Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
Neutrino radiation is hypothesized to be the 2nd generation radiation in the expanding universe and the source of all matter. Fundamental neutrinos are proposed to always exist in a three-in-one configuration of photon, electron, and proton, with zero mass. Neutrino radiation is proposed to act as the "soul" providing equilibrium to all matter through weak force interaction. Human embryo is hypothesized to be composed of implanted fundamental neutrino matter combined with dark energy and dark matter from parents. Neutrino soul is proposed to provide energy to the developing embryo and early heartbeat.
The document discusses the nature of light and modern theories of light. It covers the following key points:
1. Historical theories including Newton's corpuscular theory proposing light is particles and Huygens' wave theory proposing light is waves.
2. Modern theories including Maxwell's electromagnetic theory showing light is electromagnetic waves, Planck and Einstein's quantum theory proposing light consists of discrete quanta called photons, and de Broglie's wave-particle duality theory showing light has both wave and particle properties.
3. The document analyzes the successes and failures of each theory and how later theories built upon earlier understandings to more fully explain the nature of light.
My notes for 9th grade, 2nd Quarter. Consists of multiple lessons in Science from the History of the Atomic Model to Electron Dot Structure. To be honest, I got lazy in making this halfway there. Sorry. ^^u
Interactive textbook ch. 11 introduction to atomstiffanysci
1) The atomic theory has changed over time as scientists gathered new evidence and information. John Dalton proposed the first scientific atomic theory in 1803, stating that all matter is made of atoms that cannot be created, destroyed, or divided.
2) In the late 19th century, scientists like J.J. Thomson discovered smaller particles called electrons within atoms. Thomson proposed the "plum pudding" model where electrons were scattered throughout the atom.
3) Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1909 showed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center. This led to Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom. Niels Bohr later incorporated electron orbits into this model.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
This document provides learning objectives and content about atomic theory and the development of the periodic table. It discusses the following key points:
- The ancient Greek ideas about matter being made of four elements.
- Important laws like the Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law of Definite Proportions.
- How atomic theory developed from the Greek idea of atoms to Dalton's atomic theory to explain these laws.
- How elements are arranged in the periodic table based on their properties and why this arrangement is significant.
- The distinction between atoms and molecules and identification of hazardous or rare elements.
- How green chemistry aims to reduce reliance on hazardous elements.
This document provides information about atomic structure and the development of atomic theory over time. It includes:
1) A timeline of scientists and their discoveries, including Democritus' idea of atoms, Lavoisier's experiments on conservation of mass, Dalton forming the first atomic theory, and Rutherford discovering the nucleus through gold foil experiments.
2) Explanations of atomic models including Thomson's plum pudding model, Bohr's planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus, and Schrodinger's wave mechanic model.
3) Details on subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons and their roles in atomic structure and identifying elements. Isotopes are also discussed.
This document discusses the atomic theory and properties of the three states of matter. It covers key scientists and their contributions, including Dalton formulating the atomic theory, Thomson discovering the electron, Rutherford naming the types of radiation, and Bohr proposing electron orbitals. The three states of matter - solid, liquid, gas - are compared in terms of particle motion and forces. Phase changes like melting, freezing and evaporation are explained. The development of the modern atomic model and discovery of subatomic particles like the proton and neutron are also summarized.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
Neutrino radiation is hypothesized to be the 2nd generation radiation in the expanding universe and the source of all matter. Fundamental neutrinos are proposed to always exist in a three-in-one configuration of photon, electron, and proton, with zero mass. Neutrino radiation is proposed to act as the "soul" providing equilibrium to all matter through weak force interaction. Human embryo is hypothesized to be composed of implanted fundamental neutrino matter combined with dark energy and dark matter from parents. Neutrino soul is proposed to provide energy to the developing embryo and early heartbeat.
The document discusses the nature of light and modern theories of light. It covers the following key points:
1. Historical theories including Newton's corpuscular theory proposing light is particles and Huygens' wave theory proposing light is waves.
2. Modern theories including Maxwell's electromagnetic theory showing light is electromagnetic waves, Planck and Einstein's quantum theory proposing light consists of discrete quanta called photons, and de Broglie's wave-particle duality theory showing light has both wave and particle properties.
3. The document analyzes the successes and failures of each theory and how later theories built upon earlier understandings to more fully explain the nature of light.
My notes for 9th grade, 2nd Quarter. Consists of multiple lessons in Science from the History of the Atomic Model to Electron Dot Structure. To be honest, I got lazy in making this halfway there. Sorry. ^^u
Interactive textbook ch. 11 introduction to atomstiffanysci
1) The atomic theory has changed over time as scientists gathered new evidence and information. John Dalton proposed the first scientific atomic theory in 1803, stating that all matter is made of atoms that cannot be created, destroyed, or divided.
2) In the late 19th century, scientists like J.J. Thomson discovered smaller particles called electrons within atoms. Thomson proposed the "plum pudding" model where electrons were scattered throughout the atom.
3) Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1909 showed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center. This led to Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom. Niels Bohr later incorporated electron orbits into this model.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
This document provides learning objectives and content about atomic theory and the development of the periodic table. It discusses the following key points:
- The ancient Greek ideas about matter being made of four elements.
- Important laws like the Law of Conservation of Mass and the Law of Definite Proportions.
- How atomic theory developed from the Greek idea of atoms to Dalton's atomic theory to explain these laws.
- How elements are arranged in the periodic table based on their properties and why this arrangement is significant.
- The distinction between atoms and molecules and identification of hazardous or rare elements.
- How green chemistry aims to reduce reliance on hazardous elements.
This document provides information about atomic structure and the development of atomic theory over time. It includes:
1) A timeline of scientists and their discoveries, including Democritus' idea of atoms, Lavoisier's experiments on conservation of mass, Dalton forming the first atomic theory, and Rutherford discovering the nucleus through gold foil experiments.
2) Explanations of atomic models including Thomson's plum pudding model, Bohr's planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus, and Schrodinger's wave mechanic model.
3) Details on subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons and their roles in atomic structure and identifying elements. Isotopes are also discussed.
This document discusses the atomic theory and properties of the three states of matter. It covers key scientists and their contributions, including Dalton formulating the atomic theory, Thomson discovering the electron, Rutherford naming the types of radiation, and Bohr proposing electron orbitals. The three states of matter - solid, liquid, gas - are compared in terms of particle motion and forces. Phase changes like melting, freezing and evaporation are explained. The development of the modern atomic model and discovery of subatomic particles like the proton and neutron are also summarized.
The document discusses the early discoveries that led to the modern atomic theory, including Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, Rutherford's experiments with radioactive elements which established that atoms have a small, dense nucleus, and Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 which demonstrated that the mass and positive charge of atoms are concentrated in a tiny nucleus rather than uniformly distributed as previously thought. These experiments revealed that atoms are made up of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons and established the basic structure of atoms that forms the basis of modern atomic theory.
The document summarizes the history of atomic structure models from Thomson's "plum pudding" model to Bohr's model. It describes key scientists' contributions, including:
- Thomson's discovery of the electron and proposal that atoms contain positive charge with electrons distributed throughout
- Rutherford's gold foil experiment which led him to propose a small, dense nucleus with electrons in orbits around it
- Bohr's refinement incorporating quantum theory, explaining electron energy levels and spectral lines
This document provides an overview of the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It discusses early thinkers like Democritus and his idea that matter is made of indivisible atoms. Later scientists such as Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr contributed experimental evidence and new atomic models, with Rutherford determining atoms have a small, dense nucleus and Bohr proposing electron shells. Modern atomic theory incorporates quantum mechanics and describes electrons as probability clouds rather than definitive orbits. The document also covers isotopes, mass spectrometry, and relative atomic mass calculations.
