The document discusses acid-base balance and blood pH regulation, noting that the normal pH of blood is 7.4 and key factors include bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffering, lung regulation of carbon dioxide, and kidney regulation of bicarbonate and acid excretion. Multiple choice questions are also provided to assess understanding of topics like normal bicarbonate levels, buffering systems, and hydrogen ion concentrations at different pH levels.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
The normal ranges for arterial blood gas values
Approach to arterial blood gas interpretation
Arterial blood gas abnormalities in special circumstances
The normal ranges for arterial blood gas values
Approach to arterial blood gas interpretation
Arterial blood gas abnormalities in special circumstances
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Salas, V. (2024) "John of St. Thomas (Poinsot) on the Science of Sacred Theol...Studia Poinsotiana
I Introduction
II Subalternation and Theology
III Theology and Dogmatic Declarations
IV The Mixed Principles of Theology
V Virtual Revelation: The Unity of Theology
VI Theology as a Natural Science
VII Theology’s Certitude
VIII Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
All the contents are fully attributable to the author, Doctor Victor Salas. Should you wish to get this text republished, get in touch with the author or the editorial committee of the Studia Poinsotiana. Insofar as possible, we will be happy to broker your contact.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
3. The important aspect of clinical biochemistry is
information on a patient’s
pH regulation
Acid base balance
Blood gas homeostasis.
These data often are used to assess patients in
life- threatening situations.
4. Normal pH of Blood is 7.4 Life compatible pH 7 – 7.7
Importance of pH regulation
1. For normal enzyme activity
2. Acidosis – affects enzyme activity. Causes depression of CNS –
coma, death may occur in severe case
3. Alkalosis – causes stimulation of CNS, excitation and convulsions.
Body’s tendency is towards acidosis, producing inorganic and
organic acids continuously. Cells produce 50-100 mmol/L H+ daily
5. MCQs
1. The normal pH of the blood is
(A) 7.0 (B) 7.1
(C) 7.2 (D) 7.4
2. The normal concentration of bicarbonate in blood is
(A) 21 meq/L (B) 24 meq/L
(C) 26 meq/L (D) 30 meq/L
3. At the pH of blood 7.4, the ratio between the carbonic acid and
bicarbonate fractions is
(A) 1 : 10 (B) 1 : 20
(C) 1 : 30 (D) 1 : 40
6. 4. Important buffer system of extracellular fluid is
(A) Bicarbonate/carbonic acid
(B) Disodium hydrogen phosphate/sodium dihydrogen phosphate
(C) Plasma proteins
(D) Organic Phosphate
5. The pH of body fluids is stabilized by buffer systems.
The compound which will be the most effective buffer
at physiologic pH is
(A) Na2HPO4 pKa = 12.32 (B) Na2HPO4 pKa=7.21
(C) NH4OH pKa = 7.24 (D) Citric acid pKa = 3.09
7. 6. In a solution having a pH of 7.4, the hydrogen ion concentration is
(A) 7.4 nmol/L (B) 40 nmol/L
(C) 56 nmol/L (D) 80 nmol/L
7. In a solution containing phosphate buffer, the pH will be 7.4, if the
ratio of monohydrogen phosphate : dihydrogen phosphate is:
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 5 : 1
(C) 10 : 1 (D) 20 : 1
8. Buffering action of haemoglobin is mainly due to its:
(A) Glutamine residues (B) Arginine residues
(C) Histidine residues (D) Lysine residues
8. Mechanism of regulation
Blood pH is regulated by the following mechanisms:
Chemical buffers include inorganic and organic pairs. They are first line
of defense and act within seconds.
Physiological buffers include lungs and kidneys. Lungs deal with
respiratory acid I.e. CO2 (H2CO3) they act within hours. Kidneys deal with
HCO3 component mainly by its reabsorption or excretion by renal tubules.
They act within days and cause final compensation.
