A2 GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE EDEXCEL

Created by Natalie Garthwaite 2010
A2 GEOGRAPHY
REVISION GUIDE
EDEXCEL

Topic 1: Energy Insecurity
What do I need to know?
 How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and disadvantages of these
 Reasons for global variations in energy access and consumption
 Factors effecting energy security – California Case Study
 Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case Study
 Impact of geopolitics on energy security
 Energy pathways  problems with these – Trans-Siberian Pipeline
 How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia
 Environment impacts of looking for more energy e.g. Tar Sands in Canada, Arctic Oil
 Who they key players are in supplying future oil – OPEC, TNCs - Gazprom
 Why we are uncertain about the future of energy
 The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures
 How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions e.g. USA involvement in Middle
East, China and India
 How can meet our future energy needs?

Key Terms
Energy Pathways Supply routes between energy producers and consumers e.g. pipelines or
shipping routes
Energy Poverty When a country or region has insufficient access to reliable sources of power
Energy Security This is vital to the functioning of any economy – any country that is self-
sufficient in energy resources will be secure
Energy surplus When a country or region has more than enough sources of power for its needs
and is able to export its surplus power to other countries
Geopolitics Political relations among nations, particularly relating to claims and disputes
regarding boarders and resources
Low-carbon standard Initiative introduced in California in 2007 aimed to reducing the carbon
intensity of transportation fuel by 10% by 2020
OPEC The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries e.g. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait
Peak Oil The year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches its
highest level of production, production declines after
Security Premium The extra cost built into the price of oil to allow for any disruption in supply
Strategic Something that is done as part of a plan that is meant to achieve a particular
purpose or to gain an advantage
Supply shock A significant interruption to supply due to an environmental, economic or
political event
Tar Sands Naturally occurring mixtures of sand or clay, water and dense form of
petroleum called bitumen
Energy crisis A serious shortage of energy which interrupts domestic supplies and impacts
on all sectors of the economy
Environmental impact
assessment
Details all of the impacts on the environment of an energy type or another
project above a certain size
Fossil fuels Fuels consisting of hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural gas) formed by the
decomposition of prehistoric organisms
Renewable resources Sources of energy such as solar and wind power that are not depleted as they
are used
Strategic Petroleum
Reserve
The USA’s reserve supply of oil which should last for about 3 months in the
event of severe interruptions to imported oil
Energy
infrastructure
The built environment constructed for the exploration, development and
production of energy, and all the networks
Energy TNCs Transnational corporations that specialise in the exploration, development,
production and sale of energy products
Resource
nationalisation
When a country decides to place part or all of one or a number of natural
resources e.g. oil under state ownership
Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a specified amount of greenhouse
gases
Carbon Trading A company that does not use up the level of emissions it is entitled to can sell
the remainder to another company
Coal gasification A process which converts solid coal into a gas that can be used for power
generation
Green taxation Taxes levied to discourage behaviour that will be harmful to the environment
Microgeneration Generators producing electricity with an output of less than 50KW

How energy sources can be classified and the advantages and
disadvantages of these
The main way to classify energy is between renewable, non-renewable and recyclable sources
Renewable = can be used over and over again e.g. wind and solar power (also known as FLOW
RESOURCES)
Non-renewable = these are finite resources so as they are used up the stock that remains behind is
reduced (also known as STOCK RESOURCES)
Recyclable resources = fuel that has been used once can be used again to generate power e.g. nuclear
reprocessing can make uranium waste reusable
Energy source Type Issues
Coal Non-renewable  Releases large amounts of Co2 contributing to
climate change e.g. 2 billion tonnes from USA
plants per year
 Carbon capture technology to remove Co2 is
unproven
Natural Gas Non-renewable  Releases Co2 on use
 Issues of security of supply
Nuclear Non-renewable (may be
recyclable)
 Health risks and accidents e.g. Chernobyl
 Disposal of radioactive material an issue
Oil Non-renewable  Global supplies may have reached their peak
 Release Co2 when burnt
Solar Renewable  Availability varies across the globe
 Expensive compared with fossil fuels
Tidal Renewable  Only certain locations suitable
 Technology for large-scale generation unproven
Wind Renewable  Only certain locations suitable
 Wind energy is variable so hard to manage power
supply
Biomass Renewable  Acts as a carbon sink so combustion releases
carbon dioxide
 Limited potential for large sale generation
Geothermal Renewable  Availability limited to a few locations e.g.
Iceland
Hydro-
electricity
Renewable and recyclable  Large scale schemes are expensive
 Dam building creates wide scale flooding

Reasons for global variations in energy access and consumption
Distribution of energy reserves:
Why energy supply varies:
1) Physical:
 Deposits of fossil fuels are only found in a limited number of places
 Solar power needs a large number of days a year with strong sunlight
 Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations
2) Economic
 Onshore deposits of oil and gas are cheaper to develop then offshore deposits
 In poor countries foreign direct investment is essential to develop energy resources
 Most accessible and low cost deposits of fossil fuels are developed first
3) Political
 Countries wanting to develop nuclear power need to gain permission from the
International Atomic Energy Agency
 International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can influence energy decisions
OIL:
 In 2007 the Middle East = 30.8%
of oil production
 N. America = 16.5%
 Saudi Arabia dominates
production  12.6% of world’s
total
 Russia accounts for over ½ of
production for Europe and
Eurasia
COAL:
 China produced 41.1% of global
coal in 2007
 USA produces 18.7%
NATURAL GAS:
 Russia and USA produce 40% of
world’s total
WIND
Germany world
leader at
23.6%
Germany, USA
and Spain
account for
58% globally
HEP:
China, Canada,
Brazil and
USA account
for 46% of
global total

 HEP schemes on ‘international’ rivers require the agreement of all countries that share
the river
Energy consumption
It is important to note that the use of energy in all countries has changed over time due to:
฀ Technological developments  nuclear power only been available since 1954
฀ Increasing national wealth  incomes increase resulting in increasing use of energy
฀ Changes in demand  Britain’s trains were powered by coal
฀ Changes in price  Electricity production in UK switched from coal to gas power stations are
they are cheaper to run
฀ Environmental factors/public opinion  can influence decisions made by governments
Factors effecting energy security
Energy security has a number of risks:
1) Physical – exhaustion of reserves or disruption of supply lines
MEDCs:
 The USA shows huge demands
for energy resources
 Germany and UK have improved
their energy efficiency resulting
in a modest increase in demand
compared with NICs
NICs:
 China accounts for
1/3rd
of the growth in
global oil demand
since 2000
 Demand for oil in
China is expected to
rise by 5-7% year
Developing Countries:
 Most are struggling to pay for their energy
requirements
 Energy demand is influenced by rate of
economic development and rate of population
growth
 In the world 2 billion people lack access to
household electricity
 Traditional biomass in these countries accounts
for 90% of total energy consumption

2) Environmental – Protests about environmental change caused by exploitation of energy
resources
3) Economic – sudden rises in costs of energy forcing increased imports of higher-priced energy
4) Geopolitical – political instability in energy-producing regions
The energy security of a country can be measured using the ‘Energy Security Index’ (ESI).
This is based upon:
- Availability – the amount of a country’s domestic oil and gas supplies and its level of reliance
on imported resources
- Diversity – the range of energy resources used
- Intensity – the degree to which the economy of a country is dependent on oil and gas
The higher the index, the lower the risk and therefore the greater the energy security
Case Study: Energy Security Issues: California Case Study
Facts:
฀ Largest state in the USA
฀ Lowest per capita energy consumption rate in the USA due to mild weather
฀ 16% of USA oil reserves, but only 3% of gas reserves
฀ Produces 5% of USA total electricity
฀ More motor vehicles that any other state
Why is the USA in energy crisis?
1) Consumption  In 2007 USA consumed 23.8% of the world’s oil
2) Reliance on imports  Between 1960 and 2003 USA’s reliance on imported gas and oil
increased by 18% to 58%
 9/11 terrorist attack highlight concerns on dependence on imports from the Middle
East
3) Price  In 2006 the price of oil had risen from $20 to $60 per barrel . In 2008 the oil
was $140
4) Reserves of fossil fuels are being to run out  reserves should last for between 40-65 years
5) Global sources of energy are unevenly distributed  most are concentrated in politically
unstable parts of the world
6) Demand for energy is increasing  the growth of economies in China and India has meant more
competition for resources
So why is California suffering an energy crisis?
Due to the fact that the US energy market is privatised the market is driven by the desire to make
most profit. Between June 2000 and May 2001 California experienced a series of blackouts due to
various factors:
a. The weather:
 2000 was the 3rd
years of drought so less surplus energy due to lack of hydro-
electricity from surrounding states
 Summer was very hot so increased demand for air-conditioning
 Winter was unusually cold so increased need for heating
b. Insufficient generating capacity strong anti-pollution laws in the 1970s meant energy
companies were unwilling to build new power stations that were expensive
c. Limited capacity of power lines to important more electricity

