The document provides information on soil classification systems including genetic and modern systems. It discusses orders, suborders, and great groups within these systems. It also covers various soil properties like texture, minerals, pH, and nutrients. Primary minerals discussed include feldspar, mica, silica, and iron/aluminum oxides. Secondary minerals include carbonates, phosphates, zircon, pyrites, and clay minerals. Soil pH and its effect on nutrient availability is also summarized.
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
This document discusses supergene ore formation systems resulting from chemical weathering of rocks. Supergene deposits form through two main processes - enrichment of valuable components in a residual left after dissolution/transport of other materials, or dissolution/transport/reprecipitation of valuable components. Key points: Bauxite, lateritic nickel/iron/gold/manganese deposits form through residual enrichment. Conditions like climate, vegetation influence weathering rates and supergene processes. Laterite profiles can be over 100m thick with vertical chemical zonation. Residual/eluvial placers concentrate weathering-resistant minerals.
Supergene enrichment occurs when oxidizing acids dissolve metal ions from near-surface parts of ore deposits and re-deposit them at depth, resulting in higher metal concentrations. This process forms distinct zones - an oxidized cap, a leached zone, and an enriched zone below the water table where metals precipitate under reducing conditions. Common effects include rendering shallow parts of deposits barren while concentrating metals into narrow, rich zones at depth through mineral alterations and redeposition. Examples of deposits formed or enriched by this process include many copper, lead, zinc, silver, and iron deposits globally.
This document discusses the volcanic exhalative process of mineral deposit formation. The volcanic exhalative process involves the exhalation of sulfide-rich magmas at the Earth's surface, usually under marine conditions. This forms volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits. Black smokers are hydrothermal vents on the sea floor where hot, sulfide-rich fluids emerge and interact with cold seawater, precipitating chimneys and mounds of ore-grade sulfides. Zoning occurs within the chimneys and mounds due to decreasing temperature and changes in mineral deposition. Over time, this process can form economically viable sulfide ore deposits.
This document summarizes sedimentary ore deposits, specifically banded iron formations (BIF). It discusses the processes that form different types of BIF, including Algoma and Superior types, as well as their geologic time distribution. The document also explains the role of microbial communities in the deposition of iron minerals and formation of BIF layers through anoxic iron redox cycling, including phototrophic Fe(II) oxidation and nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation mediated by bacteria. Overall, the document provides an overview of the genesis and microbial influences on the formation of important economic BIF deposits in sedimentary environments.
This document discusses mineral and energy resources. It begins by describing how early humans began using minerals like flint and metals over 20,000 years ago. It then covers the formation of different types of mineral deposits including hydrothermal deposits formed from hot aqueous solutions, magmatic deposits within igneous rocks, and sedimentary deposits from precipitation or weathering. Specific examples of important mineral deposits are provided for different minerals. The document concludes by discussing classifications of useful mineral substances and various energy resources.
Supergene deposits form through oxidation, dissolution, and reconcentration of metals near the Earth's surface by descending water and gases. Metals are leached from the upper part of sulfide deposits and redeposited below the water table, increasing the metal content in the primary ore zone. This process of supergene enrichment can create spectacularly rich deposits. An example is seen at the Inspiration orebody in Arizona, where the average copper content increased from 1% to up to 5% through supergene processes.
Residual mineral deposits; Laterites; Laterite Profile; Laterisation system; Laterite/Bauxite Conditions; Laterite-type Bauxite, Constitution of Bauxite, Types of deposits; Origin and Mode of formation; Clay (Kaolinite) Deposits; Nickel Laterite Deposits; Mineralogy and Types of lateritic nickel ore deposits; World Nickel Laterite Deposits; Processing of Ni Laterites; Example: Ni-laterites, Ni in soils in east Albania
This document discusses supergene ore formation systems resulting from chemical weathering of rocks. Supergene deposits form through two main processes - enrichment of valuable components in a residual left after dissolution/transport of other materials, or dissolution/transport/reprecipitation of valuable components. Key points: Bauxite, lateritic nickel/iron/gold/manganese deposits form through residual enrichment. Conditions like climate, vegetation influence weathering rates and supergene processes. Laterite profiles can be over 100m thick with vertical chemical zonation. Residual/eluvial placers concentrate weathering-resistant minerals.
Supergene enrichment occurs when oxidizing acids dissolve metal ions from near-surface parts of ore deposits and re-deposit them at depth, resulting in higher metal concentrations. This process forms distinct zones - an oxidized cap, a leached zone, and an enriched zone below the water table where metals precipitate under reducing conditions. Common effects include rendering shallow parts of deposits barren while concentrating metals into narrow, rich zones at depth through mineral alterations and redeposition. Examples of deposits formed or enriched by this process include many copper, lead, zinc, silver, and iron deposits globally.
This document discusses the volcanic exhalative process of mineral deposit formation. The volcanic exhalative process involves the exhalation of sulfide-rich magmas at the Earth's surface, usually under marine conditions. This forms volcanic-associated massive sulfide deposits. Black smokers are hydrothermal vents on the sea floor where hot, sulfide-rich fluids emerge and interact with cold seawater, precipitating chimneys and mounds of ore-grade sulfides. Zoning occurs within the chimneys and mounds due to decreasing temperature and changes in mineral deposition. Over time, this process can form economically viable sulfide ore deposits.
This document summarizes sedimentary ore deposits, specifically banded iron formations (BIF). It discusses the processes that form different types of BIF, including Algoma and Superior types, as well as their geologic time distribution. The document also explains the role of microbial communities in the deposition of iron minerals and formation of BIF layers through anoxic iron redox cycling, including phototrophic Fe(II) oxidation and nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation mediated by bacteria. Overall, the document provides an overview of the genesis and microbial influences on the formation of important economic BIF deposits in sedimentary environments.