John Dalton proposed the first atomic theory in the early 19th century, which stated that atoms are indivisible and identical for each element. JJ Thomson later discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube, showing that atoms have internal structure. His "plum pudding" model depicted electrons distributed throughout the atom. Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center. Bohr then proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in distinct energy levels.
The document discusses the history and development of atomic theory from ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus and Leucippus, who first proposed the idea of indivisible particles called atoms, to modern scientists like Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr who contributed key discoveries and models that led to our current understanding. It explains concepts like atoms, elements, isotopes, atomic number, atomic mass, ions, and different atomic models including the plum pudding model, Bohr model, and electron cloud model.
This document provides information about an upcoming science class including reminders about assignments, tests, and due dates. It also covers topics related to atomic structure, including:
- A brief history of atomic theory from Democritus to Schrodinger and an overview of key atomic models over time.
- The basic atomic structure including electrons, protons, neutrons, and the nucleus. Isotopes and ions are also defined.
- Homework reminders including test corrections due the next day and a crossword puzzle assignment.
- A reflective question asking students to consider the relationship between the periodic table and atomic structure.
1) The document provides reminders and information about upcoming tests, assignments, and deadlines for students. It also includes a summary of the history and development of atomic structure theories from Democritus to Schrodinger.
2) The topic section focuses on atomic structure, defining the basic subatomic particles of protons, neutrons, and electrons. It also explains where most of the atom's mass and volume are located.
3) Students are asked to reflect on how the periodic table relates to atomic structure models. The document aims to teach students about the key concepts and scientists in the development of atomic theory.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of atomic structure and the atomic model. It discusses early Greek philosophers like Democritus who proposed that all matter is made of invisible indivisible particles called atoms. It then summarizes key discoveries and models proposed by scientists like Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Schrodinger that refined our understanding of atomic structure, such as discovering the electron, proposing the planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus, and the wave mechanical model. The document also defines the basic subatomic particles of protons, neutrons and electrons, isotopes, and provides examples of how atomic mass and ions are related to atomic structure.
Democritus first proposed the idea of atoms as indivisible particles in 460 BC. John Dalton updated atomic theory in 1803, proposing that atoms of each element are identical and that chemical reactions involve combinations of atoms. J.J. Thomson discovered electrons in 1897, changing the model to include negatively charged electrons orbiting the atom's nucleus. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments in 1911. Niels Bohr incorporated quantum theory in 1913, proposing electrons orbit in discrete energy levels. Erwin Schrodinger modeled electrons as probability clouds in 1926. James Chadwick discovered neutrons in 1932, completing the standard nuclear model.
The atomic theory has evolved over time from early Greek philosophers' idea that all matter is made of indivisible atoms, to modern scientific discoveries about atomic structure. Democritus first proposed the idea of atoms in 460 BC. In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus through his gold foil experiment, and Bohr proposed that electrons orbit in specific energy levels. Chadwick discovered the neutron in the 1920s, completing the standard model of the atom's subatomic particles. Today's electron cloud model depicts electrons as existing in regions rather than fixed orbits.
This document outlines the development of atomic theory from ancient Greek philosophers to modern physics. It describes key contributors such as Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and Schrodinger who proposed models of the atom based on experiments. The modern atomic theory is that atoms contain a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in electron clouds, and that elements are defined by their atomic number while isotopes differ in neutron number. The four fundamental forces that act on atoms are also summarized.
The document is an article about energy from Wikipedia. It begins by defining energy as a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force. Different forms of energy include kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic energy. The principle of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant, as energy can be transformed from one form to another but not created or destroyed. The article then discusses the history of the concept of energy and provides examples of energy transformations in various contexts, from biology and geology to cosmology.
1) The document provides reminders and information about upcoming assignments, tests, and topics for a science class. It includes directions for test corrections, retake dates, and deadlines to turn in late work.
2) The topic for the day is on atomic structure and will include power notes on this topic. The document then provides a brief history of theories and scientists who contributed to the understanding of atomic structure.
3) It explains some of the key parts of atomic structure including the nucleus, protons, neutrons, electrons, isotopes, ions, and how atomic mass is determined based on isotopes. Homework includes finishing test corrections and a reminder that there is little time left to turn in late work
Atomic theory describes matter as composed of atoms, the basic units that constitute chemical elements. Democritus first proposed the idea of indivisible atoms in ancient Greece. In the early 1900s, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed a "plum pudding" model of the atom. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments, leading to the planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus. Niels Bohr later adjusted this model to account for electron stability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document presents a new theory that the first humans had a single chamber heart without lungs, as God who created humans is hypothesized to have a single chamber heart without lungs. It is proposed that as the universe expanded, humans evolved to have three chamber hearts with lungs in the second generation, and four chamber hearts with lungs in the current third generation. The document also puts forth hypotheses regarding the nature of spirit and soul, proposing that spirit is the source of energy that creates souls, and that the soul is the location in the human body that initiates heartbeat in fetuses. Overall, the document aims to provide new perspectives on the origins of humans and the universe through various scientific and philosophical hypotheses.
The document is a review of key concepts from Chapter 4 on atomic structure. It contains multiple choice and short answer questions testing understanding of atomic number, mass number, isotopes, subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons, atomic models including those proposed by Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr. It also reviews early philosophers like Democritus and their ideas about the basic building blocks of matter.
The document summarizes the development of atomic theory over thousands of years through the proposals of different atomic models by scientists like Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and others. It describes how atomic models have evolved from early concepts of atoms as indivisible spheres to the current understanding of atoms having a small, dense nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud.
- Atoms are the building blocks of matter and the smallest individual parts that make up elements, consisting of subatomic particles like protons, electrons, and neutrons.
- Theories of atomic structure have evolved over time from early Greek philosophers' ideas of basic elements to J.J. Thomson's discovery of electrons and Rutherford's discovery of the dense atomic nucleus at the center, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
- Modern atomic theory incorporates concepts like Bohr's planetary model of electron orbits and specific energy levels within atoms.
This document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature in the quantum world. It outlines how early experiments showed that light behaves like particles (photons) and electrons behave like waves. This challenged the classical view that physical objects are either purely particles or waves. The document then summarizes several milestones in quantum physics from Planck to Heisenberg that established matter has both wave and particle properties and can only be described probabilistically. Measurements in the quantum world influence the observed system and there is an inherent uncertainty.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
The document discusses the early discoveries that led to the modern atomic theory, including Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, Rutherford's experiments with radioactive elements which established that atoms have a small, dense nucleus, and Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 which demonstrated that the mass and positive charge of atoms are concentrated in a tiny nucleus rather than uniformly distributed as previously thought. These experiments revealed that atoms are made up of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons and established the basic structure of atoms that forms the basis of modern atomic theory.
The document summarizes the history of atomic structure models from Thomson's "plum pudding" model to Bohr's model. It describes key scientists' contributions, including:
- Thomson's discovery of the electron and proposal that atoms contain positive charge with electrons distributed throughout
- Rutherford's gold foil experiment which led him to propose a small, dense nucleus with electrons in orbits around it
- Bohr's refinement incorporating quantum theory, explaining electron energy levels and spectral lines
This document provides an overview of the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It discusses early thinkers like Democritus and his idea that matter is made of indivisible atoms. Later scientists such as Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr contributed experimental evidence and new atomic models, with Rutherford determining atoms have a small, dense nucleus and Bohr proposing electron shells. Modern atomic theory incorporates quantum mechanics and describes electrons as probability clouds rather than definitive orbits. The document also covers isotopes, mass spectrometry, and relative atomic mass calculations.
John Dalton proposed the first atomic theory in the early 19th century, which stated that atoms are indivisible and identical for each element. JJ Thomson later discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube, showing that atoms have internal structure. His "plum pudding" model depicted electrons distributed throughout the atom. Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center. Bohr then proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in distinct energy levels.