d. Eron  used supply and demand to ensure energy prices remained high enough when supply was
good
Therefore the two major power companies in California were forced to shut off electricity supplies
to conserve limited stocks
Impact of growing global energy demand e.g. China case Study
Background:
 In 2001, China accounted for 10% of global energy demand, in 2007 it was 15%
 Per capita energy demand is still relatively small due to its huge population (e.g. 2006 consumed
less than 7 million barrels/day a 1/3rd
of USA)
 Controls 3% of world oil reserves (enabled China to be self-sufficient until 1995)
Causes of rising demand:
1. Since 1949 China has been a communist country separate from the rest of the world, however
in 1986 the government developed an ‘Open-Door Policy’ to overseas investment.
2. 1990s became more of a capitalist economy allowing individuals to accumulate wealth = still not
a free-market economy as most companies are state owned (LINK TO SUPERPOWER UNIT)
3. Rising energy demand is due to both economic growth and the demands of the new industry
but also rapid urbanisation and growing car ownership
 Rural-urban migration in China is 8.5 million people per year (45million expected to move
to the cities by 2012)
 Car ownership to grow from 16 cars per 1000 people in 2002, to 267 cars per 1000
people in 2030 (by 2020 expected to have 140 million private cars on the road)
 Only uses 10% of its energy for transport currently but will need huge amounts in the
future
Where does the energy come from?
Coal – Relies on coal for 70% of its electricity generation and the huge demand means China is
building on average 3 coal-fired power stations a week. Creates environmental problems for them e.g.
Beijing Olympics. Majority of the coal is located in the north and west, whilst industry is located in
the south and east.
HEP – Accounts for 16% of china’s energy production e.g. Three Gorges Dam and China aims to build
HEP dams on all of its major rivers
Oil – Oil production has now peaked and exploration into offshore fields has begun, however
territorial disagreements in the South China Sea is making this difficult  importing more oil
Future:
China’s energy security problems matter to the rest of the world due to its size and the impact that
an increase in demand would have on everyone else. However is energy dependency is only 12%
compared with USA of 40% and Japan of 80%.
Potential Exam Question: Discuss how far economic development can be affected by energy
security (15 marks)
Impact of geopolitics on energy security

Energy security demands on resource availability, both domestic and foreign, and security of supply.
It can be affected by geopolitics because there is little excess capacity to ease pressure on energy
supplies if supply becomes disrupted. For example, following the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, the Arab
nations reduced the supply of oil to the USA and Western Europe to reduce their support for Israel
– this created a serious energy shortage.
Since then in 1977 the USA construction a ‘Strategic Petroleum Reserve’ with the initial aim to store
1 billion barrels of oil which could be used in the event of supply issues.
Energy pathways  problems with these
Energy pathways between producers and consumers highlight the considerable levels of risk
involved in the energy industry.
Patterns:
Oil has a complex global pattern of PATHWAYS and PLAYERS (exporters and importers).
 The Middle East exports around 15 000 barrels per day, mainly to Japan, Europe and CHINA.
 Substantial amounts flow from Africa, Canada and South and Central America TO the USA.
 Russia supplies some oil to CHINA, but the bulk of its exports now head to Europe.
Gas pathways are different in that they tend to be localised and regional rather than global.
Traditionally gas is transported through pipelines, whereas oil has been transported by ship.
A possible future is that as movement through pipeline becomes less dependable (for political
reasons); there will be a switch towards shipping gas in tankers as LNG.
Physical and human causes of disruption:
 Long running tensions in the Middle East e.g. destruction of oil wells during Iraq war
consumed 6 million barrels of oil a day for 8 months
 Hurricane Katrina in 2005 affecting oil production and refining in the Gulf of Mexico
causing oil and petrol prices to rise
 In 2005 – explosions and fires at Buncefield Oil Storage Depot destroyed fuel worth £10
million. It supplies Heathrow and as a result had to ration fuel
 2006 and 2008 disputes between Russian and Ukraine disrupted gas supplies to Western
Europe.
Trans-
Siberi
an
Pipelin
e

The pipeline project was proposed in 1978 as an export pipeline from Russia to Europe. The pipeline
was constructed in 1982-1984. The pipeline runs from Siberia's gas field to Uzhgorod in Western
Ukraine. From there, the natural gas is transported to Central and Western European countries.
Trans-Alaskan pipeline crosses 3 mountain ranges and several large rivers. In these areas there are
issues of permafrost and to avoid this pipelines are build above ground
How energy supplies can be disrupted e.g. Russia
Background:
• Tensions between Russia and Ukraine have been high since 2004,
when pro-Western forces led by President Viktor Yushchenko
won control of the government over Viktor Yanukovych, a
Moscow ally. Russia also opposes Ukraine’s desire to join the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the EU.
• The EU gets a quarter of its gas supplies from Russia - 80% of
which passes through Ukraine
What sparked the crisis?
• Ukraine and Russia have faced negotiations over the renewal of gas supply contracts every year,
but by midnight on 31 December 2008 they had failed to agree on the price Kiev should pay in
2009.
• This has happened 3 times before but this year, gas supplies were completely halted from 7
January, after Russia accused Ukraine of siphoning off gas meant for European customers, leaving
more than a dozen countries without their expected supplies of Russian gas.
• The European Union called the supply cut "completely unacceptable", demanded immediate
restoration and entered into shuttle diplomacy between Kiev and Moscow.
• A deal reached on 12 January, whereby EU and Russian observers would monitor supplies across
Ukraine collapsed within hours. The EU said both sides had failed to meet its terms.
• The two countries also failed to agree on a price Russia would pay Ukraine for gas transit to
Europe.
Impacts:
• Some, like Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, are almost completely dependent on supplies via Ukraine
and so were left with major shortages, during a very cold spell in Europe.
• In the meantime European countries had to shut down industrial plants and domestic heating
systems, find alternative sources of gas or switch energy plants to oil. Schools were shut and
people had to revert to using log fires to heat their homes.
Europe’s energy security – should they be worried?

Yes:
The amount of gas Russia supplies to Europe means that any disruptions have large-scale impacts
No:
Even during the Cold war the supply of Russian gas was stable and the Europe is now looking to
enhance its energy security through:
• Reducing its dependence on Russia—building of the South Caucasus pipeline supplying gas from
Azerbaijan via Turkey, bypassing Russian territory altogether
• Press Russia and Ukraine to sign long-term contracts, with accepted pricing formulae, similar
to those that Gazprom already has with most EU countries.
• Diversify its sources of energy, something that it must do anyway if it is to meet its ambitious
climate-change targets.
Potential Exam Question: Russia uses its oil and gas as a political and economic weapon. Discuss
Environment impacts of looking for more energy
Tar Sands in Canada
This place contains up to 2.5 trillion barrels of oil – that is more
than Saudi Arabia’s reserves
Oil sands are made of sand, water and a hydrocarbon tar called
bitumen. Since the rising oil prices and technological advances they
have now become more feasible to extract.
Alberta’s tar sands produced a million barrels of oil a day in 2003
and expected to reach 3.5 million a day by 2011. By 2030 they aim to produce at least 5 million a day
and export the surplus.
Problems:
 Oil in the shale is not easily separated out so immense amount of heat is needed usually
through burning natural gas
 Process uses huge amounts of water e.g. every barrel of oil produced requires 4 barrels of
water. The water then also becomes polluted where is can damage ecosystems
 Issue of disposing of the shale once the oil has been removed
 Very expensive and only viable when oil costs over $30 a barrel (costs $15 per barrel
compared with $2 for convectional crude oil)
 Processes tar sands are a large source of greenhouse gas emissions
 470km2 of forest have been removed and lakes of toxic waste cover 130km2
Benefits:
 Alternative source of oil during times of political or access issues
 By 2030 the tar sands could meet 16% of North America’s demand for oil ENERGY
SECURITY
 Provide additional source of energy until more renewable sources can be found
 Mining companies are required to replant land disturbed by mining
 Oil is vital to Canada’s economy (2007= 20% of exports)

Players involved:
1. Canada and Venezuela (countries containing Tar Sands
2. TNCs e.g. Shell and BP
3. Alberta Energy Research Institute
4. Environmental groups e.g. Greenpeace
5. Local people (those employed by the companies or those affected by pollution)
Arctic Oil
This place is estimated to contain up to 25% of the world’s
undiscovered oil and natural gas. Issue regarding who can lay
claim to which parts of the ocean – Russia has claimed nearly
half of the Arctic but other interested parties e.g. USA,
Norway failed to uphold their claim.
Problems:
 Oil companies have already destroyed large parts of
Alaska and Siberia so should be kept out of the Arctic
 New oil rush in the Arctic is only possible because of
the increased shrinking of the polar ice cap due to global warming
 The Arctic is a pristine environment containing over 45 species of land and marine animals
 Issue over who has the right to claim ownership of the natural resources – countries who have
been conflicting over this have now agreed to sign the UN Law of the Sea Convection stating
the 8 Arctic states are allowing to exploit offshore resources within 200 nautical miles of
their territory
Benefits:
 At around $70 per barrel it makes drilling in the Arctic viable. (2007 prices reached $100).
 Contains up to 25% of the world’s undiscovered oil and natural gas
Players involved:
1. Arctic States – USA, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and Iceland
2. UN – will decide the control of the Arctic by 2020
3. Local people
4. Environmental Pressure groups
Who they key players are in supplying future oil
Energy TNCs e.g. Shell

Historically the energy industries have been dominated by large TNCs such as Shell but the power of
the TNCs has been challenged by OPEC and recently national energy companies. This is due to the
fact that TNCs have come under attack from environmental groups and companies like BP have
worked hard to establish a positive public image through investments in renewable energies.
Shell consists of a global group of energy and petrochemicals companies with a strategy to reinforce
their position as a leader in the oil and gas industry in order. One of their focuses has been to
explore for new oil and gas reserves.
Key Facts:
 Produce 2% amount of world’s oil
 Produce 3% amount of world’s gas
 3.1 million barrels of gas and oil every day
 $2 billion spent on CO2 and renewable energy technologies over the last 5 years.
 In 2009 greenhouse gas emissions were approximately 35% below 1990 levels.
OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a
permanent intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting
developing nations
OPEC was formed in 1960 to protect the interests of oil-producing
companies and have formed what some view as a CARTEL. Its sets
oil production quotas for its members in response to economic
growth rates and demand-and-supply conditions. It therefore aims to ensure fair and stable prices
for its members.
At the end of 2006, the OPEC members had over 78% of the world’s total oil reserves and they
produce around 45% of the world’s crude oil and 18% of its natural gas.
OPEC is criticised that it controls the price of oil as it is worried that increasing the supply of oil
would mean investors would stop investing causing a collapse in the price.
Why we are uncertain about the future of energy
It is hard to predict energy demand as it is strongly affected by economic growth rates,
conservation of resources and the pace at which the world can switch to renewable sources of power.
It is thought that world oil demand will grow by 32% by 2020 and global gas demand by 48%.
The issue of Peak Oil:
The International Energy Agency predicted peak oil production to occur between 2013 and 2037,
whilst USA Geological Survey predicted it is at least 50 years away.

