1) Acid halides are derivatives of carboxylic acids where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a halogen atom. Thionyl chloride and phosphorus trichloride/pentachloride are commonly used to prepare acid chlorides.
2) Acid chlorides are colorless liquids with sharp, pungent smells that hydrolyze in air, forming hydrogen chloride. They are reactive due to the electron-withdrawing chlorine.
3) Acid chlorides undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions, reacting with water, alcohols, ammonia, amines to form acids, esters, amides, or substituted amides. They also react with carboxylic
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
The combination of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl on the same carbon atom is called a carboxyl group. Compounds containing the carboxyl group are called carboxylic acids. The carboxyl group is one of the most widely occurring functional groups in organic chemistry.
Aromatic Carboxylic acids: Carboxylic acids have an aryl group bound to the carboxyl group is known as aromatic carboxylic acids. The general formula of an aliphatic aromatic carboxylic acid is Ar-COOH.
Acidity of carboxylic acid:
A carboxylic acid may dissociate in water to give a proton and a carboxylate ion. Dissociation of a carboxylic acid involves breaking an O-H bond gives a carboxylate ion with the negative charge spread out equally over two oxygen atoms, compared with just one oxygen atom in an alkoxide ion. The delocalized charge makes the carboxylate ion more stable therefore; dissociation of a carboxylic acid to a carboxylate ion is less endothermic.
Preparation Methods:
1. Oxidation:
The oxidation of aldehyde with oxidizing agents such as CrO3 to forms carboxylic acids containing the same numbers of carbon atoms with a oxidizing agents like chromic acid, chromium trioxide. The silver oxide (Ag2O) in aqueous ammonia solution (Tollen’s reagent) is mild reagent give good yield at room temperature. E.g. Acetaldehyde reacts with CrO3 in aqueous acid to give acetic acid.
2. Grignard reagents (from CO2):
Carboxylic acid can be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagent (alkyl magnesium halide) with carbon dioxide (CO2) in presence of dry ether. Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide to forms a magnesium carboxylates which on hydrolysis by dilute HCl produces carboxylic acids.
3. Hydrolysis of nitrile:
The hydrolysis of nitrile or cyanide in presence of dilute acid to forms a carboxylic acid. In this reaction –CN group is converted to a –COOH group.
4. Hydrolysis Reactions:
All the carboxylic acid derivatives can be hydrolyzed into the carboxylic acid in the acidic or basic media; the hydrolysis reaction is fast and occurs in presence of water with no acid or base catalyst.
1. From Ester (Hydrolysis of ester): Ester can be hydrolyzed in either acidic or basic medium to yield carboxylic acid. The ester is heated with an excess of water contains strong acid or base catalyst.
Properties of Carboxylic Acids:
1. Low molecular weights carboxylic acids are colourless liquid at room temperature i.e. lower member ate liquid up to C9 and have characteristic odors whereas higher members are solid.
2. Carboxylic acids are polar organic compound. Low molecular weight carboxylic acids (first four members) are soluble in water whereas solubility in water decrease as molecular weight and chain lengthing increases.
3. Aromatic acids are insoluble in water.
4. Carboxylic acids have higher melting and boiling point due to their capacity to readily form stable hydrogen-bonded dimers.
Organic Chemistry: Carbonyl Compounds and Nitrogen CompoundsIndra Yudhipratama
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Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
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Alkenyl Halides: Synthesis of vinyl chloride from acetylene and allyl chloride from propylene, Reactions of both with aqueous and alcoholic KOH, Comparison of the reactivity of vinyl and allyl chloride.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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Organic Chemistry: Carbonyl Compounds and Nitrogen CompoundsIndra Yudhipratama
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Learning Objectives:
1. Write the typical reactions of carboxylic acids
2. Explain how the reactions happen
3. Discuss the application of carboxylic acids
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
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Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
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Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
3. Introduction
Acid halides are the derivatives of acids in which the OH of carboxyl group has been
replaced by a halogen atom
The acid halides are also referred to as acyl halides; the acyl group is R-CO-.
The acid chlorides are by far the most important of all the acid halides and will be discussed in detail. Their
type formula may be represented as,
R C C l o r R C O C l o r R C O C l
O
4. Nomenclature
They are named by dropping the ending -ic acid from either the common name or
the IUPAC name and adding the suffix -yl chloride or halide.
5.
6. Methods Of Preparation
Acid chlorides are prepared from appropriate carboxylic acids:
1) By reaction with thionyl chloride (SOCI2):
Thionyl Chloride reacts with carboxylic acids to produce an acyl chloride, giving
off sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride gases. For example:
This method is superior to others as the by-products being gases escape leaving the acid
chloride in the pure state.
7. Cont…
2) By reaction with phosphorus tri-chloride (PCI3)
When a carboxylic acid reacts with phosphorus tri-chloride ,a mixture of the acyl chloride and
phosphorus acid is obtained.
For example :
8. 3) By reaction with phosphorus pentachloride (PCI5)
This reaction leaves a liquid mixture of acyl chloride and a phosphorus compound, phosphorus
tri-chloride oxide (phosphorus oxychloride, POCl3).
For example:
It is possible to prepare acid bromides and iodides by reactions analogous to those used in the
preparation of chlorides, However, in comparison to the chlorides, they are seldom used.
9. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
(1)All simple acid chlorides are colorless liquids of lower boiling point than the correspondingacid
(2) They have sharp pungent smell, and are lachrymators (tear-producing).
(3) They emit pale fumes of hydrogen chloride when exposed in air on account of their reactionwith
water vapor.
(4) They are insoluble in water but slowly dissolve in it because of hydrolysis.
(5) The C=O stretching band in IR Spectrum occurs at frequency range 1780-1850
cm¹.
10. Chemical Properties
In acyl chloride (RCOCI), we have a carbonyl group attached to a highly
electronegative chlorine atom. Due to the electron-withdrawing effect of the Cl atom,
the electron density on the carbonyl carbon is diminished further. As a result, acid
chlorides are readily attacked by nucleophiles, whereby the Cl atom is replaced by a
nucleophile.
11. Cont….
Thus, acid chlorides are very reactive compounds, their characteristic reactions
being nucleophilic substitution reactions are as:
They react with weak nucleophiles as water, alcohols, ammonia and amines to produce
the corresponding acid, ester, amide or substituted amides
12. Cont…
Some of their important reactions are listed below:
Hydrolysis: Acid chlorides react with water to form carboxylic acids.
13. Cont…
Reaction with Alcohol. They react with an alcohol when the chlorine atom is
displaced by alkoxy group.-OR', to produce an ester:
H
3
C C C
l
O
+H
O
C
2
H
5 H
3
C C O
C
2
H
5 + H
C
l
O
14. Cont…
Reaction with Ammonia:
Acyl chloride reacts violently with a cold concentrated solution of ammonia. A white
solid product is formed which is a mixture of ethanamide (an amide) and ammonium
chloride.
15. Cont..
Reaction with 1 ° and 2 ° Amines. Acid halides react with 1° and 2° amines to
produce substituted amides.
16. Cont…
Reaction with Salts of Carboxylic Acids
Acid chlorides react with carboxylic acids to form anhydrides.
17. Cont…
Friedel-Crafts Reaction:
Acylation is the term given to substituting an acyl group such as CH3CO- onto another
molecule. An acyl group is a hydrocarbon group attached to a carbon-oxygen double
bond. The most common example of an acyl group is the ethanoyl group, CH3CO-, and
this group is used throughout this article. If benzene is reacted with ethanoyl chloride
in the presence of an aluminium chloride catalyst, the equation for the reaction is as
follows:
