deflected beam is focused on a Calcium Fluoride plate (Magnesium
Fluoride, quartz, water and ethylene glycol can be used as well) to generate the white light
probe pulse ranging from ~400 to ~1100 nm . This beam is therefore focused in the sample to
a diameter slightly smaller than the pump, and overlapped with it. It worth noting again that the
intensity of the incident probe beam is so weak that doesn’t change appreciably the population
of the excited state. The light that pass through the sample is than collimated on a grating, where
is diffracted toward an array diode or a CCD detector. The diode or the CCD is than read by a
computer on a shot-to-shot basis, thus a whole absorption spectrum is measured with each shot.
Frequently a reference beam is used to increase the signal-to-noise ratio taking in account the
probe light intensity fluctuation. In such a case, the white beam is split in two, the probe beam
and the reference one. The reference beam is than collected by a detector either after passing
through the sample or not.
Figure 3.2 Contributions to ΔA spectrum. On the right panel: ground state bleach (dashed line),
stimulated emission (dotted line) excited state absorption (thin solid line), sum of these contribution
(thick solid line).

26. 20 3. Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectroscopy
For measurement in solution at room temperature the sample is placed in a 1-2 mm quartz
cuvette which is either stirred or connected to a flow system, to prevent exposure of the same
excited volume of sample to consecutive excitation.
By the nature of the white light generation the “blue” wavelengths are generated later than the
“white” one. Hence the white light beam is generated with an intrinsic group-velocity
dispersion, which also increases passing through optical dense material such as lenses and
cuvette. This velocity dispersion must be taken in account during data analysis, and will result
as a shift to higher delay time of the “blue” wavelengths, or can be fixed by compression of the
white-beam trough a grating pair or a prism pair.
A transient absorption experiment proceed as follows. The pump beam before reaching the
sample pass through a mechanical chopper, which block the pulse every other time. In such a
way for every shot is measured the absorption spectrum before 𝐴0 and after excitation 𝐴 𝑡 at a
certain delay time. A number of shot that is sufficient for an acceptable signal-to-noise ratio is
measured for the fixed delay time, usually 103
- 104
.
The average difference ∆𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐴0 is thus calculated at this delay time, and then the delay
is increased and the above procedure is repeated. In this way an entire dataset 𝛥𝐴(𝜆, 𝑡) is
collected.
Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of an experimental transient absorption setup

27. 4 Chapter 4 3
Synthesis and Characterization of
Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4
4.1 Synthesis
Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 nanoclusters (NCs) were prepared by dissolving silver nitrate in a solvent
solution of methanol and dichloromethane prior to the addition of 1,3-Benzenedithiol (BDT)
ligands. The solution turned turbid with insoluble yellow flakes, indicating the formation of a
Ag-S complex. Triphenylphosphine (TPP) was dissolved in dichloromethane and introduced
to the reaction vial immediately after mixing the silver salt with BDT. The yellow flakes
disappeared immediately and the solution turned clear. The reaction mixture was then reduced
with an aqueous solution of NaBH4, and the resulting dark brown solution turned dark orange
during 5-7 h of stirring. Figure 4.1 shows detailed pictures of the reaction vials throughout the
reaction. To purify the product, the solution was centrifuged at 9000 rpm: the product consisted
of a dark brown pellet which was then dried under vacuum. The so obtained clusters where than
dissolved and filtered. The purified NCs showed high solubility in various aprotic polar
solvents, including DMF and DMSO, and fair solubility in less polar solvents such as
acetonitrile and dichloromethane.
Figure 4.1 Synthesis of [Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
nanoclusters.