The document discusses the history and development of atomic theory from ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus and Leucippus, who first proposed the idea of indivisible particles called atoms, to modern scientists like Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr who contributed key discoveries and models that led to our current understanding. It explains concepts like atoms, elements, isotopes, atomic number, atomic mass, ions, and different atomic models including the plum pudding model, Bohr model, and electron cloud model.
This document provides information about an upcoming science class including reminders about assignments, tests, and due dates. It also covers topics related to atomic structure, including:
- A brief history of atomic theory from Democritus to Schrodinger and an overview of key atomic models over time.
- The basic atomic structure including electrons, protons, neutrons, and the nucleus. Isotopes and ions are also defined.
- Homework reminders including test corrections due the next day and a crossword puzzle assignment.
- A reflective question asking students to consider the relationship between the periodic table and atomic structure.
1) The document provides reminders and information about upcoming tests, assignments, and deadlines for students. It also includes a summary of the history and development of atomic structure theories from Democritus to Schrodinger.
2) The topic section focuses on atomic structure, defining the basic subatomic particles of protons, neutrons, and electrons. It also explains where most of the atom's mass and volume are located.
3) Students are asked to reflect on how the periodic table relates to atomic structure models. The document aims to teach students about the key concepts and scientists in the development of atomic theory.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of atomic structure and the atomic model. It discusses early Greek philosophers like Democritus who proposed that all matter is made of invisible indivisible particles called atoms. It then summarizes key discoveries and models proposed by scientists like Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Schrodinger that refined our understanding of atomic structure, such as discovering the electron, proposing the planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus, and the wave mechanical model. The document also defines the basic subatomic particles of protons, neutrons and electrons, isotopes, and provides examples of how atomic mass and ions are related to atomic structure.
Democritus first proposed the idea of atoms as indivisible particles in 460 BC. John Dalton updated atomic theory in 1803, proposing that atoms of each element are identical and that chemical reactions involve combinations of atoms. J.J. Thomson discovered electrons in 1897, changing the model to include negatively charged electrons orbiting the atom's nucleus. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments in 1911. Niels Bohr incorporated quantum theory in 1913, proposing electrons orbit in discrete energy levels. Erwin Schrodinger modeled electrons as probability clouds in 1926. James Chadwick discovered neutrons in 1932, completing the standard nuclear model.
The atomic theory has evolved over time from early Greek philosophers' idea that all matter is made of indivisible atoms, to modern scientific discoveries about atomic structure. Democritus first proposed the idea of atoms in 460 BC. In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus through his gold foil experiment, and Bohr proposed that electrons orbit in specific energy levels. Chadwick discovered the neutron in the 1920s, completing the standard model of the atom's subatomic particles. Today's electron cloud model depicts electrons as existing in regions rather than fixed orbits.
This document outlines the development of atomic theory from ancient Greek philosophers to modern physics. It describes key contributors such as Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and Schrodinger who proposed models of the atom based on experiments. The modern atomic theory is that atoms contain a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons in electron clouds, and that elements are defined by their atomic number while isotopes differ in neutron number. The four fundamental forces that act on atoms are also summarized.
The document is an article about energy from Wikipedia. It begins by defining energy as a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force. Different forms of energy include kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic energy. The principle of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant, as energy can be transformed from one form to another but not created or destroyed. The article then discusses the history of the concept of energy and provides examples of energy transformations in various contexts, from biology and geology to cosmology.
1) The document provides reminders and information about upcoming assignments, tests, and topics for a science class. It includes directions for test corrections, retake dates, and deadlines to turn in late work.
2) The topic for the day is on atomic structure and will include power notes on this topic. The document then provides a brief history of theories and scientists who contributed to the understanding of atomic structure.
3) It explains some of the key parts of atomic structure including the nucleus, protons, neutrons, electrons, isotopes, ions, and how atomic mass is determined based on isotopes. Homework includes finishing test corrections and a reminder that there is little time left to turn in late work
Atomic theory describes matter as composed of atoms, the basic units that constitute chemical elements. Democritus first proposed the idea of indivisible atoms in ancient Greece. In the early 1900s, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed a "plum pudding" model of the atom. Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus through alpha particle scattering experiments, leading to the planetary model of electrons orbiting the nucleus. Niels Bohr later adjusted this model to account for electron stability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document presents a new theory that the first humans had a single chamber heart without lungs, as God who created humans is hypothesized to have a single chamber heart without lungs. It is proposed that as the universe expanded, humans evolved to have three chamber hearts with lungs in the second generation, and four chamber hearts with lungs in the current third generation. The document also puts forth hypotheses regarding the nature of spirit and soul, proposing that spirit is the source of energy that creates souls, and that the soul is the location in the human body that initiates heartbeat in fetuses. Overall, the document aims to provide new perspectives on the origins of humans and the universe through various scientific and philosophical hypotheses.
The document is a review of key concepts from Chapter 4 on atomic structure. It contains multiple choice and short answer questions testing understanding of atomic number, mass number, isotopes, subatomic particles like protons, neutrons and electrons, atomic models including those proposed by Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr. It also reviews early philosophers like Democritus and their ideas about the basic building blocks of matter.
The document summarizes the development of atomic theory over thousands of years through the proposals of different atomic models by scientists like Democritus, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, and others. It describes how atomic models have evolved from early concepts of atoms as indivisible spheres to the current understanding of atoms having a small, dense nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud.
- Atoms are the building blocks of matter and the smallest individual parts that make up elements, consisting of subatomic particles like protons, electrons, and neutrons.
- Theories of atomic structure have evolved over time from early Greek philosophers' ideas of basic elements to J.J. Thomson's discovery of electrons and Rutherford's discovery of the dense atomic nucleus at the center, surrounded by orbiting electrons.
- Modern atomic theory incorporates concepts like Bohr's planetary model of electron orbits and specific energy levels within atoms.
This document discusses the wave-particle duality of nature in the quantum world. It outlines how early experiments showed that light behaves like particles (photons) and electrons behave like waves. This challenged the classical view that physical objects are either purely particles or waves. The document then summarizes several milestones in quantum physics from Planck to Heisenberg that established matter has both wave and particle properties and can only be described probabilistically. Measurements in the quantum world influence the observed system and there is an inherent uncertainty.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
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Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
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International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
(1) The document proposes a new theory that the early universe was systematically created by God rather than evolving from star dust as the Big Bang theory suggests.
(2) It hypothesizes that the first single land mass created was called "E-Lanka", considered the "White Continent" and "Mother of all Nations". E-Lanka is proposed to have later evolved into the five major continents and thousands of global nations we see today.
(3) Key terms in the theory include "E-Universe" (the entire cosmos), "K-Nadu" (infinity level of dark energy/matter), "J-Radiation" (creative force from God's "heart" or "
International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science (IRJES)irjes
The core of the vision IRJES is to disseminate new knowledge and technology for the benefit of all, ranging from academic research and professional communities to industry professionals in a range of topics in computer science and engineering. It also provides a place for high-caliber researchers, practitioners and PhD students to present ongoing research and development in these areas.
This document presents a new theory on "e-politics" which hypothesizes that:
1) The universe and all matter were created through "J-radiation" emitted from the "heart of the creator".
2) An ancient human civilization called the "ENDOS" lived on Mars and had advanced knowledge of astrophysics and environmental control.
3) The ENDOS society was organized around a "three domain" system called "IAS" which micro-managed fundamental particles to maintain environmental balance.