The advantages and disadvantages of the possible futures
Business as usual
If we do nothing forecasts predict that by 2030:
 Global primary energy demand will rise by 53%
 Fossil fuels will remain the dominant source of energy worldwide
 Emissions from electricity generation will account for 44% of energy-related emissions
 Over 70% increase in the energy demand will come from developing countries due to rapid
economic growth and population growth
Nuclear
 By 2008, 439 nuclear reactors were supplying 15% of the world’s electricity
 Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions
 Uranium is relatively cheap to mine and reserves should last around 150 years
 Very cost effective to transport as only used in small quantities
 Produces 1% of global electricity supply
 1986 Chernobyl incident highlights the issues
 Very expensive to build – several billion pounds
 Nuclear waste disposal is an issue as it remains radioactive for 10,000 years
Renewable energy with the emphasis on wind power
 Costs of generating wind today are about 10% of what they were 20 years ago
 In some areas first generation wind turbines are being replaced with modern turbines which
give better performance
 NIMBY – people are concerned that the turbines could blight their homes and views
 Turbines can kill birds
 Suitable areas are often near the coast where land is expensive

Energy Conservation
a) Combined Heat and Power (CHP)  power stations waste 65% of the heat they generate but
CHP plants can be up to 95% efficient as they can use different fuels in the same boiler
including biomass but also cut emissions and reduce fuel dependency
b) Green Taxation  aimed at cutting the use of natural resources and encouraging recycling. E.g.
road tax increase in 2010 will see 9.4 million motorists pay more road tax aimed to punishing
heaviest polluting cars. The government will receive more that £1billion in additional revenue.
How energy insecurity will lead to geopolitical tensions
USA Involvement in the Middle East
In March 2003 USA and allied forces invaded Iraq (4th
largest oil reserves in the world); the then
leader was considered to pose a threat to the security of Western oil supplies in the Middle East as
he was making deals with Russian and Chinese oil companies. Before the invasion the USA put
pressure on Iraq to admit it had stockpiled weapons of mass destructions or faces military action.
The USA goal in invading Iraq was to reduce its dependence on Saudi Arabia for oil and increase its
energy security by introducing a new supplier, Iraq. The USA hoped that its involvement in Iraq and
Afghanistan would democratise the Middle East. However, America is excluded from deals between
Russia, China and Iran and is fighting hard to secure oil by means of energy pathways running through
friendly countries.
China vs. India
India’s demand for energy has grown due to high economic growth rates, lack of energy-efficient
technologies, reliance on heavy industry and widespread power stealing. In 2005 oil imports
accounted for 2/3rds of India’s oil consumption and China is seen to be much more energy secure
than India. In terms of investment India is also behind with only $3.5nillion in overseas exploration
compared with $40 billion made by China. Various policies have been introduced:
 India will have to rely on imported oil and gas in the short term  required increased
diplomacy with South Asia etc
 Investing in offshore gas fields in Vietnam
However, India has strained relations with energy suppliers and the countries that the supplies have
to pass through.
How can meet our future energy needs?

Emissions controls – Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Countries are required to achieve specific reductions in their greenhouse emissions (average of 5%
against 1990 levels by 2012). The USA refused to sign
Emissions trading – EU emission Trading Scheme meant that heavy industrial plants have to buy
permits to emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed by government. Under the Kyoto
Protcol carbon emissions are now tracked and traded like a commodity so that any excess reductions
can be sold in the ‘carbon market’
Green taxes – Taxes on individuals for using air transport and pollution charges on companies. Other
ideas are aimed to reduce energy consumption such as removing stamp duty on carbon neutral homes
Offshore wind turbines – Building offshore costs at least 50% more than on land but wind speeds are
generally double those on land so they can generate more electricity.
Carbon storage – this involves capturing the carbon dioxide released by burning coal and burying it
deep underground, but it is not proved that the carbon dioxide will actually stay underground and it is
very expensive.
Geothermal – In the Philippines 25% of the electricity is generated from underground heat which is
free and available all day. However, the heat is often too deep to be economical.
Bio fuels – algae – There are 3 main types; crops e.g. grasses, sugar, trees and algae. Algae are hard
to grow but produce oil that requires less refining before it becomes a bio fuel.
What types of questions have been asked?
Study Figure 1.
(Explain why oil exploration in the areas shown could lead to high economic and environmental costs.
(10)

Assess the relative importance of named players in the global supply of energy. (15)
The development of alternative energy sources is a possible response to future energy demands.
Assess the possible costs and benefits of this approach. (15)
Explain how the world price of oil has a major impact on oil exploration by TNCs and governments (10)
Assess the potential environmental, economic and political risks in exploiting new energy resources
(15)
Suggest how the contrasting distribution/pattern of major oil exporters and importers shown in
Figure 1 could affect the energy security of some nations. (10)

Study
Figure 1.
Suggest the possible environmental consequences of the changes in electricity consumption shown.
(10 marks)
Assess the degree of uncertainty over future global sources of energy supply (15 marks)
Topic 2: Water Conflicts

 Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems and Geology  Example
of California to support
 How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use and supply 
Examples of China and India to support 3
 How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over extraction and salt
water incursion
 How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index – examples of Canada
and Ethiopia
 Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and impacts
 Conflicts over the same water source – examples of Middle East, Ganges and Nile
 Geopolitics of water supply within a country – example of Colorado River Basin USA and
Helsinki Rules
 What water future are going to be
 How different key players opinions on future water usage may conflict
 Dams as a solution – example of 3 Gorges Dam, China. Impacts of these
 Water transfer schemes as a solution. Learn the pros and cons of 2 of China transfer,
Ebro River, Snowy Mountain or Turkey to Israel
 How Restoration can solve the problems – example of River Kissimmee and Aral sea
 Role of Water Aid ( NGO) in solving problems
 How we can conserve water
 Role of technology in solving future problems e.g. desalinisation, drip irrigation, GM crops

Key Terms
Aquifer A rock, such as chalk, which will hold water and let it through
Arid and semi-arid Describe conditions where rainfall is less than 250mm and 500mm of
precipitation per year respectively
Desalination The conversion of salt water into fresh water
Drought An extended period of abnormally dry weather that causes water shortages and
crop damage. A drought starts when total rainfall is well below average for
several months.
El Nino A southerly warm ocean current, which develops off the coast of Ecuador, it is
associated with major variations in tropical climates
Groundwater All water found under the surface of the ground which is not chemically
combined with any minerals present, but not including underground streams
High pressure A region of high atmospheric pressure, otherwise known as an anticyclone
Infiltration The process of the water entering rocks or soil
Irrigation The supply of water to the land by means of channels, streams and sprinklers in
order to permit the growth of crops
La Nina An extensive cooling of the central and eastern Pacific. Globally La Nina means
that parts of the world that normally experience dry weather will be drier and
those with wet weather will be wetter.
Percolation The filtering of water downwards through soil and through bedding planes,
joints and pores of a permeable rock
Potential
Evapotranspiration
The amount of evaporation and transpiration that can occur given a sufficient
supply of water
Precipitation The deposition of moisture from the atmosphere onto the Earth’s surface in
form of rain, hail, snow, frost or sleet
Prevailing Most frequent, most common
Privatisation The sale of a business/industry so that it is no longer owned by the government
Rain shadow An area of relatively low rainfall to the lee side of uplands (sheltered from
winds). The incoming air has been forced to rise over the highlands causing
precipitation on the windward side
Relief Rainfall This forms when moisture-laden air masses are forced to rise over ground. The
air is cooled, the water vapour condenses, and precipitation occurs
Riparian Relating to a river bank. Owners of land crossed or bounded by a river have
‘riparian’ rights to use the river
Spatial imbalance The uneven distribution/location across a landscape or surface of e.g. population
Stream flow The flow of water in streams, rivers and other channels.
Surface runoff The movement of over ground of rainwater. It occurs when the rainfall is very
heavy and when the rocks and soil can absorb no more
Urbanisation The migration of rural populations into towns and cities.
Virtual water The amount of water used in the production of a good or service
Water rights The legal right of a user to use water from a water source e.g. a river
Water Scarcity Can be divided into ‘apparent scarcity’ which exists when there is plenty of
water but it is used wastefully, and ‘real scarcity’ which is caused by
insufficient rainfall or too many people relying on a limited resource
Water Stress Measured as annual water supplies below 1,700m3 per person
Water wars International conflict as a result of pressure on water supplies.
World Water Gap The difference between those people, who live in water poverty and those who

have ready and reliable access to water for drinking and sanitation
Physical factors affecting water supply – Climate, river systems
and Geology
Case Study: Factors affecting California’s water supply
Geographical Controls on water supply:
 Mountain chains run parallel to the coast and prevent moist air reaching inland
 Most rainfall falls in a coastal zone no more than 250km wide
 South and far east of California receive under 100mm of rainfall due to the rain shadow cast by
the Sierra Nevada mountains
 High pressure systems over the Pacific ocean block moist air currents reaching southern
California
 Most of the major rivers are fed by snowmelt from the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
 In recent years extended droughts have meant groundwater and surface storage levels have
decreased
Threats:
a) Precipitation
 Much of California is arid with annual average precipitation of between 200-500mm
 65% of precipitation is lost through Evapotranspiration, 13% flows out to sea = only 22%
for human use
 50% of the rain falls between November and March = seasonal shortages
b) Population