28. 22 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4
4.2 Characterization
4.2.1 Mass spectroscopy and analytical ultracentrifugation
Negative ion mode electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy (ESI-MS) of the NCs in
acetonitrile was performed, and analyzing the spectra (Figure 4.2) was postulate that this NC
has a full molecular formula of [Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
, it follows the electron count rule of the
superatom theory, with an electron count of n = 29-24 + 3 = 8, corresponding to a stable
superatom with the Aufbau shell filling 1S2
|1P6
|
To rule out the existence of any other species, and to confirm the purity of the samples used for
the measurement of the optical properties, was used analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC), a
potent technique to determine the homogeneity of macromolecules and nanoclusters in
solutions. The sedimentation and diffusion distributions of the synthesized NCs in acetonitrile
are shown in Figure 4.3. The distributions show that the NCs are highly homogeneous; at least
97% of the sample is composed of one species whose sedimentation coefficient is 2.9 × 10-13
s.
The molecular weight corresponding to this most abundant species is 5381.49 Da which is in
very good agreement with the mass spec assignment of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4.
Figure 4.2 Negative ion mode ESI MS of [Ag29(BDT)12TPP4] indicating the presence of one species
only with a charged state of -3. Phosphines are lost during ionization (top panel). Exact match of
experimental (one of the five sets of peaks) and simulated mass spectra (bottom panel) of
[Ag29(BDT)12TPP4]3-
confirms the cluster composition to be [Ag29(BDT)12TPP4]3-
.

29. 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4 23
4.2.2 X-ray diffraction
For crystallization, the centrifuged NCs pellet was dispersed in DMF, filtered using a syringe
filter and left to evaporate slowly in a dark box inside a ventilated fuming hood. Within 1- 2
days, self-assembled supramolecular structures had formed, as shown in Figure 4.4. They were
obtained by drop casting onto a glass microscope slide from a concentrated stock solution;
fluorescent crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction were harvested. DMF was used as a dispersing
solvent because of its high boiling point and slow evaporation time, which increased the
tendency of the NCs to assemble into a large solid with a long-range order.
Figure 4.3 2D plot of sedimentation and diffusion coefficients of Ag29(BDT)12TPP4 .

30. 24 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4
Single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis revealed a core-shell NC with an overall composition
of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4, which crystallizes in a cubic Pa3-space group. The structure was refined
to a resolution of 1.1 Å and to an R1 value of 8.9%. Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 features a centered
icosahedral metal core (Figure 4.5a), similar to the well-known Au25 and the most recently
discovered Au133. An exterior shell (Figure 4.5Figure 4.5b) composed of the remaining 16 Ag
atoms caps the core. The crystal structure reveals two types of silver atoms in the shell. Twelve
silver atoms cap all the 12 atoms of the icosahedron, giving rise to four tetrahedrally oriented
trigonal prisms as shown in Figure 4.5 c. The remaining four Ag atoms face-cap the core at four
tetrahedral positions (Figure 4.5d). Starting from the center of the icosahedron, the radial bond
lengths give rise to an average of 2.77 ± 0.01 Å per Ag-Ag bond. The average length of the
peripheral Ag-Ag bonds is 2.92 ± 0.06 Å, comparable to the 2.88 Å bond length in bulk silver,
indicating a strong interaction between the atoms of the core.
Figure 4.5 Anatomy of the structure of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 showing the core−shell configuration
and the position of the Ag atoms: (a)Ag13 centered icosahedral core; (b) Ag16S24P4 shell; (c)
arrangement of 12 Ag 1atoms of the shell forming 4 trigonal prisms tetrahedrally oriented; (d)
tetravalent sites of the NC. Color labels: Ag, blue and navy blue; S, red; P, green; all C and H atoms
are omitted for clarity.
Figure 4.4 Optical microscopy image of self-assembled Ag29(BDT)12TPP4 NCs. Inset shows separate
rhombohedral single crystals.

31. 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4 25
The shell is composed of two motifs unique to Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4: (i) a Ag3S6 crown motif
(Figure 4.6b) where three S atoms connect the three Ag atoms of the crown in such a way that
they form an alternating chair configuration and the remaining three S atoms encapsulate the
underlying icosahedron face (Figure 4.6c); (ii) a Ag1S3P1 motif where the S atoms connect the
Ag atoms to the nearest Ag atoms and the P binds on the top site of Ag atoms (Figure 4.6d).
Figure 4.6e shows that the shell composed of four Ag3S6 and four Ag1S3P1 motifs provides
complete passivation of the NC.
Figure 4.7 shows how the shell is formed around the Ag13 core. Starting from the core (Figure
4.7a) outward, one S moiety of the BDT ligand is attached to each of the 12 Ag atoms of the
icosahedron (Figure 4.7b). These S atoms bridge the core atoms to the Ag atoms in the shell.
The second S moiety bridges Ag atoms in the shell (Figure 4.7c). The overall core-shell
structure is then shown in Figure 4.7d highlighting two pairs of sulfurs to show which pair of
sulfurs originates from a single BDT molecule.
Figure 4.6 X-ray crystal structure of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 highlighting the two motifs present in the
shell: (a) Ag13 centered icosahedral ore; (b) Ag12S24 shell made of 4 Ag3S6 crowns; (c) Ag25S24 motif,
where the four Ag3S6 crowns capping the core; (d) 4 Ag1S3P1 motifs; (e) total structure of
Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4. Color labels: Ag, blue; S, red; P, green; all C and H atoms are omitted for
clarity.
Figure 4.7 X-ray crystal structure of Ag29(BDT)12TPP4 highlighting the formation of the shell on the
Ag13 core. Color labels: Ag: blue; S: red & yellow; P: green; C: black. Most C and all H atoms are
omitted for clarity. In d, only two ligands are shown for clarity.