This document discusses mineral and energy resources. It begins by describing how early humans began using minerals like flint and metals over 20,000 years ago. It then covers the formation of different types of mineral deposits including hydrothermal deposits formed from hot aqueous solutions, magmatic deposits within igneous rocks, and sedimentary deposits from precipitation or weathering. Specific examples of important mineral deposits are provided for different minerals. The document concludes by discussing classifications of useful mineral substances and various energy resources.
Supergene deposits form through oxidation, dissolution, and reconcentration of metals near the Earth's surface by descending water and gases. Metals are leached from the upper part of sulfide deposits and redeposited below the water table, increasing the metal content in the primary ore zone. This process of supergene enrichment can create spectacularly rich deposits. An example is seen at the Inspiration orebody in Arizona, where the average copper content increased from 1% to up to 5% through supergene processes.
The document provides an overview of environmental and social concerns related to metals, minerals, and mining. It discusses acid mine drainage in 3 paragraphs, summarizing that it is caused by oxidation of sulphide minerals when in contact with water and oxygen, produces acids and dissolved metals, and has wide-ranging negative environmental impacts. It also briefly summarizes control and remediation of uranium waste and a mine rehabilitation case study of the Sherwood Uranium Mine.
Ore deposit related to clastic sedimentationPramoda Raj
The document discusses ore deposits related to clastic sedimentation, specifically focusing on placer deposits in the Witwatersrand gold and uranium deposits in South Africa. It describes how weathering processes contributed to mineral resources through various means. It defines different types of placer deposits that form in various environments, such as alluvial, beach, glacial, and fossil placers. It then provides details on the stratigraphy, tectonic setting, sedimentation processes, and gold and uranium occurrences within the Witwatersrand deposits, which are fossil placers formed in an ancient freshwater lake. Mining in the region has been ongoing since the late 1800s.
This document discusses diagenetic ore deposits that form from fluids expelled during sediment compaction and lithification. It provides examples of deposit types formed this way, including the European Copper Shale and Mississippi Valley Type lead-zinc deposits. The core concept is that sediments contain large volumes of connate/formation waters that are expelled during diagenesis, becoming enriched in metals. When these hot, high-pressure fluids pass through permeability traps in the basinal sediments, they can precipitate ore minerals and form economic deposits. Microbes and geochemical conditions also influence metal mobility and deposition during this process.
The document classifies ore deposits into several categories based on their relation to host rock, genesis, geological age, and composition. Ore deposits are either syngenetic, forming at the same time as the host rock, or epigenetic, forming later. They are also classified as endogenic, forming below ground, or exogenic, forming above ground. Classification is also based on whether the deposits are magmatic, metamorphic, or sedimentary in origin, as well as the geological age during which they formed. Finally, ore deposits can be classified based on whether their main minerals are metallic, non-metallic, radioactive, or petroleum.
This document defines and describes volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits. Key points:
- VMS deposits form from metal-rich hydrothermal fluids emitted from submarine volcanism. They typically occur as lenses of massive sulphides between volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
- Major deposits are found worldwide in volcanic terranes from 3.4 billion years ago to modern seafloor. Canada has over 350 deposits, providing 27-49% of its historical base metal production.
- Deposits range in size but the largest contain over 100 million tonnes of ore. Giant deposits include Neves Corvo in Portugal with over 270 million tonnes of ore containing 8.5 million tonnes of
This document discusses genetic classification of ore deposits. It notes that while various geological aspects like metals, orebody form, environment, and tectonic setting are used to classify deposits, a stringent genetic classification is difficult for two reasons. First, many deposits represent complex combinations of well-defined end members like volcanic, intrusive, sedimentary and diagenetic processes. Second, the origin of deposits like Kuroko and high-grade BIF-haematite seems to involve multiple geological processes interacting, like marine life proliferation and saline brine passage. The document recommends reading a specific review article for further detailed classification information.
Porphyry copper deposits form from magmatic-hydrothermal activity associated with porphyritic intrusions. They contain low to moderate grades of copper, molybdenum, gold and other metals within stockwork vein systems and disseminated in the intrusion. Distinct hydrothermal alteration zones form around the intrusion, including potassic, phyllic, argillic and propylitic assemblages. Porphyry deposits provide the majority of the world's copper and molybdenum and are important sources for other metals like gold. They form due to crystallization and interaction of fertile magmas with hydrothermal fluids.
Sedimentary ores form through sedimentation processes. Sediments are weathered from primary rocks by physical and chemical breakdown, then transported and deposited by agents like wind and water in sedimentary basins. Through diagenesis and cementation, sediments consolidate into sedimentary rocks. These rocks form through mechanical, chemical, or biogenic processes. Economically important sedimentation processes include coalification, biogeneous shale formation, residual concentration, and mechanical concentration in placer deposits. Coal forms over millions of years as plant remains are buried and undergo heat and pressure to form carbon-rich rock.
Contact metasomatism forms new minerals through reactions between intrusive rocks and escaping gases from magma chambers. Important requirements include a magma source of ore ingredients and intrusion into reactive host rocks. Metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, and W can be deposited through this process. Hydrothermal deposits are formed when hot, mineral-laden waters circulate through fractures, leaching and redepositing metals. Sedimentary deposits can form through evaporation, biochemical processes, or mechanical concentration of minerals in placer deposits.