 Has grown from 2 million people in 1900 to 37.7 million in 2007
 Spatial imbalance as three quarters of demand for water comes from areas south of the
Sacramento – 75% of the rain falls to the north
 Increasing demands for water exceed natural supplies
How water stress can occur – Agriculture, Industry, Domestic use
and supply
Water stress occurs when demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period,
or when poor quality restricts its use. Therefore when a country’s water consumption is more than
10% of its renewable freshwater rate it is said to be water stressed.
During the 20th
Century water consumption has increased by 600% due to population growth and
economic development:
 Farming uses 70% of all water and in LEDCs this is up to 90%
 Industrial and domestic use has to compete with farming needs as a country develops
 Daily domestic water use on average is 47 litres per person in Africa, compared with 578
litres in the USA
This has lead to the development of a world water gap with 1.4 billion lacking clean drinking water and
12% of the world’s population consuming 85% of the world’s water.
Agriculture  some forms of farming are less water efficient than others e.g. a kg of beef is 10x
more water costly to produce then a kg of rice. 17% of the global area used for growing crops is
irrigated.
Industry  21% used for industry but rapid growth expected since the development of countries
such as India and China. Industry is generally a more efficient user of water then farming.
Domestic  Only 10% of world’s water is used for this purpose but this varies from country to
country. Domestic demand seems to be doubling every 20 years.
Named Examples: India vs. China
India
 4% of the world’s freshwater but 16% of the population
 Demand will exceed supply by 2020
 Water tables are falling rapidly as 21 million wells are used
China
 8% of the world’s freshwater but 22% of the population
 2/3rds of cities do not have enough water all year round
 Stress levels expected to occur by 2030

 Annual population growth rate is about 2.5% in Beijing
 Water table has been lowered in some areas by 40m
How Human activity can make water stress worse – pollution, over
extraction and salt water incursion
Key factors:
a) Sewage disposal in developing countries is expected to cause 135 million deaths by 2020. In the
UK we add 1,400 million litres of sewage to our rivers daily although most of it has been treated
b) Chemical fertilisers contaminate groundwater as well as river and water supplies. These add
nutrients to the water leading to an increase in the growth of algae downstream.
c) Industrial waste – every year the world generate 400 billion tonnes of industrial waste which is
pumped untreated into rivers, seas etc.
d) Dams – trap sediment in reservoirs which reduces floodplain fertility and the flow of nutrient
from rivers into seas.
e) Abstraction – removing water from rivers and groundwater sources can cause issues that in some
arid areas rainfall can never recharge these underground stores and the removal of freshwater
from aquifers in coastal locations can lead to salt water incursion.
How water supply is linked to development Water Poverty Index
Water insecurity means not having access to sufficient, safe water. Around 20 developing countries
are classified as ‘water scarce’. Water scarcity occurs for 2 main reasons:
1) Physical scarcity – shortages occur because demand exceeds supply
2) Economic scarcity - people cannot afford water, even when it is readily available
The Water Poverty Index was established in 2002 and uses 5 parameters:
 Resources – the quantity of surface and groundwater per person, and its quality
 Access – the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient and safe water
 Capacity – how well the community manages its water
 Use – how economically water is used in the home and by agriculture and industry
 Environment – ecological sustainability (green water –freshwater taken from rainwater stores
in the soil as soil moisture)
Each of these is scored out of 20 to give a maximum of 100
How water links to poverty:
Lack of water hampers attempts to reduce
poverty and encourage development. Improved
water supply can increase food production, bring
better health and provide better standards of
wellbeing.

Named Examples: Canada vs. Ethiopia
These 2 countries are at the opposite ends of the spectrum when looking at water and development.
Canada Ethiopia
 Each household uses 800 litres per person
per day
 Water used for lawns, parks and swimming
pools
 Issues of rising water bills and leakages
 Water poverty index = 78
 Water use agricultural = 12%
 Water use industrial = 69%
 Water use domestic = 20%
 GNI ($ per person) = 33,170
 Population in 2000 (millions) = 30
 Each person uses 1 litre per day
 Water is fetched daily from a shared
source
 Issues of water shortages, pollution and
risk of disease
 Water poverty index = 45
 Water use agricultural = 93%
 Water use industrial = 6%
 Water use domestic = 1%
 GNI ($ per person) = 170
 Population in 2000 (millions) = 62.9
What problems can the use of water sources create?
Secure water supplies are needed to support irrigation and food production, manufacturing and
energy generation. However the use of water resources can lead to various problems. E.g. the
depletion of underground aquifers and salinisation of the soil.

Aral Sea case study – role of different key players here and
impacts
Location: north-western part of Uzbekistan and southern
Kazakhstan
Background: Formerly, one of the four largest lakes of the world
with an area of 68,000 square kilometers, the Aral Sea has been
steadily shrinking since the 1960s.
Causes:
In the early 1960's, the Soviet central government decided to make
the Soviet Union self-sufficient in cotton and increase rice
production. Government officials ordered the additional amount of needed water to be taken from
the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea. Large dams were built across both rivers, and an 850-mile
central canal with a far-reaching system of "feeder" canals was created.
Impacts:
1) Over 30 years, the Aral Sea experienced a severe drop in water level, its shoreline receded,
and its salt content increased. The water level has dropped by 16 metres and the volume has
been reduced by 75%
2) The marine environment became hostile to the sea life in it, killing the plants and animals. As
the marine life died, the fishing industry suffered. All 20 known fish species in the Aral Sea
are now extinct, unable to survive the toxic, salty sludge.
3) The sea has shrunk to two-fifths of its original size and now ranks about 10th
in the world.
4) Drinking water supplies have dwindled, and the water is contaminated with pesticides and
other agricultural chemicals as well as bacteria and viruses.
5) Highly toxic pesticides and other harmful chemicals are blown from the dried-up sea
creating dust containing these toxic chemicals.
6) As the Aral Sea has lost water, the climate has become more extreme.
7) Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis and cancer, digestive disorders and infectious
diseases are common ailments in the region.
8) There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 12
in every 1,000 women.
9) The Aral Sea fishing industry, which use to employ 40,000 and reportedly produced one-
sixth of the Soviet Union's entire fish catch, has been ruined
The stakeholders involved:
 The former soviet government – began the irrigation scheme designed to develop fruit and cotton
farming
 Fishing community – use to be a prosperous industry but now huge unemployment
 Local residents – health problems and highest infant mortality rates in the world
 Scientists – climate has now changed and extinction of species in the area
 International economists – people can no longer feed themselves as the land is infertile, could
create 10 million environmental refugees

Conflicts over the same water source
Water conflicts occur when the demand for water overtakes the supply and several stakeholders
wish to use the same resource. Conflict is more likely where developing countries are involved as
water is vital to feed their growing populations and promote industrial development. The UN reports
there are around 300 potential water conflicts in the world. Some examples include:
 China vs. India due to the Brahmaputra River
 Turkey vs. Syria and Iraq due to the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers
 India vs. Pakistan due to the Indus River
Case Study: Middle East Water conflicts
The Middle East is one of the most water-scarce regions in the world.
Due to population growth, increasing affluence (demands for swimming
pools etc) and the development of irrigated farmlands there are
increasing pressures on the water supplies. Further instability is
created due to:
- Overall scarcity of water but also poor access
- Declining oil reserves with future drop in oil revenues
- rising youthful population and increasing demands
At the moment the Middle East uses revenue from their oil exports to pay for expensive
desalinisation plants to provide extra water, but also pay for water and food imports. No single
country in the Middle East can resolve its water problems without impacting on another country.
Potential conflicts:
1) The Euphrates and Tigris rivers originate in Turkey but supply Syria and Iraq with water. Turkey
wants to dam these rivers to improve incomes in Anatolia (south-east turkey)
2) In 1967, Syria and other Arab states objected to Israel’s National Water Carrier Project and
tried to destroy it. Israel then bombed their attempts to divert the River Jordan from Israel
3) Droughts across the whole region between 1990-2005 increased fears of conflicts
4) Bombing of Lebanese water pipelines by Israel in 2006
Geopolitics of water supply within a country
Often when countries compete for water resources international agreements and treaties have to be
drawn up on how best to manage shared water supplies. Under the Helsinki Rules there is an
agreement that international treaties must include concepts such as equitable use and share.
Therefore the criteria for water sharing should include:
 Natural factors – rainfall amounts, share of drainage basin
 Social and economic needs – population size, development
 Downstream impacts –restricting flow, lowering water tables
 Dependency – are alternative water sources available?
 Prior use – existing vs. potential use
 Efficiency – avoiding waste and mismanagement of water

Case Study - Geopolitics with the USA: The Colorado River
Background – The basin of the Colorado River is the most heavily used source of irrigation water in
the USA. Original water rights were allocated in 1933. Since then a series of treaties between the
7 US states with water rights and between Mexico have been signed. A series of dams has been built
to serve the water needs to 30 million people.
Agreements:
1920s ‘Law of the River’ = divided the water between upper basin states or Colorado, Wyoming, Utah
and New Mexico and their responsibility to supply the lower basin states. California was given
highest proportion of water due to its large population and political power. (Around this time was a
period of higher rainfall and water surpluses)
Stakeholders and conflicts
Issues of developing water pathways
In some areas with a shortage of water one of the solutions is to divert water from one drainage
basin to another. However these can produce political risks