32. 26 4. Synthesis and Characterization of Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4
Figure 4.8 UV−vis absorbance (solid curves) and emission (dashed) of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 NCs in
acetonitrile (black) and dried (red).
The arrangement of all the Ag atoms in the shell are influenced by the particular spacing
between the two thiol groups of the ligand in addition to the high tendency of S to coordinate
with Ag forcing the benzene rings to bend in such a way that all the S atoms of the bidentate
ligand would coordinate to the Ag. Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 is by far the first molecular NC where
the underlying geometry is highly affected by the structure of the ligand. All attempts to make
the NCs with similar bidentate ligands with different spacing between the two thiol groups, for
example, 1,2-benzenedithiol and 1,4- benzenedithiols, failed to produce NCs stable enough for
a period of time to carry any meaningful characterization, which shows how crucial is the
distance between the two thiols in obtaining this tetravalent NC.
4.2.3 Optical properties
Figure 4.8 shows the absorption and emission spectra of Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 in solution and
as a crystallized film. Upon crystallization, two main features were observed: an overall
increase and broadening of the long wavelength band of absorption and a red shift of the
emission band by more than 50 nm. The broadening and minute red shift of the absorption band
are explained in terms of electronic coupling between the NCs via interaction between the
transition dipole moment of the individual absorbing Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 NC and the induced
dipole moments in the neighboring Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 NCs. This interaction is thought to
lower the initial transition energy. The red shift of the emission band is expected to be caused
by a combined effect of the electronic coupling quoted before and of lattice-origin, nonradiative
decay pathways occurring through electron−phonon interaction that lower the emission energy
and also slightly broaden the emission bands. It is important to stress that when
Ag29(BDT)12(TPP)4 NCs are assembled into a crystal, a proper lattice dynamics of the
superstructure, not present in isolated NCs, is generated.

33. 5 Chapter 5 3
Photoinduced electron transfer
A new material that can be excited by light, is interesting for photovoltaic applications if it can
give rise to photo-induced electron transfer, that is, if can donate his excited electron to another
molecule. To achieve high light-to-energy conversion efficiency of solar cell devices, rapid
electron injection at donor-acceptor (D-A) interfaces is a highly desirable dynamical process.
Overall electron transfer efficiency at D-A interfaces is dependent on the distance, energy level
alignment, redox potentials and electrons coupling between electron donor and acceptor
moieties.
For probing the suitability of Ag29 nanoclusters (expected to be electron donors) as a material
for solar applications, the interaction of the clusters with some of the most common electron
acceptors used in photovoltaic was studied.
5.1 Steady-state absorption and fluorescence
A simple way to verify whether electron transfer may occur or not, is to measure the emission
spectra of the clusters in the absence and presence of the electron acceptor. If the peak of
emission is significantly decreased after adding the quencher (which is expected to be the
electron acceptor), the process which competes with radiative emission occurs while an excited
Ag29 nanoclusters (NCs) relaxes to the ground state. This process could be either electron
transfer or energy transfer, and can’t be distinguished only through a fluorescence quenching
study.
To carry out the experiment, a fixed concentration of Ag29 was dissolved in dimethylformamide
(DMF), and absorption and emission spectra where measured consequentially without and with
the addition of a significant amount of quencher (electron acceptor). The concentration of Ag29
being fixed, means that if there is no interaction between the clusters and the added molecules,
then no change in emission peak should be observed. However if the emission peak is found to
be decreased, there is a possibility of an interaction between the clusters and the quencher, or,
that the quencher absorbs part of the light used to excite the cluster. Thus, before drawing any
conclusion, one must consider the absorption change of the solution (before and after adding
the quencher) at the wavelength used to excite the sample.
The absorption spectra of Ag29 shows a shoulder at 510 nm and the peak at 450 nm. Thus the
excitation wavelength was set at 450 nm in order to maximize the excitation.

