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1. Before you start:
1. Pay close attention to the words in bold, which are often used in
conjunction with the main word.
2. [ ] means “insert a suitable word here”, while ( ) means “this word is
optional.”
3. Bear in mind that, within each group, some examples are slightly more
formal / less frequent than others.
4. I am not claiming, by any stretch of the imagination, that these are the most
common ways to use each word. These are just examples of academic
discourse that I collected randomly in the late 90s.
Argue
a. Along similar lines, [X] argues that ___.
b. There seems to be no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. As a rebuttal to this point, it might be (convincingly) argued that ___.
d. There are [three] main arguments that can be advanced to support ___.
e. The underlying argument in favor of / against [X] is that ___.
f. [X]’s argument in favor of / against [Y] runs as follows: ___.
Claim
a. In this [paper], I put forward the claim that ___.
b. [X] develops the claim that ___.
c. There is ample / growing support for the claim that ___.
d. [X]’s findings lend support to the claim that ___.
e. Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ___.
Data
a. The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggests / suggest that ___.
b. The data appears / appear to suggest that ___.
c. The data yielded by this [study] provides strong / convincing evidence
that ___. (yielded = generated)
d. A closer look at the data indicates that ___.
e. The data generated by [X] is / are reported in [table 1].
f. The aim of this [section] is to generalize beyond the data and ___.
In modern usage, data can also be treated as a mass / uncountable noun, like
information. Before you submit your work, check whether the institution
you’re writing for / on behalf of prefers data + plural verb.
Debate
a. [X] has fostered debate on ___. (fostered = encouraged)

2. b. There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ___.
c. The question of whether ___ has caused much debate in [our
profession] [over the years].
d. (Much of) the current debate revolves around ___.
Discussion
a. In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ___.
b. The foregoing discussion implies that ___. (foregoing = that came
before)
c. For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ___.
d. In this study, the question under discussion is ___.
e. In this paper, the discussion centers on ___.
f. [X] lies at the heart of the discussion on ___.
Evidence (Remember: Evidence is uncountable.)
a. The available evidence seems to suggest that ___ / point to ___.
b. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest
that ___.
c. There is overwhelming evidence corroborating the notion that
___.(corroborating = confirming)
d. Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y],
who ___.
e. These results provide confirmatory evidence that ___.
Ground
a. I will now summarize the ground covered in this [chapter] by ___.
b. On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. [X] takes a middle-ground position on [Y] and argues that ___.
d. On these grounds, we can argue that ___.
e. [X]’s views are grounded on the assumption that ___.
Issue
a. This study is an attempt to address the issue of ___.
b. In the present study, the issue under scrutiny is ___.
c. The issue of whether ___ is clouded by the fact that ___. (clouded =
made less clear)
d. To portray the issue in [X]’s terms, ___.
e. Given the centrality of this issue to [my claim], I will now ___.
f. This [chapter] is concerned with the issue of [how/whether/what] ___.

3. Literature
a. [X] is prominent in the literature on [Y].
b. There is a rapidly growing literature on [X], which indicates that ___.
c. The literature shows no consensus on [X], which means that ___.
d. The (current) literature on [X] abounds with examples of ___.
Premise
a. The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ___.
b. [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ___.
c. [X] is premised on the assumption that ___.
d. The basic premises of [X]’s theory / argument are ___.
e. The arguments against [X]’s premise rest on [four] assumptions: ___.
Research
a.This study draws on research conducted by ___.
b. Although there has been relatively little research on / into [X], ___.
c. In the last [X] years, [educational] research has provided ample
support for the assertion that ___.
d. Current research appears / seems to validate the view that ___.
e. Research on / into ___ does not support the view that ___.
f. Further research in this area may include ___ and ___.
g. Evidence for [X] is borne out by research that shows ___.
h. There is insufficient research on / into ___ to draw any firm
conclusions about / on ___.
View
a. The consensus view seems to be that ___.
b. [X] propounds the view that ___. (propound = put forward for
consideration)
c. Current research (does not) appear(s) to validate such a view.
d. There have been dissenters to the view that ___. (dissenter = someone
who disagrees)
e. The answer to [X] / The difference between [X] and [Y] is not as clear-cut
aspopular views might suggest.
f. The view that _____ is (very much) in line with [common sense].
g. I am not alone in my view that ___.
h. [X] puts forward the view that ___.
i. [X]’s views rest on the assumption that ___.