Case Study: The Snowy Mountains Scheme
This scheme involves 16 major dams, 7 power stations and a network of pipes and aqueducts.
P
roblems created:
 Creation of storage lakes has destroyed wildlife habitats
 Snowy River flow has fallen to 1%
 Groundwater salinisation results from low flow
 Water scarcity has lead to competition between users
 Political fallout meant governments had to restore some of the flow in the Snowy River and invest
in water-saving projects
 Record droughts due to El Nino have used up the water allocations
Water future s?
The issues of future projections are that climate change is occurring but its exact impact cannot be
predicted. Also continued economic growth may not be inevitable e.g. credit crunch, finally political
and religious conflicts can create further issues.
Alternative scenarios for water by 2025
Scenario Water Changes by 2025 Wider impacts
Business
as
usual
 Water scarcity will reduce food production
 Consumption will rise by +50%
 Household water use rise by +70%
 Industrial water demand in developing
countries will increase
 Developing countries will rely on
food imports but increased
hunger
 In parts of western USA, China
etc water will be pumped out
faster than can be recharged
Water
Crisis
 Global water consumption will increase
 Demand for domestic water will fall
 Demand for industrial water will +33%
 Food production will decline and
food prices increase
 Conflict over water between
and within countries will
increase

Sustainable
Water
 Global & industrial water use will have to fall
 Global rain-fed crop yields increase due to
improvements in water harvesting and
sustainable farming
 Agricultural and domestic water prices
double
 Food production could increase
slightly
 Investment in crop research
and technology would increase
 Unsustainable pumping of
groundwater would end
How different key player’s opinions on future water usage may
conflict
Different players and decision makers have key roles to play in securing future water supplies but
their aims may conflict.
Category Players
Political International organisations e.g. UN, regional and local
councils, pressure groups
Economic (Business) World Bank, governments, utility companies e.g.
Thames Water, agriculture, industry, TNCs
Social (Human welfare) Individuals, residents, farmers, consumers, NGOs e.g.
Water Aid
Environmental (sustainable Development) Conservationists, planners, NGOs e.g. WWF
Alternative Strategies for managing water supplies in the future
Hard engineering projects to increase water shortage and transfer
Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam
Location: Yangtze River and is the world’s largest hydroelectric scheme
Benefits Costs
 18,000MW of electricity generated
 Will supply water to the region responsible
for 22% of China’s GDP
 Flood protection will save lives and cut
financial losses
 Navigational improvements could open up
China’s interior to development
 Dammed waters will down 100,000 hectares
 1.9 million people will be displaced
 Pollution increases as abandoned mines and
factories are flooded
 Dam failure, earthquakes and heavy rain could
cause serious issues
 Ecological impacts on fishing and habitats
Case Study: China’s South-North Transfer Project
Project began in 2003 and involves building 3 canals to run across the eastern, middle and western
parts of China and link the country’s 4 main rivers.
Benefits Costs

 Transfer 44.8 billion m3 per year
 Central government to pay 60% of the cost
 Water conservation, improved irrigation,
pollution treatment and environmental project
 Will supply big cities like Beijing
 Significant ecological and environmental
impacts along the waterways
 Resettlement of people will be needed
 Declining water quality
 Will cost $62 billion
 Will take 50 years to complete
Restoration
At a local scale this can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable
methods to manage watercourses for people and the environment.
Case Study: Restoring the Aral Sea
In 2007 the Kazakhstan government secured a $126 million loan from the World Bank to help save
the northern part of the Aral Sea. The government has already built a dam to split the sea into 2
parts and the new loan is to be used to build a dam to bring the water back into the deserted port of
Aralsk.
 Fisherman have been able to resume fishing
 Rain has returned
 The southern part of the sea is still shrinking
 The waters from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya are controlled by other countries
Water conservation
This involves reducing the amount of water used (demand) rather than trying to increase water
supplies. In the UK around 22% of water does not reach the end user due to leakage. Examples
include:
1) Reducing domestic consumption
- installing water meters in every home
- reducing the amount of water used in lavatory cisterns
- planting drought resistant species in ‘water-wise’ gardens
- using grey water to flush the lavatory or water the garden
2) Reducing industry consumption
- installing more efficient systems to reduce water costs
- Agricultural irrigation = use of micro-irrigation techniques using drip irrigation from tubes
reduces the volume of water used
Role of technology in solving future problems
Technology can help increase both water supply and access. Examples include:
 Desalination – provides 70% of Saudi Arabia’s water but it is the most expensive option for
water supply due to its energy use
 Towing flexible polypropylene bags will with freshwater has been propose e.g. Kielder to Essex
 USA uses reverse osmosis membrane technology to filter salt from brackish water

 In developing countries ore intermediate technology is more appropriate:
- Water collection e.g. catching rainwater or building small dams
- Wells built by NGOs e.g. Water Aid
- Using plastic or glass bottles filled with contaminated water exposed to the sun for 6 hours
destroys micro-organisms
What questions have been asked?
Using named examples assess the role of different players and decision makers in trying to secure a
sustainable ‘water future’ (15)
Referring to examples, assess the potential for water conflict in areas where demand exceed supply
(15)
Referring to examples, explain why future water supplies for many regions are increasingly insecure
(15)
Referring to examples, assess the validity of the statement that ‘water conflicts are as much to do
with water quality as quantity’ (15)
Suggest how water resources and human wellbeing might be affected by the data in Figure 2 (10)

Explain how physical and human factors have contributed to the variation in water scarcity shown (10)
Jan 2010
Using named examples, assess the contribution of large scale water management projects in
increasing water security (15) Jan 2010
Study Figure 2.
Explain how human interference in the water cycle can affect water availability. (10)
Using named examples, assess the potential for water supply to become a source of conflict. (15)

Topic 3: Biodiversity under Threat
 Ways in which biodiversity can be defined
 Key processes and factors that influence biodiversity
 Global distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots
 The value of ecosystems
 The distribution of threatened areas
 Global factors threaten biodiversity
 The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes
 The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/degradation
 The concept of sustainable yield
 The role of different players in managing biodiversity
 Spectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity
 The future of biodiversity

Key Terms:
Biomass The total amount of organic matter
Biome A major terrestrial ecosystem of the world.
Ecosystem A system of which both the living organisms and their environment form
components (elements) - these components are linked together by flows
and are separated from the outside by a boundary.
Succession The gradual and predictable change in plant and animal species over time,
for example bare ground is colonised by plants and there is a series of
sequential replacements as one set of dominant plants replaces the other
Net primary productivity
(NPP)
The difference between the rate of conversion of solar energy into
biomass in an ecosystem and the rate at which energy is used to maintain
the producers of the system
Biotic Living components of an ecosystem
Abiotic The non-living parts of an ecosystem
Goods and services ‘goods’ are direct products that can be derived from an ecosystem and
‘services’ are the benefits that the ecosystem provides
Energy flow The movement of energy through a community
Nutrient cycle The movement of nutrients in the ecosystem between the three major
stores of the soil, biomass and litter.
biodiversity The variability amongst living organisms from all sources including
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic systems, and the ecological
complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.
conservation The protection of natural or man-made resources for later use.
Habitat The place where a particular species lives and grows. It is essentially the
environment- at least the physical environment- that surrounds,
influences and is utilised by a particular species.
Endemic species Exclusively native to a particular place of region. Endemic species tend to
have a high conservation value.
Sustainable Yield Key part of sustainable management of ecosystems. It represents the
‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/utilised without
harming the individual ecosystem
Genetic diversity The diversity of genes found within a species
Species diversity The variety of plant/animal species in a given area (habitat)
Ecosystem diversity The variety of different ecosystems and the habitats surrounding them
in a given area, it includes biotic and Abiotic components.
Biodiversity Hotpot An area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which
are endemic
WRI (World Resources
Institute)
An economic scorecard which shows the condition of the world’s major
ecosystems and their ability to provide future good and services.
MEA (millennium
ecosystem assessment)
A multi scale assessment commissioned by the UN
Destruction Loss in quantity
Degradation Loss in quality

Ways in which biodiversity can be defined
Biodiversity is the total genes, species and ecosystems in a given area. It can be investigated by
looking at diversity within species and also between ecosystems.
Definition Advantages Disadvantages
Genetic diversity – range of
genes found within a particular
species. Variation within
genetic makeup makes it easier
to adapt to changing
environments
 Allows accurate picture of
the diversity within a
population
 Helps explain how isolated
groups have adapted to new
environments
 Difficult to assess without
high-level biological skills as
DNA has to be analysed
Species Diversity – variety of
plants and animal species
present in an ecosystem
 On a basic level areas can be
compared
 Many species are yet to be
discovered
 Need to compare similar size
areas for it to be fair
Ecosystem Diversity – number
of different ecosystems within
a given area
 Involves the interaction of
species with each other and
their environment = complex
 Hard to know where to place
the boundaries for each area
 Needs a consistent set of
criteria
Key processes and factors that influence biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY
Hunting and direct
exploitation of flora
and fauna
Size of the area
and topography
The level of
recording of species
within the region
Human effects
e.g. pollution
Endemism
Rate of nutrient
cycling
Amount of light
Temperature
Altitude
Latitude
More species
can live and
interact in a
larger area
Humans are in
competition with
other species for
space and resources.
As human population
increases = decrease
in biodiversity
Found particularly on
islands, species that
are found nowhere
else and this
increases biodiversity
Lower latitudes = warmer climate
– rapid nutrient cycling
Higher altitude = lower
biodiversity
Temperature extremes =
low biodiversity
The rate in
which plants
photosynthesise
is measured.
TRF have high
GPP = high
biodiversity