34. 28 5. Photoinduced electron transfer
With ZnO nanoparticles and TiO2 nanoparticles, no change in the emission peaks were noticed.
With C60-(malonic acid)n, a functionalized fullerene, there was a slight decrease in the emission
peak. Considering that the clusters are -3 charged, was thought to exploit the Coulombic
interaction between negatively charged nanoclusters and positively charged fullerene to bring
them closer and give rise to a better interaction. The positively charged fullerene used is C60-
(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n . For both the fullerenes 𝑛 ≅ 3.
Fullerenes are considered to be strong electron acceptors with a relatively high electron affinity
and are generally used in high-performance bulk-heterojunction polymer solar cell devices.
As expected, the interaction between positively charged fullerene and Ag29 leads to a stronger
quenching.
Emission and absorption spectra for Ag29 plus positively charged fullerene were measured for
different concentrations of fullerene (and fixed concentrations of the clusters). Figure 5.2 shows
that the emission peak of nanoclusters at 645 nm is quenched by the fullerene up to 80%. It
cannot reach 100% quenching, because the positively charged fullerene emits, (emission peak
595 nm), thus the emission of Ag29 is summed to the one of the fullerene. The fullerene
obviously absorbs at 450 nm (the excitation wavelength), so the absorbed amount of light by
the nanoclusters is reduced with respect to the clusters alone, however the quenching observed
is strong, and can’t be ascribed just to the absorption of the fullerene.
For the same concentrations of the neutral fullerene the emission peak doesn’t show any
variation. This suggests that the Coulombic interaction between the clusters and fullerene plays
an important role in the process involved.
Figure 5.1 Functionalized fullerenes: on the left the positively charged (cationic) one, on the right the
neutral one.

35. 5. Photoinduced electron transfer 29
To answer the question whether the quenching could be ascribed to electron transfer or to
energy transfer, it must be taken into account that for energy transfer to happen, the overlap of
the emission spectrum of the donor, with the absorption spectrum of the acceptor is required.
As shown in Figure 5.3 the absorption spectrum of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n
and the emission spectrum of Ag29 NCs do not show any significant overlap, so it can be ruled
out that energy transfer happened, therefore, can be claimed with high confidence that electron
transfer occurs between the clusters and the cationic fullerene, and is responsible for quenching.
Figure 5.2 Absorption and emission of the Ag29 clusters with the two fullerenes, the dashed line shows
absorption and emission of each fullerene.

36. 30 5. Photoinduced electron transfer
HOMO and LUMO where measured both for the clusters and the positively charged fullerene
using Photoelectron spectroscopy in air (PESA) to measure the HOMO, and the Tauc plot (a
convenient way of displaying the absorption spectrum) for determining the optical bandgap.
The results where then confirmed with cyclic voltammetry for both the fullerene and the
clusters.
As displayed in Figure 5.4 the LUMO of the fullerene results to be lower than the one of the
clusters. This is an essential requirement for electron transfer to happen, because the electrons
in passing from the LUMO of the donor to the LUMO of the acceptor, cannot gain energy.
Looking carefully to the absorption peak of Ag29 in presence of the positively charged fullerene,
it can be noted that, in increasing the concentration of the fullerene, the absorption peak is red-
Figure 5.3 Normalized absorption and emission spectra of respectively the positively charged
fullerene and Ag29 nanoclusters
Figure 5.4 HOMO and LUMO of Ag29 and C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n