How can minerals deposits be formed; GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES; Ore Fluids; Ore Forming Processes; Concentrating Processes; Magmatic mineral deposits; Residual mineral deposits ; Placer deposits; Sedimentary mineral deposits; Metamorhogenic mineral deposits; Hydrothermal mineral deposits ; Magmatic Deposits
Cumulate deposits: fractional crystallization processes can concentrate metals (Cr, Fe, PGE, Pt, Ni, Ti, Diamond ))
Pegmatites : late staged crystallization forms pegmatites and many residual elements are concentrated (Li, Ce, Be, Sn, U, Rare Earths (REE), Feldspar, Mica, Gems).
magmatic deposits; Mode of Formation of Magmatic Ores Deposits; Mode of Formation of Orthomagmatic Ores ; Fractional Crystallization (or Crystal fractionation ); Magmatic (or Liquid ) Immiscibility; Simple crystallization without concentration (Dissemination); Segregation of early formed crystals; (Layer Types); Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation Residual liquid segregation; Residual liquid injection; Immiscible liquid segregation; Immiscible-liquid-injection; Early magmatic deposit; Late magmatic deposit; Types of Magmatic Ore Deposits:Chromite; Fe-Ti (± V) oxides; Ni – Cu – Fe (± Pt) sulfides; Platinum Group Elements (PGEs); REE, and Zr in Carbonatites; Diamond in kimberlites.
This document discusses various classifications of ore deposits that have been proposed over time. It describes six major classifications: Niggli (1929), Schneiderhöhn (1941), Lindgren (1913, revised 1933, modified 1968), Bateman (1942, revised 1950, revised 1979), Stanton (1972), and Guilbert and Park (1986). The classifications vary in their criteria but most are based on the nature of the ore-bearing fluid, origin, environment of formation, or process of deposition. The purpose is to group deposits with similar characteristics to better understand their genesis and aid in exploration. No single classification is perfect as deposits can have complex origins and classifications are subject to revision.
The document discusses ore formation systems and processes. It describes how ores were originally thought to form mainly from the cooling and crystallization of magmatic bodies. It then explains that four main ore formation processes are recognized: 1) orthomagmatic processes related to magma evolution and crystallization, 2) hydrothermal processes involving mineralization from magmatic fluids, 3) sedimentary processes concentrating metals through weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and 4) metamorphic processes transforming existing ore deposits. The document provides details on each of these processes and how they concentrate metals to form economic mineral deposits.
Volcanogenic massive sulphide ore deposits are types of metal sulphide deposits associated with volcanic activity and hydrothermal solutions in submarine environments. They form deposits of copper, zinc, and lead around deep sea vents called smokers, which vent hot hydrothermal fluids. Smokers come in black and white varieties depending on their mineral content. VMS deposits typically contain over 90% iron sulphide along with other metals and are often found near felsic volcanic rocks in submarine spreading centers and island arcs. They form from metals deposited from hydrothermal fluids that originate from circulating seawater heated by magma under the seafloor. Egypt contains several small VMS deposits including Umm Samuiki.
MANGANESE ORE DEPOSITS, Sedimentary Manganese Deposits, Types of Sedimentary Manganese, Classification, Manganese Nodules, EGYPTIAN MANGANESE ORE DEPOSITS , IRON ORE DEPOSITS, Cycle of Iron , Ironstone (Sedimentary iron) Ore Deposits, Bog Iron Ore Deposits, Principal iron-bearing minerals, Geochemical stability of iron-rich minerals, World Resources Iron Deposit, EGYPTIAN IRON ORE DEPOSITS, Iron ore deposit of sedimentary nature, Sinai: Gabal Halal iron ore deposit, Aswan iron Ore Deposits, Bahariya iron Ore Deposits
What is an ore?, Ore deposit environments, Formation of Mineral Deposits, Endogenous (Internal) processes, Exogenous (Surficial) processes, Types of Sedimentary Rocks, Mineral Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Process, physical processes of ore deposit formation in the surficial realm, Erosion, weathering , transportation, sorting, Precipitation, Depositional Environments, Deposits formed by Weathering, Deposits formed by Sediment, Resources from the Sedimentary Environments
Gives a short discussion about ore, terms like precipitation, hydothermal solution and the four different types of hydrothermal ore deposits including vein type, disseminated, massive sulfide, and stratabound deposits. Hope you'll enjoy and understand it!
This document discusses metamorphic and metamorphosed ore deposits. It explains that metamorphic ore deposits form through the isochemical metamorphic re-equilibration and recrystallization of pre-existing materials. Contact metamorphism near magmatic bodies causes changes to fabric, mineralogy, and chemistry through processes like dewatering. Regional metamorphism can reach temperatures of 1100°C and pressures of 30 kbar, driving off volatiles and causing grain coarsening and foliation. Metamorphic fluids liberate economically valuable metals and elements and can form ore deposits as they circulate through metamorphosing rock.
The document discusses skarn deposits, which are metallic deposits associated with skarn rocks formed by the chemical alteration of carbonate rocks like dolostone and limestone. It defines skarn and its classifications, discusses associated mineral deposits, and highlights potential occurrences in Nigeria. Specifically, it notes that the Younger Granites Complex and marble-bearing schist belts may host skarn occurrences in Nigeria rich in iron, copper, gold, and molybdenum deposits. The document also presents a case study of the Antamina copper-zinc skarn deposit in Peru to illustrate deposit geology and mineralization.
Porphyry copper deposits form near shallow porphyritic intrusions where hydrothermal fluids interact with the intrusion and surface waters. Characteristic alteration minerals like chlorite, epidote, clays and micas form from the reaction of hydrothermal solutions with igneous rock silicates. Primary sulfide minerals like chalcopyrite and bornite near the intrusion are oxidized in the supergene zone to form secondary copper minerals and oxides, leaving a gossan at the surface. In contrast, epithermal deposits form at even shallower depths dominated by surface waters and produce a variety of ore minerals including gold, silver, lead and zinc.
SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT; Definition; Zones; Morphology of Zoning; Oxidized zone ; Supergene zone ; Gossans and Cappings; Chemical Changes Involved; Electrowinning; Formation of Copper Oxides
Sulfur is an element that plays an important role in ecosystems and industries. It cycles between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere through both sedimentary and gaseous phases. The global sulfur cycle circulates approximately 300 x 1012 grams of sulfur per year through various natural and human sources and sinks. While natural processes like volcanic eruptions and decomposition release sulfur into the atmosphere, human activities like burning fossil fuels have significantly increased atmospheric sulfur levels since the Industrial Revolution, contributing to issues like acid rain that damage both the environment and man-made structures.