Global distribution of biodiversity and biodiversity hotspots
Main patterns:
The top 5 countries with the highest diversity index are found around the EQUATOR or the
TROPICS. Countries with the lowest diversity index are found in either cold countries or ones with
large areas of desert. Greatest biodiversity is found in areas of TROPICAL RAINFOREST with +1/2
the world’s species, although they cover only 7% of the earth’s surface.
Biodiversity Hotpots
This is an area containing a huge number of species, a large percentage of which are endemic. They
cover less than 2% of the earth’s surface but contain 44% of the world’s planet species and 35% of
the animal species. They are divided into 3 categories:
1) Continental hotspots – richest in terms of biodiversity
2) Large island hotspots – have distinctive species
3) Small island hotspots – low in species number but contain a high proportion of endemics
Tropical Rainforests:
Found in South and Central America,
Madagascar, Malaysia and Indonesia
Coral Reefs:
Corals with the greatest
species are found in the
Pacific Ocean and eastern
edge of the Indian Ocean

Named Example: Continental Hotspot – Fynbos, South Africa
Fynbos is the major vegetation type of a small region in South Africa
known as the Cape Flora Kingdom. It is the smallest and richest area with
the highest known concentration of plant species at 1,300 per 10,000km2.
(TTF = 400 per 10,000km2). Home to +7700 plant species, 70% are
endemic. This hotspot was created due to unusual geology and soils,
topography and a distinctive fire regime. However there are a number of
threats:
 Spread of alien plants
 Commercial forestry using non-native species e.g. European pines
 Frequent bush fires
 Construction of housing estates around Cape Town
 Increased farming
The value of ecosystems
Value can be looked at through direct use values e.g. Uses humans put biodiversity to in terms of
consumption or production and include food, medicines etc. Indirect uses include the services that
biodiversity provides such as soil formation.

Case Study: The Value of a global ecosystem - Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are located in shallow seas (no deeper than 25m) with an average annual temperature
about 18°c. Corals are extremely sensitive and the greatest concentration of coral reefs is found in
South-east Asia (30%).
Ecological Value Economic Value Cultural/Aesthetic Value
 Coral reefs act as protection
for the coastal, breaking the
power of the waves before
they reach the land
 Highly diverse ecosystems
 Aquarium trade
 Medicine – algae and sponges
contain bioactive compounds
used by the pharmaceutical
industry
 Building materials – coral
reefs are mined for lime and
stone in developing countries
 Tourism – some Caribbean
countries gain ½ of their
GNP from tourism
 Food – in the far east, reef
fisheries feed 1 billion
people
 Education and research –
easily accessible from the
shore
 Coral and shells are used for
traditional crafts
 Recreational use
The distribution of threatened areas

There are various ways of measuring threatened ecosystems:
1) Economic Scorecard shows the ability of ecosystems to produce goods and services
2) The Living Planet Index monitors changes over time in the populations of representative animal
species in various ecosystems
3) Ecological footprint measures the human impact on the planet
4) Red List of endangered species shows species at risk of extinction
5) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is a multi-scale assessment by the UN
The majority of areas under threat are located with the tropics and areas of lower biodiversity tend
to have lower threat levels as these regions are not in demand for agriculture due to unsuitable
climates.
Factors threatening biodiversity
Global Factors:
a) Climate Change – expected that the climate will change so quickly that species will be unable to
adapt. Recent climate changes have shown impacts on the ecosystems:
- laying and fruiting have been advancing by several days each decade
- Coral bleaching due to warming seas has increased since 1980s
- Ocean acidification caused by rising levels of carbon dioxide
- Poleward’s migration of species by an average of 6km per decade
b) Deforestation – clearance of forest cover results in loss of biodiversity and resources but also
has knock-on effects on the food web and nutrient cycling
c) Pollution can cause various issues:
- Ozone depletion due to CFCs
- nitrate pollution of lakes
d) Human population growth – this is forcing people to spread into more areas and is encroaching
onto areas with high biodiversity
Local Factors
a) Fire – was used widely in Europe and N. America to clear forests for development. Controlled
fire as a management option is useful but large-scale burning for soya bean production causes
loss of biodiversity
b) Habitat change – developing natural habitats for agriculture, minerals or urban growth e.g.
overfishing in the North Sea

c) Recreational use – plants are vulnerable to trampling and animals to disturbance
The impact of these threats on ecosystem processes
Energy Flow
Primary producers (green plants) convert sunlight into energy through
photosynthesis, as energy is lost through respiration at each stage,
the amount of biomass at each trophic level decreases. Human action
on one level of the chain has an impact on the others that are
dependent on it e.g. the catching of tertiary consumers
Nutrient cycling
This occurs alongside the flow of energy through an ecosystem and
involves the feedback of miners from decomposed organic material
back into the plants so that they can grow and continue the cycle. In
hot climates of the tropics there is faster nutrient cycling then in
cold regions. People can impact upon the cycle by adding nutrients via
fertilisers, by reducing the biomass through overharvesting and
deforestation, and by degrading the soil. Once deprived of nutrients,
soils are vulnerable to erosion.
Movement of species
The movement of species can occur by accident or deliberately but has a serious threat to
ecosystems. Alien or exotic species can become established at any trophic level and often have:
- enhanced survival rates as they are more efficient competitors
- lack any native predator
- Not susceptible to native diseases
Deliberate introductions include:
1) Game species such as pheasant and rainbow trout for hunting
2) Hedgehog was imported from the Scottish mainland to the Outer Hebrides to deal with a
plague of garden slugs but have since effected the populations of ground nesting birds whom
they eat the eggs of
Accidental introductions include:
1) Alien species can arrive by ship e.g. Zebra mussel arrived in North America from the Caspian
Sea by clinging on the sides of ships. These were brought into the Great Lakes where the
multiplied to 70,000 per km2
2) Air transport was responsible for introducing snakes to the Pacific Island of Guam which had
huge impacts on the food web
Nutrient Overload
Excess nutrients are washed into the lakes and rivers but this has been increased by the human use
of fertilisers etc. The extra nutrients cause increase growth in plants but also the growth of algal
Litter
Soil
Biomass
Growth or uptake pathway
Weathering
Leaching
Runoff
Precipitation

blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This uses up the oxygen in the water
leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses The extra nutrients cause increase growth in
plants but also the growth of algal blooms which block out the light causing plants to die out. This
uses up the oxygen in the water leading to further deaths and the food chain collapses 
Eutrophication.
The link between economic development and ecosystem destruction/
degradation
The shift of countries from economies based on primary industries, to mixed industries including
manufacturing and industry has put huge pressure on their ecosystems as natural resources are
extracted.
Named Example: Udzungwa Mountains National Park: a pristine
area
This national park has huge amounts of biodiversity with 276 tree species
and 50 endemic species. The local villages are also reliant upon it for
watershed protection, medicines and food. However their access is limited
and highly controlled due to increasing pressures on the park such as
population growth. The Tanzanian National Park authorities therefore
decided to involve the local people in sustainable bottom up strategies for
example, setting up tree nurseries and promoting ecotourism. This was the
best way forward due to the issues of policing a vast area with a skeletal
ranger force; instead the local people become responsible for the area.
Named Example: Masai Mara game reserve: a degraded area
This reserve experienced a breakdown in management which has led
to the decline to the grassland ecosystem. The park fees from
tourists were meant to go towards management of the area and
providing social services to the local tribesman. However the park
rangers were not paid properly and lacked basic equipment so could do
Rapid industrial development e.g.
China has led to air pollution such as
acid rain, which has an impact on
forests. Expansion of agricultural
land due to population growth
A country with a
stable economy and
education has the
freedom to choose
to support
biodiversity without
compromising its
people’s ability to be
fed and housed
Less development
near pristine
environments in which
indigenous people live
mainly due to lack of
access and technology

little to stop illegal hunting. In 2008 a private organisation called Mara conservation took over
control and runs on a non-profit basis uses 50% of revenue to build roads and anti-poaching patrols
and 50% to the local tribes. This is needed as the local people have to give up cattle grazing land for
tourism but are having a hard time seeing the benefits.
The concept of sustainable yield
Sustainable yield represents the ‘safe’ level of harvest that can be hunted/caught/used without
harming the individual ecosystem. It is measured through:
1. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) – the greatest harvest that can be taken indefinitely while
leaving the ecosystem intact.
2. Optimum sustainable yield (OSY) – best compromise achieve in the light of all economic and
social factors.
In order to manage wildlife etc models estimating carrying capacity have been developed – the
maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources.
Named Example: Campfire Project, Zimbabwe
This was developed in the late 1980s aimed to long-term development, management
and sustainable use of natural resources. The responsibility for the area was
placed in the hands of local people and therefore an example of a bottom-up
approach. Some schemes made money from big-game hunting at sustainable yield
levels and this was then fed back into the communities. Environmentalists disagreed
with this approach as how was hunting endangered species helping to protect them?
The scheme was then undermined by the economic collapse of Zimbabwe and lack of
funding.
The role of different players in managing biodiversity
Zone of overharvest –
population begins to be
threatened by overharvesting
MSY is halfway between 0 and
the carrying capacity
OSY is lower than MSY as it
enabled the ecosystem to have
a high aesthetic value
Carrying Capacity
GLOBAL NATIONAL LOCAL
International Treaties:
a) Ramsar Convention 1971 - to
conserve wetlands
b) World Heritage Convention
1972 - protect outstanding
cultural and natural sites
c) CITES 1973 - controlled
Governments:
Regulation – establish and
enforce laws to conserve and
protect various areas and
species.
Preservation – preserve areas
of biodiversity often through
Communities:
Indigenous groups depend on
biodiversity for basic survival
e.g. spiritual significance
Farmers – strong views about
conservation as it conflicts
with their aims