37. 5. Photoinduced electron transfer 31
shifted. This, together with the fact that the Ag29 solution slightly change color (compared the
clusters and the fullerene alone) after adding the fullerene, suggests that between the clusters
and the fullerene a complex is formed.
If the fullerene forms a complex with the clusters, the expected quenching mechanism is static.
From the Stern-Volmer plot (Figure 5.5) the trend of 𝐼0/𝐼 with the concentration looks like
quadratic, which would represent the combined static and dynamic quenching. But this result
is in contradiction with the lifetime measurements, showing no change in lifetime of the clusters
with or without the fullerene, depicting a static quenching. The discrepancy can be explained
considering the fullerene absorbs light at 450 nm (the excitation wavelenght), thus the absorbed
light from the clusters 𝐼0 will be lower and so 1/𝐼 will be greater.
The Stern-Volmer plot is therefore distort by the fact that 𝐼0 is not constant, therefore the
quenching, according to the lifetimes, can be considered static.
5.2 Femtosecond transient absorption
Ultrafast TA spectroscopy with femtosecond temporal resolution and broadband capabilities
was used to probe further the reaction mechanism of the excited-state interaction.
Figure 5.7 shows TA spectra of a solution of Ag29 in DMF, in the absence and in the presence
of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n and C60-(malonic acid)n . As can be seen,
excitation of the clusters alone immediately results in ground-state bleaching (GSB) at around
445 nm, and two excited-state absorption (ESA) peaks centered at 410 nm and 480 nm
respectively, and no decay is shown in a time window of 200 ps. No change in the dynamics of
either GSB or ESA within a few hundred ps-time delay indicates slow relaxation dynamics,
thus high excited state lifetime.
Figure 5.5 Stern-Volmer plot for different concentration of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n
in a Ag29 nanoclusters solution.

38. 32 5. Photoinduced electron transfer
When exciting the cluster in the presence of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n after
few picoseconds, can be noted a slight recover of the ground-state absorption peak, and the
decrease of the two excited-state absorption peaks. A single exponential fit to the data (Figure
5.7 right panel) suggests that the kinetics of the GSB recovery of the Ag29 NCs with cationic
fullerene has a time costant of 3.9 ± 0.4 ps. The relaxation of excited Ag29 to the ground state,
from few picoseconds to 200 ps after excitation, is due to the electron transfer process between
the clusters and the charged fullerene. To confirm the process of electron transfer between NCs
and cationic fullerene, fs-TA spectra of Ag29 in the presence of C60-(N,N-
dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n was measured in the infra-red (IR) range (Figure 5.9). The
appearance of a new peak around 850 nm was assigned to the formation of the fullerene radical,
clearly proving the donor-acceptor relationship between anionic NCs and cationic fullerene.
The TA spectra of Ag29 with C60-(malonic acid)n instead, is exactly the same of the clusters
alone, ruling out, at this concentration, any significant interaction between the clusters and the
neutral fullerene.
Excitation wavelength was set to 530 nm to avoid the fullerene excitation.
Figure 5.6 Example of a 3D time resolved absorption spectra for the solution Ag29 plus C60-(N,N-
dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n .

39. 5. Photoinduced electron transfer 33
To fully characterize the dynamics of the clusters after excitation, the time window for the TA
measurements was extended to the nanosecond time scale. Figure 5.8 shows ns-TA spectra of
Ag29 NCs with charged and neutral fullerene, at time delays up to a few hundred ns, revealing
slow GSB recovery and ESA decay. The kinetics of GSB recovery and ESA decay of Ag29 NCs
fit a single exponential function with a time constant of 120±10 ns, similar time constants were
also observed in the absence and presence of electron transfer. These results indicate that
dynamics in the ns time scale are related to excited free-standing or uncomplexed Ag29 NCs
even when fullerene derivatives are present in the solution. This observation confirms that
electron transfer is driven by electrostatic interactions and that it is static in nature.
Figure 5.7 On the left panel: Transient absorption spectra using photoexcitation at 530 nm for (A)
Ag29 alone, (B) Ag29 in the presence of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n 71.4 μM, and (C)
Ag29 in the presence of 71.4 μM C60-(malonic acid)n .
On the right panel: Kinetic traces derived from femtosecond transient absorption spectra for Ag29 in
the absence and in the presence of the two 71.4 μM fullerenes. On top: kinetic of the excited-state peak
(ESA). At the bottom: kinetic of the ground-state bleaching (GSB). Fitting is indicated by red lines.