The document provides an overview of environmental and social concerns related to metals, minerals, and mining. It discusses acid mine drainage in 3 paragraphs, summarizing that it is caused by oxidation of sulphide minerals when in contact with water and oxygen, produces acids and dissolved metals, and has wide-ranging negative environmental impacts. It also briefly summarizes control and remediation of uranium waste and a mine rehabilitation case study of the Sherwood Uranium Mine.
Ore deposit related to clastic sedimentationPramoda Raj
The document discusses ore deposits related to clastic sedimentation, specifically focusing on placer deposits in the Witwatersrand gold and uranium deposits in South Africa. It describes how weathering processes contributed to mineral resources through various means. It defines different types of placer deposits that form in various environments, such as alluvial, beach, glacial, and fossil placers. It then provides details on the stratigraphy, tectonic setting, sedimentation processes, and gold and uranium occurrences within the Witwatersrand deposits, which are fossil placers formed in an ancient freshwater lake. Mining in the region has been ongoing since the late 1800s.
This document discusses diagenetic ore deposits that form from fluids expelled during sediment compaction and lithification. It provides examples of deposit types formed this way, including the European Copper Shale and Mississippi Valley Type lead-zinc deposits. The core concept is that sediments contain large volumes of connate/formation waters that are expelled during diagenesis, becoming enriched in metals. When these hot, high-pressure fluids pass through permeability traps in the basinal sediments, they can precipitate ore minerals and form economic deposits. Microbes and geochemical conditions also influence metal mobility and deposition during this process.
The document classifies ore deposits into several categories based on their relation to host rock, genesis, geological age, and composition. Ore deposits are either syngenetic, forming at the same time as the host rock, or epigenetic, forming later. They are also classified as endogenic, forming below ground, or exogenic, forming above ground. Classification is also based on whether the deposits are magmatic, metamorphic, or sedimentary in origin, as well as the geological age during which they formed. Finally, ore deposits can be classified based on whether their main minerals are metallic, non-metallic, radioactive, or petroleum.
This document defines and describes volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits. Key points:
- VMS deposits form from metal-rich hydrothermal fluids emitted from submarine volcanism. They typically occur as lenses of massive sulphides between volcanic and sedimentary rocks.
- Major deposits are found worldwide in volcanic terranes from 3.4 billion years ago to modern seafloor. Canada has over 350 deposits, providing 27-49% of its historical base metal production.
- Deposits range in size but the largest contain over 100 million tonnes of ore. Giant deposits include Neves Corvo in Portugal with over 270 million tonnes of ore containing 8.5 million tonnes of
This document discusses genetic classification of ore deposits. It notes that while various geological aspects like metals, orebody form, environment, and tectonic setting are used to classify deposits, a stringent genetic classification is difficult for two reasons. First, many deposits represent complex combinations of well-defined end members like volcanic, intrusive, sedimentary and diagenetic processes. Second, the origin of deposits like Kuroko and high-grade BIF-haematite seems to involve multiple geological processes interacting, like marine life proliferation and saline brine passage. The document recommends reading a specific review article for further detailed classification information.
Porphyry copper deposits form from magmatic-hydrothermal activity associated with porphyritic intrusions. They contain low to moderate grades of copper, molybdenum, gold and other metals within stockwork vein systems and disseminated in the intrusion. Distinct hydrothermal alteration zones form around the intrusion, including potassic, phyllic, argillic and propylitic assemblages. Porphyry deposits provide the majority of the world's copper and molybdenum and are important sources for other metals like gold. They form due to crystallization and interaction of fertile magmas with hydrothermal fluids.
Sedimentary ores form through sedimentation processes. Sediments are weathered from primary rocks by physical and chemical breakdown, then transported and deposited by agents like wind and water in sedimentary basins. Through diagenesis and cementation, sediments consolidate into sedimentary rocks. These rocks form through mechanical, chemical, or biogenic processes. Economically important sedimentation processes include coalification, biogeneous shale formation, residual concentration, and mechanical concentration in placer deposits. Coal forms over millions of years as plant remains are buried and undergo heat and pressure to form carbon-rich rock.
Contact metasomatism forms new minerals through reactions between intrusive rocks and escaping gases from magma chambers. Important requirements include a magma source of ore ingredients and intrusion into reactive host rocks. Metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, and W can be deposited through this process. Hydrothermal deposits are formed when hot, mineral-laden waters circulate through fractures, leaching and redepositing metals. Sedimentary deposits can form through evaporation, biochemical processes, or mechanical concentration of minerals in placer deposits.
How can minerals deposits be formed; GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES; Ore Fluids; Ore Forming Processes; Concentrating Processes; Magmatic mineral deposits; Residual mineral deposits ; Placer deposits; Sedimentary mineral deposits; Metamorhogenic mineral deposits; Hydrothermal mineral deposits ; Magmatic Deposits
Cumulate deposits: fractional crystallization processes can concentrate metals (Cr, Fe, PGE, Pt, Ni, Ti, Diamond ))
Pegmatites : late staged crystallization forms pegmatites and many residual elements are concentrated (Li, Ce, Be, Sn, U, Rare Earths (REE), Feldspar, Mica, Gems).
magmatic deposits; Mode of Formation of Magmatic Ores Deposits; Mode of Formation of Orthomagmatic Ores ; Fractional Crystallization (or Crystal fractionation ); Magmatic (or Liquid ) Immiscibility; Simple crystallization without concentration (Dissemination); Segregation of early formed crystals; (Layer Types); Injection of material concentrated elsewhere by differentiation Residual liquid segregation; Residual liquid injection; Immiscible liquid segregation; Immiscible-liquid-injection; Early magmatic deposit; Late magmatic deposit; Types of Magmatic Ore Deposits:Chromite; Fe-Ti (± V) oxides; Ni – Cu – Fe (± Pt) sulfides; Platinum Group Elements (PGEs); REE, and Zr in Carbonatites; Diamond in kimberlites.