Spectrum of strategies and policies for managing biodiversity
Conservation strategies follow the idea of a spectrum from complete protection through to
commercially exploited areas where limited parts are protected for publicity purposes.
Total Protection – was the main focus of conservation during the 1960s. Total protection has been
criticised as:
- In developing countries there is a conflict between conservation and cutting people off from
biodiversity
- Totally protected reserves are often narrowly focused for scientific purposes so may fail to
take into account social, economic factors etc
- Many protection schemes are based around political boundaries and not the ecosystem
natural boarders
- These strategies rely on the co-ordination of outside agencies which often forget about the
local people’s needs.
Biosphere Reserves – identifies a core area which is heavily protected with buffer zones around it.
However some countries do not have finances to fully monitor or mange these reserves and the
pressure from development may be difficult to control. These act at a number of different levels;
locally they involve local people and the landscape they know in order to better serve the community
and ensuring continued biodiversity e.g. community conservation schemes. On a national level they aim
Individual:
In the developed world, ethical
consumerism has led to people
choosing to buy
environmentally friendly
products e.g. dolphin friendly
tuna.
Scientists and researchers –
work for variety of
organisations and monitor the
state of the biodiversity

to inspire further conservation e.g. National Parks. Globally the biosphere designation of the
Galapagos Islands helped implement a zoning strategy to solve the problems the area faces.
Restoration – this can include recreating wetlands or linking up small fragmented reserves to produce
a large reserve. These can be very expensive and much of the success depends on how readily plants
will reseed and how polluted the land is.
Conservation – this can involve ex-situ conservation where an endangered species establish a captive
population away from its natural habitat. This includes captive breeding with release schemes and
biodiversity banks such as genetic and seed banks in zoos and botanical gardens. For example – giant
panda
Named Example: The Galapagos Islands Zoning Strategy (Hot-Spot
Management Strategy)
Location: found on the Equator 1,000km off
the coast of Ecuador
Key facts:
Nearly one fourth of the Galapagos marine life
is endemic - found nowhere else on earth
There are 13 large islands and six small, which
were formed by oceanic volcanoes some three
to five million years ago
Threats facing the islands:
 Extensive migration from mainland Ecuador – from 1982-1998 population growth was around
6% but in the last 10 years the number of people on the islands has more than doubled to take
it to 16,000.
 absence of a quarantine system to avoid the introduction of foreign species

 illegal fisheries that apply great pressure on the islands’ marine resources (until 1990s only a
few hundred fishers were involved but by 1999 660 were registered as global over-fishing
grew due to demand for seafood and speciality products e.g. shark fins)
 lack of an adequate legal framework to ensure the long-term preservation of the islands
 Tourism – since 1969 charter flights began bringing people to the islands and it became the
main economic activity employing 70% of the active population. In 1998 - $75 million was
generated through tourism. However out of this only around 1% is used to support
conservation.
Conservation
1936: the Galapagos National Park (GNP) established
1968: Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began
1984: Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program
1986: The Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established to include all waters
within 15 nautical miles
1992: Zoning plan for Marine Resources reserve – included 4 zones:
 General Use Zone for sustainable use of the reserve
 Recreational Fishing Zones for the benefit of residents
 National Marine Park Zones for human activities where natural resources are neither damaged
nor removed
 Strict Nature Reserves where human access is not permitted.
2002: Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance
.
The future of biodiversity
The Millennium Ecosystems Assessments (MEA) identified 4 scenarios predicting rapid conversion of
ecosystems to farmland and urbanisation.
Global Orchestration
 All trade barriers and subsidies are removed
to allow for free trade
 Economic growth is high and standard of living
in developed countries improve
 As wealth increases there will be more money
to deal with environmental problems = too
late?
 High biodiversity loss
Order from Strength
 Protection of national boundaries will see rich
countries close their boarders to protect
their own standard of living
 Problems of ecosystem degradation in
developing countries
 Ecosystem collapse – huge biodiversity loss
Adapting Mosaic
 Will manage ecosystems locally and regionally
= more sustainable
 Lower biodiversity loss than 1 and 2
 People working together to develop
economically but also maintain ecosystems
Techno garden
 Using technology to help provide ecosystem
services
 Excellent sharing of ideas at a global level
 May become over reliant on technology
 Wealth increases in poor countries as

knowledge and technology is shared
WWF’s Living Planet Report – looked to model ways of ending ecology ‘overshoot’ (the amount by
which the ecological footprint exceeds the biological capacity of the space available to that
population). They also showed 4 possible scenarios:
1) Business as usual – increased ecological footprint and no reduction in overshoot
2) Slow shift – gradually reducing the ecological footprint by developing many sustainable policies
so that ecosystems can recover by the year 2100
3) Rapid reduction – radical policies to control ecological footprints lead to elimination of
overshoot by 2040
4) Shrink and share – breaking the world into regions in order to share responsibility for
controlling the overshoot problem
Case Study: Named Global Ecosystem- Daintree Tropical Rainforest
Location: North east coast of Australia in Queensland
Why is Daintree so special?
 World Heritage site measuring ½ the size of Wales
 135 million years old
 Greatest number of threatened species of plant and animals in
the world
 ½ of Australia’s bird species
 65% of all butterfly and bat species
Threats
1) Tourism
- In 1983, 17000 tourists visited Daintree but by 2002 this had
grown to 436000 visitors
2) Destruction of ecosystem to cope with demand
- tarmacking of roads has lead to small areas of forest being
divided into plots for sale
- Occupied plots are often bulldozed and turned into cattle ranches

3) Development
- Increased numbers of tourists had lead to the development of Port Douglas changing the
village’s character
4) Climate Change – a global temperature increase could threaten the distinctive ecosystems
environment
5) Logging – the commercial timber industry in began in Daintree in the 1930s. The rainforest acts
as a carbon store so the removal of these releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere adding to the
greenhouse effect
Impacts
Short-term Medium-term Long-term
Economic Money spent by
tourists
$147 million per year
3500 jobs created
Infrastructure improved
e.g. tarmac roads
Social Impact on tribes
Local people suffer
from congestion and
overcrowding
Increase in population
Destructive of native
tribes as they lose
their land and move
away
Cultures westernised
Australian heritage lost
Increase in population =
increase in house prices =
local people move out
Tourism could decline
Environmental Soil erosion from
deforestation
Loss of habitats
Disruption of native
species
Litter
Breeding patterns
affected
Food web disrupted
Release of C02 from
trees
Extinction of species
Invasion of alien species
Management of Daintree
Key players:
a) Wet tropics Management authority = formed in 1990 to research and monitor the state of
the wet tropics. Looks at developing management agreements with land holders and native
tribes.

b) Cairns Regional council- aimed to gradually reduce population in Daintree. Increased ferry
costs to reduce number of visitors and rejected plans for a bridge across the river as
more people would endanger the rainforest.
c) Australian Rainforest Foundation – operation ‘BIG BIRD’ – the cassowary given a wildlife
corridor to protect it. Money given to buy back land from developers and return it to
rainforest
d) Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland – community based looking at a sustainable
future for people and wildlife. They are for a ban on development in the area.
e) Australian Tropical Rainforest Foundation – build visitor centres and education facilities to
highlight the global importance of the tropical rainforest ecosystems.
f) Rainforest co-operation research council – community development allowing up to 1400
people to live in the area but must conserve the land. Looks to identify hotspots for
conservation where no development is allowed. Aims to recognise the rights of native
people to own land and promote their culture in the forest.
What kinds of questions have been asked?
Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and marine hotspots (10 marks)

Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the ‘hot-spot’ approach to biodiversity
management (compared with other strategies) (15 marks)
Evaluate the relative importance of global and local threats to one named global ecosystem (15 marks)
Assess the role played by different players in managing areas in which biodiversity is under threat
(15 marks)
How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for development with the need to manage biodiversity
(14 marks)
Referring to examples, discuss the threats to biodiversity hotspots and why these threats could
prove critical (15)
Explain how human activities have contributed to the condition of ecosystem goods and services. (10)
Using named examples, evaluate the success of global actions designed to protect biodiversity. (15)
Explain the pattern of alien species invasions, and suggest the possible impacts of alien species on
ecosystems. (10)

Topic 4: Superpower Geographies
 How to define the idea of superpower
 How patterns of power change over time
 Theories for the growth of Superpowers

 How power can be maintained
 Role of superpowers on international action and decision making
 Nature of trade and who controls it. Does this maintain global power?
 Superpowers cultural influence
 The impacts on Water, energy, environment and land demand of the rising
superpowers
 The impacts of the rising new superpowers on the old superpowers
 Implications for the Majority world (Less developed countries) of the new
superpowers – good or bad?
 Shifting power may lead to tensions
Key Terms
Capitalism An economic system in which all or most of the means of production and
distribution are privately owned and operated in a relatively competitive
environment
Cold War A state of political tension and military rivalry between nations that