4) The ENDOS lived in a "Mars family" ruled by a matriarch called the "E-ACHI". Their social structures and languages may have influenced later human cultures on Earth
The document discusses the history and discovery of atomic structure. It describes how experiments in the late 1800s led to the discovery of the electron and showed that atoms are made up of smaller charged particles. J.J. Thomson's plum pudding model of the atom was later disproven by Rutherford's gold foil experiment, which demonstrated that atoms have a small, dense nucleus containing positive charge. Rutherford developed the nuclear model of the atom with protons and electrons orbiting the nucleus. Some atoms are radioactive due to having unstable nuclei with too many protons.
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Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
1. The document discusses the historical development of atomic theory from Democritus' idea of indivisible atoms to the modern atomic model.
2. Key contributors included Dalton who proposed atoms of different elements have different properties, Thomson who discovered the electron, and Rutherford whose gold foil experiment showed the atom has a small, dense nucleus.
3. The modern atomic model consists of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons in energy levels or an electron cloud. Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons, known as isotopes.
1. The document discusses the historical development of atomic theory from Democritus' idea of indivisible atoms to the modern atomic model.
2. Key contributors included Dalton who proposed atoms of different elements have different properties, Thomson who discovered the electron, and Rutherford whose gold foil experiment showed the atom's small, dense nucleus.
3. The modern atomic model consists of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons in regions of probable location called electron clouds.
The document describes the history of atomic models from Dalton's model to the modern quantum mechanical model. It discusses key discoveries and experiments that led to refinements in the models, including Thomson's discovery of the electron in cathode ray tubes, Rutherford's gold foil experiment that revealed the small, dense nucleus, and Bohr's model incorporating quantum theory. The modern atomic model sees atoms as a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons in probabilistic orbital shells determined by quantum numbers. Each new model built upon findings of the previous ones to arrive at our current understanding of atomic structure.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation is like a history book of various discoveries that led to the development of quantum mechanics. The presentation also tries to address the debate between the radicals (supporters of quantum theory) and classical (supporters of Newtonian physics).
1. Theories of atomic structure have evolved over millennia from ancient Greek philosophers to modern scientific experiments. John Dalton proposed atoms as the basic building blocks of matter in 1803 based on laws of chemical combination.
2. In the early 20th century, experiments revealed atoms have smaller subatomic particles including electrons, protons, and neutrons. Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 established that atoms have a small, dense nucleus containing positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, with electrons in orbits around the nucleus.
3. Niels Bohr's 1913 model visualized electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around the sun, which explained atomic spectra. Later models like Erwin Schrödinger's 1926
“VARYING-SCIENCE”?... ON A COMMON SENSE THEORYIJERD Editor
SCIENCE” means “KNOWLEDGE”?...
“VARYING-SCIENCE” means “KNOWLEDGE VARIES”?...
i. Science differs from „philosophy‟?...
ii. Philosophy differs from „theory‟?...
iii. Evolution differs from „Pre-existence‟?...
iv. Earth gravity varies everyday?...
v. Light velocity varies everyday?...
vi. Universal constants varies everyday?...
vii. Cell chromosome varies everyday?...
viii. Heartbeat varies everyday?...
YES!… YES!! … YES!!!...
This document outlines the development of atomic theory from Democritus' idea of indivisible atoms to modern atomic structure. It describes key contributors such as Dalton who proposed atoms as fundamental units of matter, Thomson who discovered the electron, and Rutherford whose gold foil experiment showed atoms have a small, dense nucleus. Later scientists such as Bohr, de Broglie, Schrödinger, Chadwick, and Curie further refined atomic models through discoveries like isotopes, wave-particle duality, and subatomic particles like neutrons. Their work disproved early ideas of atoms as indivisible and showed matter is made of even smaller constituents that can change form through radioactivity.
Atom History Timeline and Structure.pptmelissabyrd10
1) Democritus first proposed that matter was made of indivisible particles called atoms in 400 BC.
2) In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus at the center of the atom through gold foil experiments.
3) Bohr improved on earlier atomic models by proposing that electrons orbit the nucleus in set energy levels.
The document traces the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It describes Democritus' idea that matter is made of indivisible particles called "atomos", Dalton's atomic theory of elements composed of atoms, J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model showing atoms contain smaller particles, Rutherford's gold foil experiment proving atoms have a small, dense nucleus, Bohr's model of electrons in specific energy levels orbiting the nucleus, and the modern wave model showing electrons as probability clouds rather than definite orbits.
The document traces the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It describes Democritus' idea that matter is made of indivisible particles called "atomos", Dalton's atomic theory of elements composed of atoms, J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model showing atoms contain smaller particles, Rutherford's gold foil experiment proving atoms have a small, dense nucleus, Bohr's model of electrons in specific energy levels orbiting the nucleus, and the modern wave model showing electrons as probability clouds rather than definite orbits.
The document traces the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It describes Democritus' idea that matter is made of indivisible particles called "atomos", Dalton's atomic theory of elements composed of atoms, J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model showing atoms contain smaller particles, Rutherford's gold foil experiment proving atoms have a small, dense nucleus, Bohr's model of electrons in specific energy levels orbiting the nucleus, and the modern wave model showing electrons as probability clouds rather than definite orbits.
The document traces the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It describes Democritus' idea that matter is made of indivisible particles called "atomos", Dalton's model of atoms as indivisible spheres, Thomson's "plum pudding" model with electrons scattered in a positively charged substance, Rutherford's gold foil experiment showing atoms are mostly empty space with a dense nucleus, Bohr's model of electrons in specific energy levels orbiting the nucleus like planets, and the modern wave model where electrons exist as probability clouds rather than definite orbits.
The document traces the development of atomic theory over time from ancient Greek philosophers to modern models. It describes Democritus' idea that matter is made of indivisible particles called "atomos", Dalton's atomic theory of elements composed of atoms, J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model showing atoms contain smaller particles, Rutherford's gold foil experiment proving atoms have a small, dense nucleus, Bohr's model of electrons in specific energy levels orbiting the nucleus, and the modern wave model showing electrons as probability clouds rather than definite orbits.
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A Novel Method for Prevention of Bandwidth Distributed Denial of Service AttacksIJERD Editor
Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks became a massive threat to the Internet. Traditional
Architecture of internet is vulnerable to the attacks like DDoS. Attacker primarily acquire his army of Zombies,
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done. In this paper, different techniques which are used to perform DDoS Attacks, Tools that were used to
perform Attacks and Countermeasures in order to detect the attackers and eliminate the Bandwidth Distributed
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Distributed Denial of service Attack and make the victim site or server available for the normal users by
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turning into zombies (Bots), how attack is been initiated, DDoS attack procedure and how an organization can
save their server from being a DDoS victim. In order to present this we implemented a simulated environment
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Hearing loss is one of the most common human impairments. It is estimated that by year 2015 more
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severity of their hearing loss. This paper describes the implementation and characterization details of a dual
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electromechanical- systems (MEMS) audio transducers and ultra-low power-scalable analog-to-digital
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Influence of tensile behaviour of slab on the structural Behaviour of shear c...IJERD Editor
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shear studs located in the crack-concentration zones due to large hogging moments sustain significantly smaller
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reinforcement ratio and the arrangement of shear connectors to achieve efficient design of the shear connection
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Gold prospecting using Remote Sensing ‘A case study of Sudan’IJERD Editor
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Reducing Corrosion Rate by Welding DesignIJERD Editor
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Router 1X3 – RTL Design and VerificationIJERD Editor
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Active Power Exchange in Distributed Power-Flow Controller (DPFC) At Third Ha...IJERD Editor
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Hardware Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Isolated Circuits And...IJERD Editor
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Simulated Analysis of Resonant Frequency Converter Using Different Tank Circu...IJERD Editor
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“MS-Extractor: An Innovative Approach to Extract Microsatellites on „Y‟ Chrom...IJERD Editor
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Importance of Measurements in Smart GridIJERD Editor
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International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
1. International Journal of Engineering Research and Development
e-ISSN: 2278-067X, p-ISSN: 2278-800X, www.ijerd.com
Volume 10, Issue 3 (March 2014), PP.01-19
1
Matters are made of Light or Atom?!...