This document discusses various classifications of ore deposits that have been proposed over time. It describes six major classifications: Niggli (1929), Schneiderhöhn (1941), Lindgren (1913, revised 1933, modified 1968), Bateman (1942, revised 1950, revised 1979), Stanton (1972), and Guilbert and Park (1986). The classifications vary in their criteria but most are based on the nature of the ore-bearing fluid, origin, environment of formation, or process of deposition. The purpose is to group deposits with similar characteristics to better understand their genesis and aid in exploration. No single classification is perfect as deposits can have complex origins and classifications are subject to revision.
The document discusses ore formation systems and processes. It describes how ores were originally thought to form mainly from the cooling and crystallization of magmatic bodies. It then explains that four main ore formation processes are recognized: 1) orthomagmatic processes related to magma evolution and crystallization, 2) hydrothermal processes involving mineralization from magmatic fluids, 3) sedimentary processes concentrating metals through weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and 4) metamorphic processes transforming existing ore deposits. The document provides details on each of these processes and how they concentrate metals to form economic mineral deposits.
Volcanogenic massive sulphide ore deposits are types of metal sulphide deposits associated with volcanic activity and hydrothermal solutions in submarine environments. They form deposits of copper, zinc, and lead around deep sea vents called smokers, which vent hot hydrothermal fluids. Smokers come in black and white varieties depending on their mineral content. VMS deposits typically contain over 90% iron sulphide along with other metals and are often found near felsic volcanic rocks in submarine spreading centers and island arcs. They form from metals deposited from hydrothermal fluids that originate from circulating seawater heated by magma under the seafloor. Egypt contains several small VMS deposits including Umm Samuiki.
MANGANESE ORE DEPOSITS, Sedimentary Manganese Deposits, Types of Sedimentary Manganese, Classification, Manganese Nodules, EGYPTIAN MANGANESE ORE DEPOSITS , IRON ORE DEPOSITS, Cycle of Iron , Ironstone (Sedimentary iron) Ore Deposits, Bog Iron Ore Deposits, Principal iron-bearing minerals, Geochemical stability of iron-rich minerals, World Resources Iron Deposit, EGYPTIAN IRON ORE DEPOSITS, Iron ore deposit of sedimentary nature, Sinai: Gabal Halal iron ore deposit, Aswan iron Ore Deposits, Bahariya iron Ore Deposits
What is an ore?, Ore deposit environments, Formation of Mineral Deposits, Endogenous (Internal) processes, Exogenous (Surficial) processes, Types of Sedimentary Rocks, Mineral Deposits Associated with Sedimentary Process, physical processes of ore deposit formation in the surficial realm, Erosion, weathering , transportation, sorting, Precipitation, Depositional Environments, Deposits formed by Weathering, Deposits formed by Sediment, Resources from the Sedimentary Environments
Gives a short discussion about ore, terms like precipitation, hydothermal solution and the four different types of hydrothermal ore deposits including vein type, disseminated, massive sulfide, and stratabound deposits. Hope you'll enjoy and understand it!
This document discusses metamorphic and metamorphosed ore deposits. It explains that metamorphic ore deposits form through the isochemical metamorphic re-equilibration and recrystallization of pre-existing materials. Contact metamorphism near magmatic bodies causes changes to fabric, mineralogy, and chemistry through processes like dewatering. Regional metamorphism can reach temperatures of 1100°C and pressures of 30 kbar, driving off volatiles and causing grain coarsening and foliation. Metamorphic fluids liberate economically valuable metals and elements and can form ore deposits as they circulate through metamorphosing rock.
The document discusses skarn deposits, which are metallic deposits associated with skarn rocks formed by the chemical alteration of carbonate rocks like dolostone and limestone. It defines skarn and its classifications, discusses associated mineral deposits, and highlights potential occurrences in Nigeria. Specifically, it notes that the Younger Granites Complex and marble-bearing schist belts may host skarn occurrences in Nigeria rich in iron, copper, gold, and molybdenum deposits. The document also presents a case study of the Antamina copper-zinc skarn deposit in Peru to illustrate deposit geology and mineralization.
Porphyry copper deposits form near shallow porphyritic intrusions where hydrothermal fluids interact with the intrusion and surface waters. Characteristic alteration minerals like chlorite, epidote, clays and micas form from the reaction of hydrothermal solutions with igneous rock silicates. Primary sulfide minerals like chalcopyrite and bornite near the intrusion are oxidized in the supergene zone to form secondary copper minerals and oxides, leaving a gossan at the surface. In contrast, epithermal deposits form at even shallower depths dominated by surface waters and produce a variety of ore minerals including gold, silver, lead and zinc.
SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT; Definition; Zones; Morphology of Zoning; Oxidized zone ; Supergene zone ; Gossans and Cappings; Chemical Changes Involved; Electrowinning; Formation of Copper Oxides
Sulfur is an element that plays an important role in ecosystems and industries. It cycles between the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere through both sedimentary and gaseous phases. The global sulfur cycle circulates approximately 300 x 1012 grams of sulfur per year through various natural and human sources and sinks. While natural processes like volcanic eruptions and decomposition release sulfur into the atmosphere, human activities like burning fossil fuels have significantly increased atmospheric sulfur levels since the Industrial Revolution, contributing to issues like acid rain that damage both the environment and man-made structures.
The document summarizes the global sulfur cycle. It describes how sulfur enters the biosphere and atmosphere through both natural and human activities. In the biosphere, sulfur is incorporated into amino acids and proteins in plants and animals. It then re-enters the atmosphere or sediments. Human activities like burning fossil fuels have increased atmospheric sulfur levels. This contributes to acid rain and deposition which damages both natural environments and man-made structures and infrastructure.
Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and myriad organisms that together support plant life. Two general classes are topsoil and subsoil. Soil is a natural body that exists as part of the pedosphere and which performs four important functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a modifier of the atmosphere of Earth; and it is a habitat for organisms all of which modify the soil. Soil is considered to be the "skin of the earth" with interfaces between the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere of Earth, and biosphere.[2] Soil consists of a solid phase (minerals and organic matter) as well as a porous phase that holds gases and water.[3][4][5] Accordingly, soils are often treated as a three-state system.[6]
Acid sulfate soils form in coastal areas when pyrite in low-lying wetland soils is exposed to oxygen through drainage or excavation. This produces sulfuric acid and releases toxic quantities of aluminum and iron. In Sri Lanka, acid sulfate soils are found along the southwest coast and impact the environment through killing aquatic life, degrading habitats, and stunting plant growth. They also pose health risks to humans and damage infrastructure through corrosion. Current management strategies aim to neutralize acidity through lime or isolate acid sulfate soils with barriers.
The document discusses several biogeochemical cycles including the nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, potassium cycle, and sulfur cycle. For each cycle it describes the major processes and transformations that elements undergo as they move through biotic and abiotic components of the Earth system. These include atmospheric, soil, water, and organism components. Key processes discussed are nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, weathering, mineralization, assimilation, and decomposition. The slow movement of phosphorus through soils and oceans is also noted.
The chemical stability of tailings from mineral processing is important subject for study within the research field regarding the possible impacts for the environment, especially groundwater pollution and acid mine drainage (AMD). Tailings generated from processing metal ores can be classified as fined-grained sediment-water slurry. The solids are composed of minerals such as silicates, oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, and sulphides. The mineralogical and geochemical studies of tailings from metals ores are key factors used in the investigation of the chemical reactions and chemical systems that results in AMD. The scope of the study is to investigate tailing dams as a potential source of Arsenic (As) in Dokyiwa tailing dam which is an abandoned together with Pompora tailing dam and one active tailing dam which is the Sansu tailing dam at obuasi municipality and its dissolution into adjoining environmental media. The scope of this work is confined to Dokyiwa tailing dam in Obuasi municipality.
This document provides definitions and descriptions of key concepts in soil science, including:
1) Soil is composed of minerals, organic materials, air and water that provide a medium for plant growth and habitat for organisms.
2) The five factors of soil formation are climate, living organisms, relief, parent material, and time.
3) Soil texture, structure, porosity and water holding capacity are influenced by mineral composition, organic matter, and soil development over time.
4) Water movement through soil is affected by pore size distribution and forces like gravity and capillary action.
Sulphur cycle(Ecology) by Muhammad Ramzan.pptxMuhammad Ramzan
Dive into the intricate world of the Sulphur Cycle with our captivating presentation, where we unravel the complexities that govern this vital ecological process. From its origin in Earth's crust to its dynamic journey through air, water, and living organisms, join us on a visual exploration that sheds light on the crucial role sulphur plays in sustaining life on our planet.
Discover how sulphur transitions seamlessly between various forms, impacting ecosystems, climate, and even human activities. Our presentation delves into the environmental significance of the Sulphur Cycle, emphasizing its influence on soil health, atmospheric composition, and the delicate balance of nature.
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centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
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providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
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of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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2. SYLLABUS
UNIT I AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
Soil classification:
genetic system of classification- modern system of
classification
Properties of soil:
soil minerals –primary and secondary minerals-
soil pH ,Soil acidity and alkalinity– effect of pH on
plants
Organic Manures- Farmyard manures- compost - Green manure.
Essential nutrients for plants:
Functions of Essential nutrients - Nitrogeneous fertilizers,
Phosphatic fertilizers, Potash fertilizers-Micro nutrients
2 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
3. SOIL
The mixture of inorganic
and organic solid ; air, water
and microorganisms.
Soil is a life supporting
layer of material.
It consists of a solid part
(core, mantle and crust) and
the atmosphere surrounding
it.
3 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
4. SOIL CLASSIFICATION - Purpose
Systematic study of soils
Best use of soil
Relationship between different kinds of soils
4 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
5. SOIL CLASSIFICATION - Types
Genetic System – based on origin
Modern System – based on characteristics of soil
5 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
7. GENETIC SYSTEM-Orders
ZONAL It exhibits the properties determined by the
climate and vegetation
INTRA
ZONAL
Soil characteristics are influenced by the chemical
nature of parent material
AZONAL Recently deposited soil; so there is no well
developed profile.
7 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
8. ZONAL SOILS- SUB ORDERS
Tundra
Soils
(soils of cold
zone)
Tundra soils are formed at high
latitudes .
It is very cold in the tundra.
Tundra soils are generally frozen
and rich in nitrogen and
phosphorus.
Desert
soils
(light colour
arid region)
Desert soils are mostly sandy soil
found in low rain fall regions .
It has low content of nitrogen and
organic matter with very high
CaCO3 and
Phosphate ,thus making it infertile.
Chestnut
Soils
(semi arid ,
humid
grassland)
Chestnut soil is an agriculturally
important group of Zonal soils
typically having dark brown surface
horizon that grades downward into
a lighter zone and into a horizon of
lime accumulation
8 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
9. Degraded
chernozem soils
(soils of forest grasslands)
Chernozem soils contain
less humus, are more acid
and have inconvenient air
and water characteristics
Podzol soils
(soils of timber region)
Podzol soils area strongly
acid soils that usually have
a bleached horizon
immediately beneath the
top soil . This horizon is the
source of Al and Fe oxides
that have accumulated with
organic matter, reddish
coloured horizon
Lateritic soils
(forest warm tropical)
They are rock type rich
in Fe and Al.
Rusty red in colour ,due
to high iron oxide
content.