40. 34 5. Photoinduced electron transfer
To rule out any doubt on the fact that the high interaction of the cationic fullerene with the NCs
were due to coulumbic interaction, and not by other interactions occurring between that
particular fullerene and the Ag29 NCs, the experiment presented above was carried out using
anionic carboxyl-capped CdTe quantum dots instead of Ag29 NCs. The result was exactly the
same: for the neutral fullerene no significant interaction is detected, while for the cationic
fullerene it’s shown that TA shows the dynamic of electron transfer.
Figure 5.8 Ns-TA spectra of Ag29 NCs (A) in the absence of fullerene and (B) in the presence of 71.4
μM C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n. (C) The kinetic traces of Ag29 NCs in the absence and
presence of C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n. Solid lines represent the best kinetic fit of the
data.
Figure 5.9 Femtosecond Transient Absorption spectra in the IR region of Ag29 NCs in the presence
of 71.4 C60-(N,N-dimethylpyrrolidinium iodide)+
n µM. The peak at 850 is attributed to the radical of
the fullerene, resulting from the electron transfer. Excitation at 610 nm.

41. 5. Photoinduced electron transfer 35
In conclusion, it was demonstrated that interfacial electrostatic interactions has a significant
influence on electron transfer processes, from excited anionic Ag29 NC (and CdTe QD) surface
to cationic fullerene, facilitating the donor-acceptor nanoassembly formation. Steady-state
absorption and fluorescence measurements were used to prove that the system shows strong
electrostatic interactions in the presence of cationic fullerene but not in the presence of neutral
fullerene. Furthermore, fs-TA spectroscopic data clearly demonstrates that the time constant of
electron transfer from excited Ag29 NCs to cationic fullerene occurs within the instrument
temporal resolution of 120 fs, which is much faster than the excited lifetimes of NCs. Thus,
electrostatic interactions at D-A interfaces may be useful for preserving rapid electron transfer
processes upon photoexcitation, which is among the key components in determining the overall
efficiency in both photovoltaic and photo-catalysis applications.
5.2.1 Instrumentation for time-resolved measurement
Ultrafast fs-transient absorption measurements were performed using a Helios UV-NIR
transient absorption spectrometer system provided by ultrafast systems. Helios is equipped with
CMOS VIS and InGaAs NIR spectrometers covering a range of 350-800 nm with a 1.5-nm
resolution at 9500 spectra and a range of 800-1600 nm with a 3.5-nm resolution at 7900 spectra,
respectively. The fundamental output delivers by a Spitfire Pro 35fs-XP regenerative fs
amplifier, which produces 35-fs pulses at 800 nm with 4 mJ/pulse and a repetition rate of 1
kHz. The white-light continuum probe beam is generated by focusing a few µJ pulse energy of
the fundamental beams onto a 2-mm-thick sapphire plate. The spectrally tunable fs pulses with
a few µJ energy are generated in an optical parametric amplifier (Spectra-Physics). Note that
Figure 5.10 Left panel: Absorption and fluorescence spectra after excitation of CdTe QDs at 565 nm
upon the successive addition of (A) cationic fullerene C,F and (B) neutral fullerene NF.
Right panel: Fs-TA spectra of CdTe QDs (A) in the absence of fullerene and (B) in the presence of
27.32 μM cationic fullerene CF.

42. 36 5. Photoinduced electron transfer
the solution was stirred constantly to keep a fresh sample volume for each laser shot and to
avoid photodegradation. The pump and probe beams were overlapped spatially and temporally
on the sample solution, and the transmitted probe light from the samples was collected and
focused on the broad-band UV-visible-NIR detectors to record the time-resolved excitation-
induced difference spectra.
To measure the transient spectra from ns to µs time delays, an EOS from an ultrafast system
with a time resolution of 200 ps and a detection limit of up to 400 µs was also used. The EOS
light source is coupled with an fs-TA spectrometer, which is used as probe beam. In both Helios
and EOS, a two-channel probe-reference method was used to split the probe beam in two: one
beam travels through sample and the other is sent directly to the reference spectrometer that
monitors fluctuations in the intensity of the probe beam. The pump was used by introducing the
fundamental beams into an optical parametric amplifier to select a certain wavelength from the
tunable output (240-2600 nm). Samples were measured in DMF solutions (aqueous for the
QDs) at room temperature. Transient absorption spectra were recorded at low-intensity
excitation to prevent Auger recombination of the photogenerated charge carriers.

43. Conclusions
The aim of this thesis is to investigate if the new synthetized [Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
NCs could
act as an electron donor, giving rise to photoinduced electron transfer in the presence of an
electron acceptor.
In this work were accomplished the bottom-up synthesis of a new noble metal nanocluster:
[Ag29(BDT)12(TTP)4]-3
. After characterization of this NC trough electron spry ionization mass
spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, its properties as an electron donor were investigated.
Among the different electron acceptors tried, a fullerene derivative, commonly used as electron
acceptor in solar cells, turns out to show a slight interaction with the NCs that could be ascribed
to electron transfer (evidence from steady state fluorescence measurements). Because the
clusters are negativelycharged, it was then probed whether a cationic fullerene derivative would
have led to stronger interaction with the NCs. A strong quenching of fluorescence was indeed
observed using the cationic fullerene, giving the hint that coulumbic interaction might play an
important role in electron transfer.
Femtosecond transient absorption measurements were run on the following systems in
solutions: (i) Ag29 NCs; (ii) Ag29 NCs and cationic fullerene derivative; (iii) Ag29 NCs and
neutral fullerene. In the picosecond time window, for the (i) and (iii) system, no change of the
GSB and ESA peaks were observed. While for the (ii) system, was observed a ps-GSB peak
recovery, and the ESA peak decrease, a typical signature of electron transfer.
However fluorescence quenching, and the ps-GSB recovery, can both be due to energy transfer,
and electron transfer. Nevertheless, the absence of the donor-florescence and acceptor-
absorption spectra overlapping, together with the fact that the peak of the radical fullerene in
TA measurements was observed, ruled out any possibility of energy transfer. Thus the process
involved between Ag29 NCs and cationic fullerene, after excitation, is certainly ascribed to
electron transfer.
To rule out any doubt on the fact that the high interaction of the cationic fullerene with the NCs
were due to coulumbic interaction, and not by other interactions occurring between that
particular fullerene and the Ag29 NCs, steady state and Transient experiments were carried out,
using anionic carboxyl-capped CdTe quantum dots instead of Ag29 NCs. The result was exactly
the same: for the neutral fullerene, no significant interaction was detected, while the cationic
fullerene TA shows the dynamic of the electron transfer.
In conclusion, studying the photo-induced processes of the new synthetized silver nanocluster,
the importance of Coulombic interaction in the electron transfer (process at the basis of a solar
cell), was discovered. This electrostatic interaction at the D-A interfaces, may be useful for
gaining rapid electron transfer process upon photoexcitation, which is among the key
components in determining the overall efficiency of both photovoltaic and photocatalysis
applications.

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47. Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Professors Omar F. Mohammed Abdelsaboor and Osman Bakr for
supervising my work, and having always led me in the right direction.
Also, thank you, to the all the people with whom I have worked, in particular Lina Abdul Halim
for having welcomed and introduced me to the research world, furthermore, for having taught
me the clusters “recipe”; Silvano Del Gobbo for all the answers to my questions, and all the
time spent together trying to work on defective instruments; Federico Cruciani, for having
taught me the basics of synthetizing the fullerene derivative, and for having let me work in his
hood; Manas Parida for introducing me to the femtosecond timescale, Ghada Ahmed for her
quantum dots and Qana Alsulami for being an helpful colleague.
A special thanks to Ahmed and Amoudi, for the great time spent together during those 5 months,
and for all the “rusty” notes we played.
I have to thank also, Prof. Giovanna Brusatin for making this internship happen, David Yeh for
all his useful suggestions and for having made every effort to make this experience a great one;
Abdulrhaman for being a great roommate, and having provided me the best transportation
means, and his friend Abdulrhaman for having saved my luggage at the airport; Ali for having
processed my visa and for the time spent toghether; Mattia for his relieving poems; and Ilana
for having read and corrected my thesis with passion.
A big thank to Prof. Alberto Petrocelli because he was the first person who sparked my interest
toward science, and made me love physics. Without him I probably wouldn’t be here writing.
The last thank to my parents and my brother, who always supported me with love, and
encouraged me in my choices.