(A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
1
M.Arulmani, 2
V.R.Hema Latha,
1
B.E.(Engineer), 2
M.A., M.Sc., M.Phil.(Biologist)
Abstract:- In classic and quantum physics still there are following conflicts!...
i) Matter is made of particle or atom?...
ii) Light is particle or wave?...
iii) Particles can coexist or not?...
iv) Hydrogen is particle or matter?...
v) Light is matter (or) Energy?
This scientific research focus that all the “matters and Life” of Universe shall be considered as the
“Product of Light” composed of fundamental particles coexist. All the 1st generation matters including
Human shall be considered as having only “PARTICLE” property and not “WAVE” property and capable of
“Flying in the space”. The first generation human probably lived in “MARS” with flying capability!…
In the Expanding Universe, the early matters shall be considered undergone major three genetic
variations in structure of “particles of light” in the “Three Nuclear Age” and the matters could have acquired
the additional “wave property” and “non-wave property” subsequently and subject to gradual reduction in
speed of travel. It is focused that the Philosophy of behavior as particle or wave shall be distinguished based on
speed of travel. Matter as particle shall be considered as travels at higher speed than matter as wave. This
article also focus that the fundamental physical characteristics of matter Light, Heat, Sound shall be considered
derived from the fundamental particles.
(i) PHOTON - Responsible for “SOUND”
(ii) ELECTRON - Responsible for “LIGHT”
(iii) PROTON - Responsible for “HEAT”
It is speculated that the research focused in this article will solve so many misconceptions in current
theories of matter “particle wave duality” conflicts as focused in uncertainty principles, Einstein, Maxwell,
Newton theories.
It is also speculated that this research shall provide new solutions for framing new theories to balance
both “classic and quantum physics”.
(i)
(ii)
2. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
2
DO SOUND TRAVELS FASTER THAN LIGHT?... It is hypothesized by the author that the speed
of sound produced by 1st
generation matter can travel faster than the speed of 3rd
Generation light say
electromagnetic wave. It is emphasized that the HUMMING SOUND (AMEN) produced by fundamental
particles can travel faster than the speed of electromagnetic wave.
Keywords:-
1) Philosophy of “Virgin light”
2) Philosophy of “J-Matter”
3) Philosophy of “J-spectrum”
4) Philosophy of “J-pulse” (Three dimensional)
5) Philosophy of “J-Beam”
6) Philosophy of “J-Flame”
7) Philosophy of “J-Ray”
8) Philosophy of “J-Wing”
9) Philosophy of “Flying Human”
10) Philosophy of “Black Fire” (Dark Flame)
11) Philosophy of “THEE” and “THREE(THRI)”
12) Philosophy of new definition for “Hydrogen atom”
13) Philosophy of new definition for “Two dimensional electromagnetic wave”
14) Philosophy of “White bow”
15) Philosophy of Conduction, convection, Radiation
16) Philosophy of “ALASMA” and “PLASMA”.
17) Philosophy of “Prokaryotes” and “Eukaryotes”.
18) Philosophy of “ORIGIN” and “EVOLUTION”.
19) Philosophy of 3 generation “CELL”.
20) Philosophy of “Twinkling Stars”.
21) Philosophy of “Global Warming”.
I. INTRODUCTION
It is focused that the mathematical model of “waveform” adopted in Einstein, Maxwell, Newton theory
might pertain to the “3rd
generation matter”. It is speculated that “Atom” shall not be considered as the
smallest unit of matter and Atom shall be considered as “species” to the “J-CELL” (J-Matter). The philosophy
of conduction, convection, radiation of the matter shall be considered as the fundamental property of matter
derived in three generation. The first generation property shall be considered as having property of radiation.
The “J-CELL” shall be considered as the smallest unit of material universe composed of “three-in-
one” fundamental elementary particles and have property of “Particle” and not “Wave Property”. Further J-
Cell shall be considered as “three dimensional Particle Wave” and ancestral to so called Electromagnetic,
gravitational wave, focused in Quantum Physics.
In Quantum Physics the “Light wave” being considered as having only PHOTON. But Atom is
considered having Proton, Neutron, and Electron which has both particle and wave property. It is focused that
the most fundamental elementary particles of Universe shall be considered as Photon, Electron, Proton having
definite polarity charge, Electric, Magnetic, Optic energy Property. It is focused that the philosophy of cell
in the matter such as Human Cell, Animal Cell, Plant Cell, Electric Cell, Photo Cell, Primary Cell, Secondary
Cell might be derived from the philosophy of “CELL” composed of Three Tiny Dot. CELL shall mean
PHOTON, ELECTRON, PROTON. “In Biololgical Cell structure the philosophy of Nucleoid and Bacterial
flagellam shall be considered like having function of PROTON, ELECTRON, PHOTON”.
3. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
3
“J-CELL shall mean WING COMMANDER of all particles of Matter Universe” - Author
i) Right dot (Proton) – “Right Wing”.
ii) Left dot (Electron) – “Left Wing”.
iii) Centre dot (Photon) – “Tail”.
II. PREVIOUS PUBLICATION
The philosophy of origin of first life and human, the philosophy of model Cosmo Universe, the
philosophy of fundamental neutrino particles have already been published in various international journals
mentioned below. Hence this article shall be considered as extended version of the previous articles already
published by the same author.
[1] Cosmo Super Star – IJSRP, April issue, 2013
[2] Super Scientist of Climate control – IJSER, May issue, 2013
[3] AKKIE MARS CODE – IJSER, June issue, 2013
[4] KARITHIRI (Dark flame) The Centromere of Cosmo Universe – IJIRD, May issue, 2013
[5] MA-AYYAN of MARS – IJIRD, June issue, 2013
[6] MARS TRIBE – IJSER, June issue, 2013
[7] MARS MATHEMATICS – IJERD, June issue, 2013
[8] MARS (EZHEM) The mother of All Planets – IJSER, June issue, 2013
[9] The Mystery of Crop Circle – IJOART, May issue, 2013
[10] Origin of First Language – IJIRD, June issue, 2013
[11] MARS TRISOMY HUMAN – IJOART, June issue, 2013
[12] MARS ANGEL – IJSTR, June issue, 2013
[13] Three principles of Akkie Management (AJIBM, August issue, 2013)
[14] Prehistoric Triphthong Alphabet (IJIRD, July issue, 2013)
[15] Prehistoric Akkie Music (IJST, July issue, 2013)
[16] Barack Obama is Tamil Based Indian? (IJSER, August issue, 2013)
[17] Philosophy of MARS Radiation (IJSER, August 2013)
[18] Etymology of word “J” (IJSER, September 2013)
[19] NOAH is Dravidian? (IJOART, August 2013)
[20] Philosophy of Dark Cell (Soul)? (IJSER, September 2013)
[21] Darwin Sir is Wrong?! (IJSER, October issue, 2013)
[22] Prehistoric Pyramids are RF Antenna?!... (IJSER, October issue, 2013)
[23] HUMAN IS A ROAM FREE CELL PHONE?!... (IJIRD, September issue, 2013)
4. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
4
[24] NEUTRINOS EXIST IN EARTH ATMOSPHERE?!... (IJERD, October issue, 2013)
[25] EARLY UNIVERSE WAS HIGHLY FROZEN?!... (IJOART, October issue, 2013)
[26] UNIVERSE IS LIKE SPACE SHIP?!... (AJER, October issue, 2013)
[27] ANCIENT EGYPT IS DRAVIDA NAD?!... (IJSER, November issue, 2013)
[28] ROSETTA STONE IS PREHISTORIC “THAMEE STONE” ?!... (IJSER, November issue, 2013)
[29] The Supernatural “CNO” HUMAN?... (IJOART, December issue, 2013)
[30] 3G HUMAN ANCESTOR?... (AJER, December issue, 2013)
[31] 3G Evolution?... (IJIRD, December issue, 2013)
[32] God Created Human?... (IJERD, December issue, 2013)
[33] Prehistoric “J” – Element?... (IJSER, January issue, 2014)
[34] 3G Mobile phone Induces Cancer?... (IJERD, December issue, 2013)
[35] “J” Shall Mean “JOULE”?... (IRJES, December issue, 2013)
[36] “J”- HOUSE IS A HEAVEN?... (IJIRD, January issue, 2014)
[37] The Supersonic JET FLIGHT-2014?... (IJSER, January issue, 2014)
[38] “J”-RADIATION IS MOTHER OF HYDROGEN?... (AJER, January issue, 2014)
[39] PEACE BEGINS WITH “J”?... (IJERD, January issue, 2014)
[40] THE VIRGIN LIGHT?... (IJCRAR, January issue 2014)
[41] THE VEILED MOTHER?... (IJERD, January issue 2014)
[42] GOD HAS NO LUNGS?... (IJERD, February issue 2014)
III. HYPOTHESIS
This research article comprises of several hypothesis considered as “sub-particles” Light matter for
absolute understanding about what “LIGHT” means.