ZONAL SOILS- SUB ORDERS
9 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
10. INTRA ZONAL -SUBORDERS
Hydromorphic
soils(saline and
alkaline) - excess
amount of water
Hydromorphic soils are
characterised by the reduction or
localised segregation of Fe,
owing to the temporary or
permanent waterlogging of the
soil pores which causes lack of O
over a long period
Halomorphic
soil(soil of
marshes,
swamps)-excess
amount of
soluble salts
A soil that contains a significant
proportion of soluble salts
Calcimorphic
soils(brown
forest soils) –
excess amount of
lime
This type of soils are found in the
surface of earth whose
characteristics are in large
related to the presence of lime
rich parent material of the soil.
10 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
11. AZONAL SOILS –GREAT GROUPS
Lithosols Found on steep
slopes, stony soils
Regosols Develop from
mineral deposits
Alluvial soils
(brown forest
soils)
Formed by
weathering of rocks
(excess amount of
lime)
11 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
12. MODERN SYSTEM
USAD – United States Agricultural Department
Taxonomy of soil
Six levels of soil class
ORDER (10)
SUBORDER(47)
Great groups(185)
Sub Groups (970)
Family (4500)
Series(10,500)
12 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
13. Characteristics of Soil Classification
1. It is a natural classification of soil.
2. The classification is based on properties of the soils.
3. The properties selected should be observable or measurable.
4. The properties selected should be those that either affect soil
genesis or result from soil genesis.
5. The properties with the greater significance to plant growth
should be selected for the higher category.
6. The classification system is flexible.
13 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
14. MODERN SYSTEM – Soil Orders
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
https://www.uidaho.edu/cals/soil-orders/alfisols
14 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
16. MODERN SYSTEM – Soil Sub Orders
Order suborder
Entisol Wassents, Aquents, Psamments, Fluvents and Orthents. (5)
Inceptisols Aquepts, Gelepts, Cryepts, Ustepts, Xerepts and Udepts (6)
Alfisols Aqualfs, Cryalfs , Udalfs , Ustalfs , Xeralfs (5)
Ultisols Aquults, Humults, Udults, Ustults and Xerults (5)
spodosols Aquods, Gelods, Cryods, Humods and Orthods (5)
Oxisols Aquox, Torrox, Ustox, Perox and Udox (5)
Aridisols Cryids, Salids, Durids, Gypsids, Argids, Calcids and Cambids
(7)
Vertisols Aquerts, Cryerts, Xererts, Torrerts, Usterts and Uderts (6)
Mollisols Albolls, Aquolls, Rendolls, Gelolls, Cryolls, Xerolls, Ustolls and
Udolls (8)
Histosols Folists, Wassists, Fibrists, Saprists and Hemists (5)
16 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
17. Example of the Classification of a
Miami Silt Loam Soil:
Order -Alfisol
Sub-order -Udalf
Great group -Hapludalf
Sub-group -TypicHaludalf
Family – Fine loamy, mixed
Series – Miami
Phase – Miami, eroded phase
17 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
19. SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil Texture
Soil Water
Soil Temperature
Soil Colloids
Soil Minerals
Soil pH, soil acidity and alkalinity
19 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
20. SOIL MINERALS
A soil derived from minerals or rocks and containing little
humus or organic matter.
Soil minerals play a vital role in soil fertility.
Different types of soil minerals hold and retain differing
amounts of nutrients.
20 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
22. PRIMARY MINERALS
The primary minerals are those which are formed owing
to the crystallization of the molten magma.
The original grains or mineral crystals which can be
seen in the soil with the naked eye.
Ex: Feldspar, mica, silica, iron oxides,
aluminium oxides
22 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
23. SECONDARY MINERLS
Formed at the earth’s surface by weathering on the
pre-existing primary minerals under variable
conditions of temperature and pressure.
During weathering, water accompanied by
CO2 from the atmosphere plays an important role
in processes, like hydrolysis, hydration and
solution.
Ex: Carbonates, Phosphates, Zircon, Pyrites
Feldspar + water clay mineral + cations +
anions + soluble silica
23 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
24. Primary Minerals - Feldspar
Feldspar are made up of sodium, calcium, potassium
silicates.
Feldspars (KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) are
a group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals that
make up about 41% of the Earth's continental crust by
weight.
Feldspars crystallize from magma as both intrusive
and extrusive igneous rocks and are also present in
many types of metamorphic rock.
Harder then a steel knife blade.
24 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
25. Primary Minerals - Mica
Mica are distributed in rocks as
silicates of K and Mg, Na and Li.
They are all silicate minerals,
known as sheet silicates because
they form in distinct layers.
Muscovite – White Mica -
KAl₂(F,OH)₂,
KF)₂(Al₂O₃)₃(SiO₂)₆.
Biotite - Black mica-
K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(F,OH)
25 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
26. Primary Minerals - Mica
Micas are fairly light and relatively soft, and the
sheets and flakes of mica are flexible.
Mica is heat-resistant and does not conduct
electricity.
There are 37 different mica minerals.
The most common include:
purple lepidolite, black biotite,
brown phlogopite and clear muscovite.
26 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
27. Primary Minerals - Silica
Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon
with the chemical formula SiO2
Most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various
living organisms.
In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent
of sand.
27 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
28. Primary Minerals – Iron oxides
Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed
of iron and oxygen. There are sixteen known iron
oxides and oxyhydroxides, the best known of which is
rust, a form of iron(III) oxide.
Iron oxides and oxyhydroxides are widespread in
nature and play an important role in many geological
and biological processes.
Magnetite, Hematite,
Goethite, limonite
28 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
29. Primary Minerals – Aluminium oxides
Aluminium oxide is a chemical compound
of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula
Al2O3.
It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium
oxides, and specifically identified
as aluminium(III) oxide.
Corundum,
Diaspore,
Gibbsite
Diaspor
e
Gibbsite
Corundum
29 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
30. Secondary Minerals – Carbonates
Main carbonate minerals found in soil are Ca, Mg
and Fe.