How to define the idea of superpower e.g. USA and USSR
Criteria USA USSR
Size – countries with a large land USA is the 3rd
largest World’s largest country with
stops short of full-scale war e.g. US vs. Soviet Union following World
War II
Colonialism The system or policy in which a country maintains foreign colonies
Communism A form of political development that aims to create equality and a
classless society.
Cultural Imperialism Promoting the culture of one society into another e.g. Tea to India
Dependency theory Notion that resources flow from a ‘periphery’ of poor and
underdeveloped states into a ‘core’ of wealthy states
Development theory A number of theories outlined how desirable change is best achieved
Direct influence The power of persons or things to affect others by means of power
based on wealth
Disparity The inequality or difference
International Monetary
Fund
An international organisation established by the UN to promote monetary
cooperation, international trade and stability
Market economy An economy in which prices are determined by buyers and sellers with a
relatively high degree of freedom
Modernisation theory The socio-economic development and process that evolves from a
traditional society to modern economies e.g. USA
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation founded in 1949 for the purposes of
opposing communism during the Cold War.
Neo-colonialism Describes the ways in which rich countries dominate the economy of
poorer countries through economic imperialism rather than political
control
Privatisation The process of moving from a government controlled system to a
privately run system
Purchasing Power Parity The value of gross national income related to local prices
Superpower A nation that is able to project its power and influence anywhere in the
world
Tariff A government tax on imports or exports
USSR Soviet Union – a former communist country in eastern Europe and
Northern Asia established in 1922. Was dissolved in 1991
World Bank UN agency created to assist developing nations by issuing loans
World Trade
Organisation
Set up in 1995 to open up and ensure fair play in international trade.

area tend to have greater natural
resources and extend their
influence over a larger number of
neighbours
country with land over 9
million km2
land area over 22 million km2
Economic strength – in 2007, the
12 largest economies earned
around 2/3rds of the world’s GDP
and control investment
- determine economic policies
which effect the globe
Managed as a democracy and
had a free-market (capitalist)
approach to the economy
Contains 776 of the largest
TNCs
Dollar is the world reserve
currency
Promoted communism and the
economy was state controlled
Culture – spread of
Americanisation across the globe
Religion – religious leaders can
influence politics through their
beliefs e.g. contraception
Rapid growth in film and
television industry helped to
convey a positive image on
USA and its high standard of
living.
Tried to sell itself as high
culture with ballet, music and
art. Very tight censorship so no
criticism allowed.
Population – countries with a large
population are important as
economic growth cannot be
sustained without sufficient
number of workers
- cheap workers can help promote
economic growth
- large populations encourage
economic growth through markets
250 million live in USA World’s 3rd
largest with over
285 million at the time of its
breakup
Resources – countries with
resources necessary for economic
development should have
significant power
Land contained valuable
minerals, metals, forests and
a modern agricultural and
industrial system (World’s
greatest economy)
Huge amounts of oil and gas (2nd
largest economy)
Military strength – countries with
a large military force are seen as
more power but also the types of
weapons are important e.g. nuclear
weapons
The world’s largest and most
powerful navy and one of the
two most powerful air forces
in the world
Had the largest land based army
and the world’s largest stockpile
of nuclear weapons
How patterns of power change over time

Named Example: The rise and fall of the British Empire
The British Empire was founded on exploration and sea power as its royal navy dominated the seas
from 1700-1930s. There were 3 key phases:
Phase 1: Mercantilist (1600-1850) = small colonies set up on coastal islands e.g. Jamaica with focus on
trade including slaves.
Phase 2: Imperial (1850-1945) = whole conquest of territories, religion and culture spread e.g.
cricket. Governments set up to rule the colonies and complex trade networks.
Phase 3: Decolonisation (1945 - ) = After 2nd
World war the UK was bankrupt and could not support
the empire as before. Growth of anti-colonial movements e.g. India – some colonies granted
independence.
Britain still maintains a superpower legacy and has control over 14 overseas territories e.g. Falkland
Islands. The Commonwealth contains 53 states (former British colonies) that cooperate in common
interests.
Named Example: collapse of Communism
The causes of the collapse were reforms in the USSR in 1985 by President Gorbachev which
increased freedom of speech and allowed private ownership of small businesses. As these reforms
spread there was soon an open revolt against the communist system and the fall of the Berlin Wall in
1989 ended the symbol of separation of the Cold War superpowers. The USSR collapsed in 1990
when the communist party gave up its monopoly on power. This led to the breakup of the entire
country as countries such as Latvia and Georgia broke away into independent nations.
Named Example: The Rise of the BRICs
These are Brazil, Russia, India and China as they show:
- Strong economic growth
- Large populations
- Access to key resources e.g. fossil fuels
- Market economies
- Regional power and influence
It is expected that the USA will see a decline in its power, especially in relation to China
Theories for the growth of Superpowers

Modernisation theory – Rostow 1960s
Aimed to explain the dominance of the British Empire and USA. Rostow believed that as these were
the first countries to experience the Industrial revolution this gave them an initial advantage over
other regions. He believed that countries moved through 5 stages of develop.
Dependency Theory – Frank 1971
Countries become more dependent upon more powerful, frequently colonial powers, as a result in
interaction and development. This is because the colonial power often exploits the resources of its
weaker colony as the colony becomes more dependent upon it. However, the rise of the NICs argues
against this as they are examples of countries that have developed, however some of these did
receive huge economic support and aid from the USA.
World Systems Theory – Wallenstein 1974
This treated the whole world as a single unit broken down into the core (MEDCs), periphery (LEDCs)
and the semi-periphery. It also allowed change to take place as countries began to develop.
Named Example: China vs. India

World Systems theory would suggest that industrial capitalism was born in Europe and that the rise
of India and china is another stage of the growth and spread of the global economy. Dependency
theory however would see the current growth as a shift back to an older world order when India and
China were powerful economic forces as Frank believed Britain and other European powers were the
first NICs.
Path to development:
China – state-led industrialisation and intensification of agriculture but largely cut off from the rest
of the world.
India – Home-grown technology with high import tariffs, still however mainly a rural society.
How power can be maintained
Superpowers have shifted the maintenance of their power from colonial rule to indirect neo-colonial
rule. Following the end of the colonial rule, decolonialisation occurred but brought about conflict
rather than immediate freedom for 3 main reasons:
1) Colonial boarders did not match religious or ethnic boundaries
2) Colonies had a government but indigenous people were excluded from running them so
therefore when the colonial rule was removed there was not enough experience
3) As colonial powers left, insurgents pushed them out = violence
Named Example: Colonialism- India
In India today there are still symbols of colonial power such as the residence of the governor-general
of India in Delhi. Culture was also spread through British traditions such as cricket, tea drinking and
the English language. India became modernised so that the economy could serve Britain more
effectively e.g. the building of railway system improved transport and trade but allowed efficient
military transport to put down rebellions. Independence was granted in 1947 but this plunged India
into a period of chaos.
Neo-colonialism refers to a form of indirect control over developing countries, most of them former
colonies. In this direct political control decreased whilst economic control increased through:
- Economic dependence on primary goods – issues created with trade as these goods have low export
prices compared with high prices the developing world must pay for manufactured goods
- Economic dominance of multinational companies – foreign direct investment e.g. manufacturing
located in developing world allows for big profits for TNCs but low wages and skills for the developing
world
- Impact of foreign aid and debt – developing nations pay huge sums in interest which often exceed
aid receipts
- Strategic alliances – USA for example allied with many developing nations to spread their global
influence, often by means of foreign aid
- Aid – often given with ‘strings attached’
Named Example: Neo-colonialism in Ghana

In 1957 Ghana gained independence from British colonial rule and in recent years has been seen to be
making progress in economic and social indicators. For example GNP has risen from $5.7 billion to
$14.9 billion in the last 20 years. However Ghana is still very much influenced by external factors,
perhaps identifying an example of neo-colonialism?
External factors:
1) Commodity markets in London and New York
- Cocoa prices depend on global demand which may vary
- Competition with Ivory Coast for cocoa. If prices in Ghana are too high, buyers will purchase
for lower-priced countries
2) Overseas Tariffs
- EU import tariffs are much higher for processed cocoa than for raw beans. This means
Ghana is better off exporting raw cocoa beans as import costs are lower and they would make
more money
- Means that Ghana is unable to develop its own processing industries as most of this is done in
Europe = loses out on value added
3) WTO
- Before 1995 Ghanaian government subsidised its farmers to encourage them to stay on the
land and grow food for their growing cities
- Ghana then joined the WTO in an attempt to increase its global trade
- WTO imposed joining condition that the Ghanaian farmers could no longer be subsidised
- Farmers could no longer compete with imports of heavily subsidised foreign food e.g. EU
tomatoes are cheaper to buy then home-grown ones
Role of superpowers on international action and decision making
Organisation Function Members
International
Monetary Fund
(IMF)
Monitors the economic and
financial development of
countries. Lends money to
countries facing difficulties
44 governments originally now 185. USA = 17%,
EU=25.7%, Africa =1%
Reflects USA concerns so lent to countries
threatened by communism. Can impose conditions
World Bank Gives advice, loans and grants
to reduce poverty and promote
economic development
Similar to IMF. USA = 16%. Bad reputation in
1970s for financing projects that caused
environmental damage and created debt. MDGs!
United Nations
(UN)
Prevents war and arbitrates on
international disputes.
192 members in 2008. Most influential
international alliance in the world
World Trade
Organisation
(WTO)
Trade policy, agreements and
settling disputes. Promotes
global free trade
All countries get 1 vote but votes never actually
just through mutual consent with biggest
markets deciding outcome. Allows subsidies for
USA and EU!
North Atlantic
Treaty
Organisation
Military alliance between
European countries and the
USA
The G8 Meetings about global policy
direction for western
democracies
Represents 65% of global GDP but 14% of
population. Very restricted membership
Davos Group Swiss based non-profit
foundation to discuss business
and profits
Business CEO’s, political leaders, Media,
celebrities
No official status but attended by presidents

A2 GEOGRAPHY REVISION GUIDE EDEXCEL

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