a) GOD is like Torch Lamp?...
The philosophy of God shall be considered equivalent of “Torch lamp”. God shall be considered like
“Super Natural Human” and creator of the entire “Cosmo Universe”. The “Heart” of God considered
emanating “J-Radiation” and its luminance shall be considered as absolutely “White Light” (or) “Virgin
Light”. In brief God is considered as “TORCH” whose heart is “Lamp” and the Batteries are like source of
energy for origin of Light.
(i)
(ii)
5. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
5
b) J-Radiation is a matter?... or Energy?...
All matters are considered exists in three fundamental state (i.e.) SOLID, LIQUID, and “GAS”.
Scientists still under confusion that “PLASMA” also is a matter or not?...
It is focused that “J-Radiation” shall be considered not as matter but more than a matter (or) plasma.
J-Radiation shall be considered as “Divine Matter” (or) “Divine Soul”. (or) “ALASMA” (AL-ASMA).
Plasma (Pl-asma) shall be considered unstructured, undefined state species matter to ALASMA. Alasma shall
be considered as well structured and Highly Predefined “Divine matter”.
Further J-Radiation shall be considered as distinguished from Dark Matter, Dark energy stipulated in
“Quantum Physics”.
“Dark matter, Dark energy is like “SPIRIT”. J-Radiation is like “SOUL”.
Spirit shall mean “Total”. Soul shall mean “Part of total”. Soul shall mean creation; spirit shall mean
aids creation. Soul is like Universe; spirit is like Cosmo”. – Author
All matters are created by Light?...
It is focused that all matters such as Lightning, Fire, Rainbow, Stars, Planets, atoms, gas molecules,
plants, Animals, Human shall be considered as created by “Divine Light” (or) “J-Radiation” rather than artificial
“Light”. The J-Radiation shall be considered having Billions of “Light rays”. J-Radiation shall be considered
as “Absolute White”; Billions of light rays shall be considered having Billions of minute variation in mass
having different wavelength, frequency and exist as “J-SPECTRUM” or “WHITE SPECTRUM”. The
variation in colour shall be due to varied subsequent mass in “Light Particles” called as “J-Particles”. J-
Spectrum shall be considered as the “Mother” of 3rd
generation Electromagnetic spectrum.
c) J-Radiation (Divine matter) contains sub particles?...
In Quantum Physics “Matter” is composed of having multiples of atoms, molecules. The smallest unit
of matter is defined as “Atom”. Further the atom considered composed of sub atomic particles Proton Neutron
within Nucleus surrounded by Electrons. Latest Current research focus that “Quarks” is considered as smallest
particles exists within the sub-atomic particles. There are about 200 identified various particles considered as
exist in the Universe.
It is focused that the “J-Matter” shall be considered as composed of “Three-in-one” fundamental
elementary particles “PHOTON” “ELECTRON” “PROTON” called a “J-Particle” (or) “Divine Particles”
(or) “AKKIE”. Akkie shall mean “Star Particles”.
“Atom and other identified particles shall be considered as species to “J-Particles”
having minute varied mass”. - Author
6. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
6
d) “Light” differs from “J-Radiation”?...
Quantum Physics and Electromagnetic wave theory focus that the “Light” behaves as “WAVE”
contains particle only “PHOTON”.
It is focused that “J-Radiation” consider composed of “three-in-one” Divine particles PHOTON,
ELECTRON, PROTON and do not have “Wave Property” and capable of traveling at the absolute speed of
3x108
meter/sec. The Divine Particles shall consider never be separated.
“J-Radiation shall be considered having only “pulse property” rather than wave property. The so called
“Light” in Quantum physics shall be considered as species to J-Radiation having both particle and wave
property”.
- Author
e) J-Radiation exhibits Electromagnetic field?...
The Quantum Physics focus that the Electromagnetic wave exhibits wave property composed of
Electric and Magnetic field perpendicular to each other travels at the speed of “LIGHT”.
It is focused that J-Radiation do not exhibit any continues “FIELD” but contains only “ELECTRIC”,
“MAGNETIC” “OPTIC” energy as pulse property. The philosophy of “FIELD” shall be considered
distinguished from the philosophy of “PULSE”. The field shall be considered exist when the speed of
Particles become reduced in 2nd
and 3rd
generation of Nuclear age.
The “Field Property” of “Light wave” shall be considered as derived subsequently from “Pulse Property” of
“J-Particles” when gained subsequent mass. - Author
f) J-Radiation has “WINGS”?...
It is focused that J-Radiation shall be considered capable of flying at absolute speed of “3X108
meter/sec” irrespective of medium. For capable of flying “WINGS” are considered required; without wings no
one can fly. Further “three-in-one” compulsory parameters are considered required for flying. The “J-WING”
considers containing three-in-one particle parameters having symmetry.
(i) “Proton”- “Right wing”
(ii) “Electron” –“Left wing”
(iii) “Photon” – “Tail”
7. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
7
g) J-Radiation has any natural swing?...
It is focused that the “J-radiation” particles shall be considered having “sustained oscillation”, with
anticlockwise, clockwise direction swing just like “SEARCH LIGHT TORCH”. The characteristics of
Heat, Light, Sound shall be considered evolved due to sustained swing oscillation of J-Particles.
The oscillation property of J-Radiation shall be considered aiding flying property at the speed of 3x108
meter/sec. - Author
h) J-Radiation has any structural “Beam”?...
The J-Radiation shall be considered as having well-defined structural frame called “J-BEAM” (or) “J-
HEART”. The J-BEAM considered containing Billions of “J-RAY”. Further J-BEAM shall be considered
composed of three-in-one “WING” meant for specific purpose. Each wing within J-Beam shall be considered
& separated by a thin “membrane” called “VEIL”. Each wing shall be considered containing billions of “sub
particles” exists like “PLASMA”. The sub particles shall be called as “FLAME OF PARTICLES”. In other
words J-Beam shall be considered as containing Three-in-one J-WING and each wing consists of J-FLAME of
sub particles meant for specific “LOGIC” operation for overall existence of matters in the Universe.
i) J-Radiation has three dimensional spectrum?...
It is focused that the “J-Spectrum” shall be considered as “CIRCULAR” spectrum just like a
“CEILING FAN” having three “WING BLADE” symmetrically displaced by 120°
. The Three-in-one
spectrum shall be considered having millions of “J-Ray” spreaded over entire “Circular shape Umbrella”.