9. Chemical buffers are further classified as
I.Extra cellular buffers
Bicarbonate buffer: NaHCO3/H2CO3 (Main in ECF)
Phosphate buffers: Na2HPO4/NaH2PO4
Protein buffer: B.Protein/H.Protein
II. Intracellular buffers
Phosphate buffer ( Main in ICF and more powerful)
Bicarbonate buffer (Less important in ICF)
Protein buffer (also present in ICF)
10. III. RBC’s Buffer: Hemoglobin acts as special
buffer and carries O2 & CO2.
IV. Other Chemical Buffers
Which are commonly used in vetro as well
Acetate buffer: CH3COONa/CH3COOH.
Citrate buffer: Sodium citrate/ Citric acid.
Ammonium buffer: NH4Cl/NH4OH.
Barbitone buffer: Na barbiturate/ Barbituric acid
11. Chemical Buffers
NON VOLATILE OR FIXED ACIDS
Main buffer involved is bicarbonate which deals the various acids produced
continuously in the body – HCl, H2PO4, & K. Bodies – actoacetate.
3–hydroxy butyrate , H2SO4, Pyruvate , lactic acid.
For this acids , the buffer used is HCO3/ H2CO3.
- HCl + NaHCO3 NaCl + H2CO3
- H2SO4 + NaHCO3 Na2SO4 + H2CO3
- H2PO4 + NaHCO3 Na2HPO4 + H2CO3
- Pyruvic acid + NaHCO3 Na- Pyruvate + H2CO3
- Lactic acid + NaHCO3 Na-Lactate + H2CO3
- Acetoacetic acid + NaHCO3 Na-acetoacetate + H2CO3
H2CO3 is a weak acid and is broken down into CO2 + H2O
NaHCO3 is an alkali reserve which is decreased
and is finally compensated by kidneys.
12. Buffering by lungs
Regulate the amount of CO2 that is removed by expiration or retained. It
takes 3-6hours for the maximum effect of respiratory compensation. It is
mediated through CNS chemo receptors in contact with CSF. Peripheral &
central chemo receptors are sensitive to small changes of pH & PCO2.
Main respiratory acid is CO2 (H2CO3) which is volatile , produced in tissues
during metabolism. Production is 200 ml/min=288 L/day which is equal
to 2.6N HCL (damage wise)
Lung Level Blood Tissue Level
RBC RBC
O2
HbO2
Hb
H HHb
H2CO3
H2O + CO2 HCO3
-
Cl-
HbO2
HHb
HCO3
Cl- Cl-
H2O + CO2
HbO2 O2
Hb
HHb H2CO3
H+ + HCO3
-
Cl-
Expired Out
HCO3- Cl- Shift
Hamburger’s Phenomenon
CO2 is also transporetd as Hb NH2 CO2
Carbonic
Anhydrase
tissues
14. Role of Kidney’s regarding ABB
- Reabsorbtion or excretion of HCO3 by kidneys
- Reabsorption and excretion of chlorides
- Generation of HCO3
-
- Formation of NH3
- Acidification of urine
- Excretion or conservation of H+ as free acid
- Na & H+ exchange
- K+ & H+ or Na+ exchange
16. The bicarbonate system is the most important buffer in the
body because:
• It accounts for more than 60 per cent of the blood buffering
capacity,
• H+ secretion by the kidney depends on it,
• It is necessary for efficient buffering by Hb, which provides
most of the rest of the blood buffering capacity.
Urinary Buffers:
Bicarbonate buffer pKa = 6.1
Phosphate buffer pair pKa = 6.8
NH3 / NH4 buffer pair pKa = 9.8
17. Tubular Lumen
(Urine)
Renal Tubular Cells Peritubular Fluid
(Plasma)
NaHCO3
Na + HCO3
H+
Na +
H2CO3
H2O + CO2
Chief Inorganic component
of Urine
H2O + CO2
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3
-
Na +
Na: H Exchange
HCO3
- Retention
HCO3
-
Na +
Buffering by Kidneys
Tabel I: Reabsorption & Generation of HCO3
Carbonic
Anhydrase
22. Table III Neutral Salts ( Na2SO4, NaCl, NaA-)
Tubular Lumen Renal Tubular Cells
Peritubular Fluid
(Plasma)
Na A- NaCl Na2SO4
Na + A- Na++ Cl- 2Na+ + SO4
2Na+
NH4
H2O + CO2
Carbonic
Anhydrase
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3
-
NH3 Glutamine
K+
H+
NH4
+ weak acid & NH3 is
strong base
NH3 eliminates H+
It conserves Na+
NH3 is Increased in acidosis
and decreased in alkalosis.