Ore Formula
Calcite CaCO3
Magnesite MgCO3
Dolomite MgCO3·CaCO
3
Siderite FeCO3
Calcite Magnesite
Dolomite Siderite
30 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
31. Secondary Minerals – Carbonates
Very soft
Dissolves in acid
Calcite – major constituent of marble
Lime stones are used to neutralize soil acidity.
31 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
32. Secondary Minerals – Phosphates
Apatite – contains P,
occurs in igneous rock as
small crystals.
Strendite – Iron phosphate
It is an important plant nutrient mineral.
32 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
33. Secondary Minerals – Zircon
It is Zirconium
silicate with a chemical
composition of ZrSiO4.
It is common throughout
the world as a minor
constituent of igneous,
metamorphic,and
sedimentary rocks.
33 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
34. Secondary Minerals – Pyrites
A shiny yellow mineral consisting of iron disulphide
and typically occurring as intersecting cubic crystals.
Pyrite used to be an important ore for the production
of sulfur and sulfuric acid.
Today most sulfur is obtained as a byproduct of oil
and gas processing.
Some sulfur continues to be produced from pyrite as a
byproduct of gold production.
Pyrite is occasionally used as a gemstone.
34 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
35. Secondary Minerals – Pyrites
It is an iron mineral
Fool’s gold due to its yellow appearance
Source of Fe and S in plant nutrition.
35 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
36. Secondary Minerals – Clay Minerals
Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates,
sometimes with variable amounts of iron, magnesium,
alkali metals, alkaline earths, and other cations found
on or near some planetary surfaces.
Formed by weathering of Feldspar, mica and silicates.
Occur abundantly in soils and rocks.
Have high chemical activity.
Strong adhesive and water holding force.
36 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
38. SOIL pH
Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity
or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units.
Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration.
The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the
neutral point.
As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases
the soil pH decreases thus becoming more acidic.
From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly more acidic
From pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more alkaline
or basic.
38 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
39. SOIL pH
Soil pH is considered a master variable in soils as
it affects many chemical processes.
It specifically affects plant nutrient availability by
controlling the chemical forms of the different
nutrients and influencing the chemical reactions
they undergo.
The optimum pH range for most plants is between
5.5 and 7.5;
However, many plants have adapted to thrive at
pH values outside this range.
39 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
43. Soil Acidity
Soils tend to become acidic as a result of:
Rainwater leaching away basic ions (calcium, magnesium,
potassium and sodium);
CO2 from decomposing organic matter and root respiration
dissolving in soil water to form a weak organic acid;
Formation of strong organic and inorganic acids, such as nitric
and sulfuric acid, from decaying organic matter and oxidation
of ammonium and sulfur fertilizers.
Soil acidification is a natural process that is accelerated by
acids produced in soil by most nitrogen fertilizers.
43 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
45. Soil Acidity - Problems
Aluminum and manganese are more soluble and can
be toxic to plants;
Calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, or
molybdenum (especially needed for nitrogen fixation
by legumes) may be deficient; and
Decomposition of soil organic matter is slowed and
causes decreased mineralization of nitrogen.
45 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
46. Soil Acidity – Organic Matter
The problems caused by soil acidity are usually less
severe, and the optimum pH is lower, if the soil is well
supplied with organic matter.
Organic matter helps to make aluminum less toxic.
46 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
47. Soil Acidity –organic matter
Soil organic matter slows down acidification and
buffers the soil’s pH because it holds the acid hydrogen
tightly.
Therefore, more acid is needed to decrease the pH by a
given amount when a lot of organic matter is present.
Of course, the reverse is also true - more lime is needed
to raise the pH of high-organic-matter soils by a given
amount.
47 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
48. Soil Alkalinity
Lime is usually added to acid soils to increase soil pH.
The addition of lime not only replaces hydrogen ions and
raises soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems
associated with acid soils but it also provides two
nutrients, calcium and magnesium to the soil.
48 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
49. Soil Alkalinity
Some common liming materials are:
Calcic limestone which is ground limestone;
Dolomitic limestone from ground limestone high in
magnesium;
Miscellaneous sources such as wood ashes.
Liming materials are relatively inexpensive,
comparatively mild to handle and leave no objectionable
residues in the soil.
49 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
50. Soil Alkalinity
Limestone application helps create a more hospitable soil for
acid-sensitive plants in many ways, such as the following:
by neutralizing acids;
by adding calcium in large quantities (because limestone is
calcium carbonate, CaCO3);
by adding magnesium in large quantities if dolomitic limestone
is used (containing carbonates of both calcium and
magnesium);
by making molybdenum and phosphorus more available;
by helping to maintain added phosphorus in an available form;
by enhancing bacterial activity, including the rhizobia that fix
nitrogen in legumes; and
by making aluminum and manganese less soluble.
50 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
51. Soil Alkalinity - Sources
Total soil alkalinity increases with:
Weathering of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals
containing Na+ ,Ca2+ , Mg2+ and K+;
Addition of silicate, aluminosilicate and carbonate minerals to
soils;
Addition of water containing dissolved bicarbonates (as occurs
when irrigating with high-bicarbonate waters).
The accumulation of alkalinity in a soil (as carbonates and
bicarbonates of Na, K, Ca and Mg) occurs when there is
insufficient water flowing through the soils to leach soluble
salts.
51 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
52. Soil Alkalinity - Sources
This may be due to arid conditions, or poor internal
soil drainage; in these situations most of the water that
enters the soil is transpired (taken up by plants) or
evaporates, rather than flowing through the soil.
The soil pH usually increases when the
total alkalinity increases, but the balance of the added
cations also has a marked effect on the soil pH.
52 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC
53. Soil Alkalinity - Sources
For example, increasing the amount of sodium in
an alkaline soil tends to induce dissolution
of calcium carbonate, which increases the pH.
Calcareous soils may vary in pH from 7.0 to 9.5
53 Dr.V.Latha, SRNMC