Each ray shall be considered like “Micro mosquito” traveling back and forth at the speed of “3x108
meter/sec”
“on its axis”. Each J-ray in the J-spectrum shall be considered having three-in-one fundamental elementary
particles photon, electron, proton called as “three dimensional” shape wave having pulse property.
8. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
8
j) Philosophy of “J-TREE”?...
In the so called expanding Universe the “J-Rays” in the J-Spectrum shall be considered undergone three
major genetic changes in three generation “Nuclear Age”.
The genetically varied spectrum of rays in three generation shall be considered as three species to “J-
Spectrum”.
k) J-Spectrum has any Species family?...
In the expanding universe the three species spectrum “evolved” from fundamental spectrum in three
Nuclear age shall be considered as “Three radiation families”. Ultrasound, ultra light, ultra heat particle
matter shall be considered capable of “FLYING”. IR Light, IR Sound, IR heat shall be considered as less
flying, non-flying characteristics of matter.
9. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
9
(i) J-Radiation --- origin
(ii) γ-Radiation --- 1st
generation spectrum.
(iii) β-Radiation --- 2nd
generation spectrum.
(iv) α-Radiation --- 3rd
generation spectrum.
The three generation Radiation family considers have distinguished asymmetry “Particles structure”
as detailed below.
(i)
(ii)
10. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
10
(iii)
(iv)
The three generation radiation family consider having distinguished matter “Particle – wave” property
and molecular structure.
(i) J-Radiation --- only particle property
(ii) γ-family --- only particle property
(iii) β-family --- particle, wave property
(iv) α-family --- particle, wave, non-wave property.
It is focused that all the matters up to 1st
generation (γ-family) shall be considered having “Particle
property” and flying capability at the speed of 3x108
meter/sec. During the course of “SPACE & TIME” the
matter could have gained “wave property” and the speed of matter might be gradually reduced in 2nd
and 3rd
generation. The speed might depend on the level of angular displacement between two particles.
1st
generation --- 3 x 108
meter/sec
2nd
generation --- 2.99 x 108
meter/sec
3rd
generation --- 2.97 x 108
meter/sec
Further the colour of radiation spectrum in three family might have undergone change under three
major colour.
(i) J-Radiation --– Absolute white
(ii) γ-family --- BLUE only
(iii) β-family --- BLUE, GREEN only
(iv) α-family --- BLUE, GREEN, RED.
It is focused that “Wave shape” of matter such as Triangular, Sawtooth, Square, Sinusoidal might be derived
from fundamental “J-PULSE” characteristics of fundamental elementary particles. 1st
generation human
consider having Heart beat in pulse form. - Author
l) Electromagnetic wave is of 3rd generation?...
It is focused that the mathematical model of “Wave form” adopted in Einstein, Maxwell‟s, Newton‟s
theory might have combination of particle, wave, non-wave property of matter in existence and ultimately led to
“particle – wave duality” conflicts in uncertainty principle. Ultrasound, Ultra light, Ultra Head Particle matter
shall be considered capable of “FLYING”. The so called EM Wave consider pertain to “Alpha Family”
having both particle and Wave Property.
11. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
11
m) What is smallest unit of matter?...
The smallest unit of matter shall be considered as “J-CELL” rather than “ATOM”. Atom shall be
considered as species to J-cell. It is speculated that in hydrogen atom having nucleus contains only proton and
electron in the orbit shall not be considered as atom. The hydrogen shall be considered as “TRANSIT STAGE”
from J-Matter to atomic matter. Hydrogen shall be considered as Unstructured and PLASMA STATE of
ATOM. In the expanding universe every created matter shall be considered evolved from “PLASMA
ORIGIN”.
(i)
(ii)
n) Philosophy of Light, Heat, Sound?...
It is focused that the so called Light, Heat, Sound in conventional physics shall be considered as three
distinguished energy properties of matter associated with particular family in three generations of nuclear age
under distinct pressure, temperature, density situation .
J-family – No Existence of sound, heat, light.
γ-family – only sound Characteristics.
β-family – only sound, light Characteristics.
α-family – sound, light, heat Characteristics.
o) Philosophy of space, time curvature?...
It is focused that the “expanding universe” shall be considered closely associated with relative
position of Sun, Earth, Moon in the universe. The inner core of SUN is also speculated to rotate on its axis and
completes “one cycle” in the whole “cosmological period”. The space, time curvature may be due to position of
“inner core” with reference to the “origin” point of SUN when begins to rotate first in the early universe. In
Cosmo universe MARS, SUN, EARTH, MOON shall be considered as Structural frame.
(i)
12. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
12
(ii)
p) Philosophy of Rainbow?...
In quantum physics there are so many theories about formation of rainbows and its colors. Sir Isaac
Newton described the rainbow contains seven colors according to its wave length of refraction. Resent research
in 1998 shows that higher orders of rainbow (in the order of 200) are observed and it is possible to observer
higher order by using extremely bright bell collimated light produced by laser. There are other theories for
monochrome rainbow in other region such as moon bow, lunar bow, fog bow, fire bow etc. Further research
shows that rainbow occurs not only in the direction opposite to the Sun but also in the direction of Sun as in the
case of territory and quaternary rainbows.
It is hypothesized that the seven color rainbow shall be considered as 3rd
generation rainbow and
considered as species to “WHITE BOW”. The white bow shall be considered as the perfect circular shape
behavior of particles. During the course of time in the expanding Universe the particle behavior wave shape
such as parabolic inclined nature might have been derived due to genetic variation in light in “three nuclear
age”. In other words the Universal constant in three nuclear age shall be considered as three distinguished
“LAW OF UNIVERSE BEHAVIOR”. (Doctrine of Universe)
I – Prehistoric scientific theory
II – Ancient scientific theory (Uniform microbial variation)
III – Modern scientific theory (Un uniform variation)
VI – Post modern scientific theory
It is hypothesized that the region-III of Universe is composed of billions of electromagnetic radiation in
circular form along the axis (B to A). Similarly each circle contains millions of spectrum perpendicular to the
axis (C to D).
13. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
13
q) Philosophy of planet colors?...
It is hypothesized that every planet in the region-III of Universe shall be considered as distinguished
matter created by “J-RADIATION”. It is further focused that the planets have undergone change of colors in
three nuclear age governed by each ray emitted from “J-SPECTRUM”. All planets, star particles twinkling
shall be considered having their own colour and combined effort being seen as Multicolours.
r) How does GOD look like?...
The heart of God shall be considered as the source of “J-Radiation” (or) “Virgin Light”. The God
shall be considered as having two “Wings” having infinite level of Dark matter, Dark energy required for
creation of matters and sustainability of matters. The God shall be considered as in “STAND STILL” position
with uniformly swing the WINGS up and down constantly. The Head of God having inbuilt brain shall be
considered as the “TAIL” of GOD for regulating the Left and Right Wings. The stomach of God shall be
considered as material universe where all planets, matters, life like human, bacteria, virus exist.
(i)
(ii)
i) Right Wing – Dark matter
ii) Left Wing – Dark Energy
iii) Tail – Brain (Logics)
iv) Heart – J-Radiation (Virgin Light)
v) Stomach – Material Universe
vi) Swing Wave – creation and sustainability
“In prehistoric Tamil 1st
generation human shall also be called as “AKKILEN” AKKILA. AKKILEN, Akkila
shall mean super natural human and the ruler of Universe” - Author
14. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
14
s) How the model Cosmo universe look like?...
The whole Cosmo universe shall be considered as two units (ie.) “COSMO + UNIVERSE”. The
universe shall be considered like a closed “TRIPOID” unit having three integral regions of various purpose and
each region separated by “VEIL” (Transparent white membrane). The region I, II shall be considered as having
Anti-Neutrino, Neutrino particles and Region III shall be considered as “Material Universe” where all matters,
planets, life, exist. SUN, EARTH, MOON shall be considered as the three-in-one base of universe and MARS
PLANET shall be considered as the “Heart of God” and source of “J-Radiation”. The MARS shall be
considered as the “ENERGY TRANSFORMATION” center which transforms Antineutrinos, Neutrinos into
creative “J-Radiation”. MARS shall also be considered as “Mother” of Stars and “Planets” in the Universe.