HCO3
-
2 Na+
Glutamine
In Alkalosis
K:Na / K:H Exchange
H+
May cause hypokalemia, Ca2+
can also ( Tetany can occur)
NH4 A-
NH4Cl
(NH4)2 SO4
K2SO4
KCl
URINE
23. Disturbed Acid Base Balance
pH = pKa + Log Salt/Acid = NaHCO3/H2CO3
pH = Salt/Acid = 20/1 = 40/2 = 10/5
Salt component is related with metabolism and
controlled by kidneys
Acidic component is related with respiration and is
controlled by respiration. Center in medulla
oblongata of brain
If salt component is disturbed then Metabolic Acidosis
/ Metabolic Alkalosis
If acidic component is disturbed then Respiratory
Acidosis / Respiratory Alkalosis
24. Respiratory Alkalosis
It is rare. pH high, CO2N, PCO2 low & HCO3/H2CO3normal sometimes
It is due to increased hyperventilation both rate and depth.
Causes:
Head injuries: CNS is stimulated
Anxiety, nervousness, apprehension, hysteria.
Hepatic failure, CCF, thyrotoxicosis, hypoxia,
Exercise, Salicylate poisoning, high altitude.
Compensation: By lungs : Already Defected.
By Kidneys : Less HCO3
- Reabsorbed
More HCO3 exertion
More H+ conserved
NH3 synthesis is depressed
So Na+ : K exchange
K low in plasma ( Hypokalemia)
Also Ca+ may be low in plasma
So tetany may occur
25. Exercise:
The following are the blood gas results of a patient who has
been on a respirator for the past week—pH : 7.5
pCO2: 24 mm of Hg
pO2: 88 mm of Hg
HCO3
-: 18 mmol/L.
A. What is the acid-base status of the patient?
B. Explain the nature of the disturbance and the alteration in each
parameter.
C. What is the nature of the compensatory change?
R.Al
Normal values-Arterial blood
pH 7.35-7.45
pO2 (mmHg) 80-110
pCO2(mmHg) 35-45
HCO3 (mmol/L) 22-26
O2Hb (%) >95
26. Respiratory Acidosis
It is rare but is an emergency. In it pH is low, PCO2 high & HCO3/H2CO3 low.
It is due to hypoventilation.
Causes:
Air passage obstruction. Respiratory distress syndrome.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease of lungs and pleura.
Pneumonia, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema & asthma.
Abdominal muscle disease, myasthenia gravis.
General anesthesia, narcotics & barbiturates, high CO Hb.
Compensation: Lungs already defected.
Kidneys play role.
Na:H exchange
CO2+H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+
HCO3
_
all conserved.
H+ is excreted in urine
Plasms Urine
27. EXERCISE:
The following results were obtained by blood gas analysis on the arterial blood of a
patient admitted in an unconscious state with suspected barbiturate poisoning.
pH: 7.24
pCO2: 60 mm of Hg
HCO3", 27 mmol/L
A. What is the nature of acid-base disturbance Explain.
B. Why barbiturates cause acid-base disturbance?
C. What will be the nature of compensation?
D. What are the enzyme levels that are likely to be elevated in this patient?
E. Define the term base deficit.
F. What is the effect of barbiturates on heme synthesis?
R.Ac
Normal values-Arterial blood
pH 7.35-7.45
pO2 (mmHg) 80-110
pCO2(mmHg) 35-45
HCO3 (mmol/L) 22-26
O2Hb (%) >95
28. EXERCISE:
The laboratory results of a patient with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) are:
pH : 7.26
pCO2: 65 mm of Hg
pO2: 60 mm of Hg
bicarbonate: 36 mmol/L.