4. Thanks for reading and good luck!
General explaining
Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.
1. In order to
Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose
of an argument.
Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”
2. In other words
Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a
different way (more simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise
or expand on a point.
Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in
the water.”
3. To put it another way
Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be
used in particularly complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of
wording a problem may help the reader achieve a better understanding of its
significance.
Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die
without the sun.”
4. That is to say
Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your
explanation, or to be more precise.
Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”
5. To that end
Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or
“so”.
Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals
communicate with each other. To that end, a new study has been launched
that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.”
Adding additional information to support a point
Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they
want to add further information in support of a point they’re making, or to build
an argument. Here are some cleverer ways of doing this.
6. Moreover
Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information
in support of a point you’re making.
Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide
compelling evidence in support of…”

5. 7. Furthermore
Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra
information.
Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”
8. What’s more
Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”.
Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this
hypothesis.”
9. Likewise
Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees
with what you’ve just mentioned.
Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in
favour of this point of view.”
10. Similarly
Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”.
Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new
work, because it was very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we
have a tendency to react with surprise to the unfamiliar.”
11. Another key thing to remember
Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact
to remember” to introduce additional facts without using the word “also”.
Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship
between humans and nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake
was writing during the Industrial Revolution, which had a major impact on the
world around him.”
12. As well as
Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”.
Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”
13. Not only… but also
Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often
something that’s in some way more surprising or unexpected than the first
piece of information.
Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to
reach the summit of Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander
of the Order of the British Empire.”
14. Coupled with
Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time.
Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling
view of…”

6. 15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…
Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly
one after the other.
Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly,
Y. And thirdly, Z.
16. Not to mention/to say nothing of
Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra
information with a bit of emphasis.
Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not
to mention its impact on the country’s economy.”
Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast
When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present
contrasting or opposing opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could
also show this”, or “X says this, but Y disagrees”. This section covers words
you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to make your writing
sound more intelligent and interesting.
17. However
Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve
just said.
Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different
conclusion.”
18. On the other hand
Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation
of the same piece of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests
something else, or an opposing opinion.
Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation.
On the other hand, the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less
straightforward picture of what happened that day.”
19. Having said that
Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”.
Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that
suggests that this version of events must be an accurate account. Having said
that, the archaeology tells a different story.”
20. By contrast/in comparison
Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and
contrasting pieces of evidence.
Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By
contrast, Scholar B’s opinion seems more plausible.”
21. Then again

7. Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion.
Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then
again, it’s possible that he was being paid to say this.”
22. That said
Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”.
Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That
said, much of the evidence is unreliable at best.”
23. Yet
Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea.
Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not
everyone agrees that this is the most important aspect of the situation.”
Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations
Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of
evidence, or add a proviso. Here are some ways of doing so.
24. Despite this
Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point
that stands regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence.
Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite
this.”
25. With this in mind
Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the
knowledge of something else.
Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did
not always live up to the rigorous standards expected in scientific research
today, which makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions. With this in mind,
let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.”
26. Provided that
Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or
just “providing” to mean the same thing.
Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided
that we bear in mind the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”
27. In view of/in light of
Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on
something else.
Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better
understanding of…”
28. Nonetheless
Usage: This is similar to “despite this”.

8. Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless
groundbreaking for its day.”
29. Nevertheless
Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”.
Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”
30. Notwithstanding
Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”.
Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an
important study in the development of how we view the workings of the
human mind.”
Giving examples
Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring
if you use the expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other
ways of saying the same thing.
31. For instance
Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for
instance, leave the UK in early winter and fly south…”
32. To give an illustration
Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”
Signifying importance
When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are
several ways of highlighting it as such.
33. Significantly
Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not
be immediately apparent.
Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in
Suetonius’ accounts of the same period.”
34. Notably
Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be
used interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates
the first of these ways of using it).
Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”
35. Importantly
Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”.
Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote
this work, and was presumably therefore under pressure to portray the
situation more favourably than he perhaps might otherwise have done.”
Summarising

9. You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet.
You need to end by wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that
you’ve considered the arguments on both sides and reached the most likely
conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.
36. In conclusion
Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of
an essay, summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview.
Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument
A.”
37. Above all
Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and
the main takeaway from the essay.
Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”
38. Persuasive
Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you
find most convincing.
Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by
financial gain – seems to me to be the most persuasive argument for her
actions following Mozart’s death.”
39. Compelling
Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above.
Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”
40. All things considered
Usage: This means “taking everything into account”.
Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”
Useful Academic Expressions
These are some useful expressions used in academic writing:
1. Stating your own position on a Subject or Topic
 This paper aims at...
 This paper will be concerned with...
 The aim of this paper is to…
 The point of this article is to…
 It shall be argued in this paper/essay/review that…
 The view presented in this paper/essay/review is that..

10. 2. Presenting your own point of view
 I strongly believe that...
 To my mind...
 As I see it....
 It seems to me evident/obvious that...
 I feel that...
 I think/contend that...
 There are many reasons why…
 It is important/necessary to point out that…
 The first thing to be considered is…
 It is a fact that…
3. Supporting your view and adding more information:
 The first/second reason why…is…
 Firstly/Secondly...
 not only ...but also...
 The most important…
 In addition, …
 Furthermore, …
 What is more, …
 Another reason is …
 A further point is …
4. Stating the view of Another Person on a Subject or Topic
 Harris's approch (1970, p. 1) can be described as follows...
 Chomsky (1965, p. 133)
maintains/argues/asserts/claims/points out that...
 Th authors views ca be stated as follows...
 The opinion of Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is that…
 Chomsky (1965, p. 133)) has suggested that ….
 According to Smith (1992, p. 123), …
 It is thought by some theorists, for example, Chomsky (1965,
p. 133) and Harris (1970, p. 1) that…
5. Agreeing with the Views of Others
 I don't agree with the authors ideas/thoughts...because...
 I don't think the author's views are accurate...because...
 Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is certainly/may be correct/accurate
in saying that … because…
 As Chomsky (1965, p. 133) says/states …
 Like Chomsky (1965, p. 133), it can be agreed that ….
because…

11. 6. Disagreeing with the Views of Others
 Chomsky (1965, p. 133) fails to address the issue when he says
"…" because …
 When Chomsky (1965, p. 133) argues that …. his reasoning is
questionable because….
 One of the main arguments against Chomsky (1965, p. 133) and
Harris (1970, p. 1) is that …
 Harris (1970) approach/position/methods is/are somewhat
inadequate/inaccurate/insufficient because…
 There is some doubt that…
7. Indicating a Lack of Knowledge in a Particular Topic or Subject
 Despite the book's attempts to... it lacks accuracy...
 What I find lacking in the research is...
 Although the research has tended to focus on…..rather less
attention has been paid to…
 Most studies, such as Harris (1970, p. 1) and Chomsky (1965, p.
133) have emphasized/concentrated on/focused on inadequate
/insufficient….
8. Drawing a Conclusion Using the Work of Others
 To sum up, ...
 In a nutshell, ...
 As a conclusion, ...
 As a summary, ...
 All in all, ...
 To conclude, ...
 Based on these authors, a connection can be made between…
 It can be concluded from what Jones (2004, p. 2) and Smith
(2002, p. 1) have stated that... is …
 When Smith’s (2001, p.52) work/paper is looked at closely, it
is seen that…
 One outcome of Smith’s (2001, p.52) work/paper/research is …
 1.33 Cohesion: linking words and phrases
 You can use words or short phrases which help to guide your reader
through your writing, and to link sentences, paragraphs and sections
both forwards and backwards. Good use will make what you have
written easy to follow; bad use might mean your style is disjointed,
probably with too many short sentences, and consequently difficult to
follow. Your mark could be affected either way.
The best way to "get a feel" for these words is through your reading.
Most textbooks and articles are well-written and will probably include
a lot of these cohesive devices. Note how they are used and try to

12. emulate what you have read. Do make sure though that you fully
understand their meaning: incorrect use could change completely
what you're trying to say. Try to use a variety of expressions,
particularly in longer pieces of writing.
Don't forget "AND"! Two short sentences are often best connected
together with this little word.
There follows a list of words and phrases that can be used. The list is
not exhaustive, and BE CAREFUL: although grouped together, none is
totally synonymous. Their position in the sentence can also vary; this
is where your reading and dictionary come in.
Listing Giving examples Generalising
first, second, third for example in general
first, furthermore,
finally
for instance generally
to begin, to conclude as follows: on the whole
next that is as a rule
Reinforcement in this case for the most part
also namely in most cases
furthermore in other words usually
moreover Result/consequence Highlighting
what is more so in particular
in addition therefore particularly
besides as a result/consequence especially
above all accordingly mainly
as well (as) consequently Reformulation
in the same way because of this/that in other words
not only ... but also thus rather
Similarity hence to put it more simply
equally for this/that reason
Expressing an
alternative
likewise so that alternatively
similarly in that case rather
correspondingly
under these
circumstances
on the other hand
in the same way Deduction the alternative is

13. Transition to new point then
another possibility would
be
now, in other words Contrast
as far as x is concerned in that case instead
with regard/reference
to
otherwise conversely
as for ... this implies that ... on the contrary
it follows that if so/not in contrast
turning to Stating the obvious in comparison
Summary obviously
Concession (sth
unexpected)
in conclusion clearly however
to conclude naturally even though
in brief of course however much
to summarise as can be expected nevertheless
overall surely still
therefore after all yet
 Here are just a few examples of some of the words in action:
REINFORCEMENT
 Desktop computers are cheaper and more reliable than
laptops; furthermore, they are more flexible.
RESULT/CONSEQUENCE
Prices fell by more than 20% last year. As a result, sales increased by
15%.
GENERALISING
On the whole, his speech was well received, despite some
complaints from new members.
 CONTRAST
 The South East of the UK often has the coldest weather in the
winter. Conversely, the North West of Scotland frequently has the
mildest temperatures.
 CONCESSION
 It was a very expensive holiday, the weather was bad and the people
weren’t very friendly. Nevertheless, we would probably go back to
the same place.

14. Academic writing key words or phrases
, in the context of a.......
. In contrast, .........
.Together, these findings.......
.Frequently, .......
.It is therefore of great importance for........ to........
.Previous research has suggested that........
. Tekke( 2014) presented......
....in which.....
.For example, ....
.In half, .....
,whereas......
.In half.....
, in the remaining.....
.Participants were asked to....
.From this research,......
.It seems clear that
.It is less clear whether......
.The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which .........
.....is thought to be important for......
(e.g.,....)
Results indicated that ......
....-relevantrelatedprocessingquestionissue......
Thus, it is plausibleimplausible ( believablevalidreasonable) that ......
However, despite.....
(reviewed by ........, 20..)
(or perhaps because of the.....)
.Recent ......research has revealed changes or ....... that occur or.......
........is perceieved as increasingly......
, and as a result,......
.According to the.....
.....is associated with an increased........to....
....a simultaneous decreasing or.... to.....
.As a consequence of these......,
....relativelyproportionately......
....intact with... ( unchanged)
..... become a primary......
.....is associated with....
To maintain .........in the face of ......( e.g.,.......)
.. , discussed recently, .....
Studies examining the influence of....... (...................) have found that
compared with younger adults, ......
Similar results have been found when examining .......... :
..... , even when no age difference were observed in ........ing ......
for........(..........)

15. However, this........has not gone uncontestedwithout opposition without
resistance; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent with ...........(
e.g.,......)
Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses
exist to explain age difference in ........... associated with.........
Additional......have been proposed...
...reducing discrepancies between...
...can occur through....
One feels relatively.....
....to identify benefits.....
The notion.......as central to human life is a...
.....in the context.....
.....evaluate the extent to which.....
....life narratives....
…..is/are to be …...ed...
.....has been termed......
Some ...... have proposed that....
However, others have proposed that.
...more/relatively common...
...too immensely...
... , particularly/only when......
....more promising....
, to some extent,
....as well as ......
.....has been adopted by a number of researchers..
..... , positing that these occur in a.....
In additition to ......ing .......
For example,
.....life as more..... or...
......one's view of God as being less/more......than previously thought.
.....substituting/replacing....
There are many instances of people ......ing ...
....such as through.....
.....a related cause.
...a large amount of research ........ing
Based on.....
Building on this recognition,
....from a variety of ....
….. , emphasizing the ……ing
…. to the extent that…..
….along with/to…
Although …………… , and ………………… , (second clause)….
….. in ways that allow delineation of….
….anchor the issues of….
Though……
some of the founding figures of….. (e.g., …..)
utmost interest….

16. were largely neglected as….
account for this…
...for much of the 20th century….
…is the attempt of …..to…..
...is the tendency of the proponents of ….. to……
...took place primarily…
… , but more recently, ….
….observed within populations….
…. , and Muslims in particular , …
An emerging body of ………..
…..clear connections between ….
see, ……. , for review
Practitioners have begun to advocate/support for …….
….promising.
Still, these attempts seem to operate from the prism of largely…
Useful as this modality has …..
...are called for. (appropriate)
In what follows, I establish a rationale for using...
...some of the attempts...
Next, ...
..in a case study...
...basic tenets of this religion...
I briefly describe the ....
...ethical conduct common to ….
For a detailed description of….
For a general introduction to…
Major Islamic beliefs
Basic to Islam is the key…
In that time, …
As a result of ...