A. What is the nature of the disturbance?
B. How is it compensated?
D. What are the major buffer systems of plasma?
E. Explain the role of hemoglobin in buffering.
Ch.R.Ac
Normal values-Arterial blood
pH 7.35-7.45
pO2 (mmHg) 80-110
pCO2(mmHg) 35-45
HCO3 (mmol/L) 22-26
O2Hb (%) >95
29. Metabolic Acidosis
In it low pH, PCO2N,PCO2 Low, HCO3/H2CO3 Low
Causes:
Prolonged diarrhea, loss of pancreatic juice & bile.
Uncontrolled DM, ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis.
Chronic renal failure, tissue hypoxia, CA inhibitor.
Ammonia Cl ingestion, hypoaldosteronism.
For causes, remember DR MAPLES:
D= DKA , R= reanal disease /injury, M= methanol,
A= alcoholic A, P= Paracetamole, L= Lactic acidois ,
E= ethylene glycol, S= salicylates
Compensation:
By Lungs: Hyperventalation, So PCO2 low by exhalation.
By Kidneys: HCO3 reabsorbed. H+ is excreted in NH4 forms. NH3
formation is increased
30. A 7-year-old boy was admitted unconscious to a casualty
department. On examination he was found to be
hyperventilating. He had inadvertently consumed ethylene
glycol antifreeze, which he had found in his parents' garage
stored in a lemonade bottle. Blood results were as follows:
Plasma
Sodium 134mmol/L(135-l45)
Potassium 6.0mmol/L (3.5-5.0)
Bicarbonate 10 mmol/L (24-32)
Chloride 93 mmol/L (95-105)
Glucose 5.3 mmol/L (3.5-6.0)
Arterial blood gases
pH 7.2 (7.35-7.45)
pCO2 3.18kPa (4.6-6.0) kPa = kilopascals
pO2 13.1kPa (9.3-13.3) 1kPa = 7.5mmHg
M.Ac
31. Metabolic Alkalosis
pH High, PCO2N,HCO3/H2CO3 high.
Causes:
Gastric vomiting, HCl loss, nasogastric suction, citrate transfusion.
Excessive intake of alkali, milk alkali syndrome, licorice abuses.
Diuretics like chlorothiazides, steroid treatment, Cushing
syndrome, hyperaldosteronism
Compensation:
By Lungs: Hypoventilation, so PCO2 is conserved.
By Kidneys: HCO3 are excreted.
H+ is reabsorbed as K:H exchange,
so Hypokalemia.
Na and K are lost in urine
32. A baby girl a few days old had had projectile vomiting since
birth clue to pyloric stenosis. Her blood results were as
follows:
Plasma:
Sodium 137 mmol/L (135-145)
Potassium 3.0 mmol/L (3.5-5.0)
Bicarbonate 40mmol/L (24-32)
Chloride 82 mmol/L (95-105)
Arterial blood gases:
pH 7.52 (7.35-7.45)
Paco2 6.2kPa (4.6-6.0)
Pao2, l2.9kPa (9.3-13.3)
M.Alk
34. Anion Gap in ABB
It is calculated by the difference between
measured cations and anions:
[Na+K]-[HCO3+Cl]=AG
It’s importance relates to differentiate the type
and cause of metabolic acidosis. We know that
in serum:
Na + K + Other cations = HCO3
- + Cl- + Other Anions
The major unmeasured cations are Ca, Mg.
The major unmeasured anions are PO4, SO4,
Lactate and negatively charged albumin and other
organic anions.
35. An increased Anion Gap is found when there is an increase in
unmeasured anions such as proteins, PO4 and SO4.
Lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis (DM), starvation, renal failure.
Intoxation of methanol, ethanol, salicylates, ethylene glycol,
hypernatremia.
For Causes, remember the word DR MAPLES
36. A decreased anion gap
May be due to an increase in unmeasured
cations as in Hypercalcemia &
hypermagnesemia or lithium toxicity.
Increase in hyperimmunoglobulemenia (IgG)
due to net positive charge.
Decreased unmeasured anions with
hypoalbuminemia.