(i)
(ii)
In the material universe all the first generations shall be considered as capable of “FLYING” having
wing like hands. Subsequently in the 2nd
, 3rd
generation of “Nuclear age” the wing like hands might gradually
become “ordinary hands” and could have lost the “Flying capability”. The three generations of evolved
populations shall be considered as “three species human”. It is speculated that the first generation human might
have dwelled in MARS PLANET and upper region of universe, and subsequently descended to EARTH
PLANET when lost flying capability.
“Human also have property of particle-wave duality. ALIEN, ANGEL shall mean flying human” - Author
IV. HYPOTHETICAL NARRATION
The philosophy of nature and system in existence within the cosmo-universe narrated here is
speculated to provide better understanding for future intensive research about “REALITY” of the system nature
and empherical science. It is focused that the entire Cosmo universe shall be defined within the following scope.
i) The system nature shall be considered as having definite “ORIGIN” and closed system.
ii) The system nature shall be considered as existing with elementary TRINITY status
iii) The “TRINITY” status of nature (also called as Material universe) shall be considered under sustained
“expansion” through passage of time as determined by the “law of nature”.
15. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
15
iv) Everyday the rays of natural light considered as undergoing microbial change (Evolution) and produce
thousands of “new microbes” within the universe.
v) The expanding universe has definite “END”. But no one predicts when the universe actually comes to
an end.
The system nature and its expanding in size shall be pictorially represented as below:
b) What does mean Dark energy, Dark matter?...
Case study shows that in classical physics and modern quantum physics still there is no concluding
definition about what is dark matter?... What is Dark energy?... It is speculated that dark energy dark matter
shall be considered as having distinguished characteristics and functions in “creation” of nature and
“sustainability” of nature.
i) “DARK MATTER” is like “RIGHT HAND”
ii) “DARK ENERGY” is like “LEFT HAND”
iii) “DARK LAW” is like “SPIRIT”
iv) “CREATIONS” is like “SOULS”
v) “LOGICS” is like “BRAIN”
The creator is considered constantly swing his hands and thereby the flow of matter, energy takes place
for sustainability of universe.
c) What does mean Elementary particles and Anti-particles?...
It is speculated that “DARK ENERGY” shall be considered as the source of “Anti-particles” and
“DARK MATTER” shall be considered as the source of “Elementary Particles”.
Case study shows that Proton, Neutron, Electron are considered as standard sub-atomic particles and
current research focus that “Quarks” are considered as minute particles existing within the sub atomic particles.
It is speculated that “PHOTON” “ELECTRON” “PROTON” shall be considered as the “Three-in-
one”, fundamental particles having “symmetrically displaced”.
The elementary particles shall be considered under sustained oscillation say “CLOCKWISE” “ANTI
CLOCKWISE” direction just like in Pendulum. Similarly the Anti-particles shall also be considered behaving
exactly opposite in characteristics to the elementary particles. The elementary particles shall be called as state
16. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
16
of “ALASMA” (AL-ASMA). PLASMA shall be considered as unstructured transit stage between “J-matter”
and “Atomic matter”.
d) Elementary particles have wave property?...
It is speculated that the elementary particles, anti-particles shall be considered under “STRONG
GRAVITY” of creator and travels at speed of more than “Light” speed. The speed of anti-particles shall be
considered like “INSPIRATION”, the speed of elementary particles shall be considered as “EXPIRATION”.
“RESPIRATION” shall be considered like “SWING” function of pendulum.
e) MATTER is made up of Particles?...
Case study shows that all matters are made up of “ATOM” and molecules which consists of sub-
atomic particles proton, neutron, electron. “Hydrogen” is considered as the 1st
atom which contains only proton
in nucleus and electron in the orbit.
It is speculated that all the matters shall be considered as one time creation and contains billions of
„souls’. Each soul shall be considered as a “thin ray” consists of fundamental particles photon, electron, photon.
Each soul shall be considered as fundamental created matter called “J-MATTER”. All the initially created
souls shall be considered having particle behavior bunched together like “BEAM” spreaded over like a
spectrum called “J-SPECTRUM”. It is speculated that all the matters in the J-spectrum shall be considered
having only particle behavior and do not have wave behavior.
It is speculated that in the Cosmo universe “MARS PLANET” shall be considered as the J-matter
“energy centre” where the elementary particles gains acceleration and become various matters in the “J-
Spectrum”. The colour of J-spectrum shall be considered as “Absolute white colour”.
f) J-matter is free from Hydrogen?...
It is speculated that “J-Matter” shall be considered as made up of fundamental particles photon,
electron, proton. The so called hydrogen atom shall be considered as evolved from J-matter at later period
during expanding universe.
Hydrogen shall be considered as “PLASMA STATE” of ATOM having undefined structure of Atom.
It is further hypothesized that “PLASMA STAGE” shall be considered as the Transit stage. In other words it
shall be stipulated that all the “ATOMIC MATTERS” existing in the Universe shall be considered evolved
from its “PLASMA ORIGIN” as focused below.
(i) J-matter - Hydrogen Plasma - 1st
generation CNO
(ii) J-matter - Star Plasma - 1st
generation Particles
(iii) J-matter - Prokaryotic Plasma - 1st
generation Eukaryotic cell
(iv) J-matter - Acacia Plasma - 1st
generation Acceae.
(v) J-matter - Thunder Plasma - 1st
generation Sound (Schumann Resonance)
(vi) J-matter - Corona Plasma - 1st
generation Light.
(vii)J-matter - Thermo Plasma - 1st
generation Heat.
g) What does mean Electromagnetic spectrum?...
Scientific case study shows that Electromagnetic spectrum is considered as a band of “coloured lights”
in order of their frequency and wavelengths. Spectroscope is an instrument to study about formation and
analysis of properties of waves. Scientific study focus that the whole range of wavelengths spreaded in the
electromagnetic spectrum is classified under three main regions called UV region, RF region, IR region. As
per current theories there is no definite answer for the following:
i) What is total number of wave form in the EM spectrum?...
ii) What is the total number of colours existing in the EM spectrum?
iii) What is the total number of matters exist in the EM spectrum?
It is speculated that the total number of “spectrum waves” spreaded over entire electromagnetic
spectrum shall be considered as total “SOULS” exist in the material universe and each soul shall be considered
as representing genetic structure of each matter having its own wavelength and frequency classified in three
regions called UV region, RF region, IR region. In other words the total spectrum waves shall be considered like
bunch of “cable core” connected to the “J-spectrum” (Soul Spectrum).
17. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
17
It is focused that the Electromagnetic spectrum considered consists of Billions of “thin colour rays”
representing each matter. It is speculated that the electromagnetic spectrum shall be considered as 3rd
generation
spectrum called as “RED” spectrum. The colour of 1st
and 2nd
generation spectrum shall be considered as
“BLUE”, “GREEN”.
h) Philosophy of English word “AGE”?...
The word “age” in geology refers to indicate the length of time which is a division of an “EPOCH”. It
also refer to indicate the particular period of Nuclear age.
It is speculated that the philosophy of the word “AGE” might be derived from philosophy of when the
1st
generation matter was formed in the universe. The word “AGE” shall be pronounced in prehistoric tamil as
“AKKIE”, Akkie shall mean fundamental elementary particles Photon, Electron, Proton.
i) Philosophy of English word “WAVE”?...
The word wave refers to indicate movement of Arm and Hand from side to side (or) Back and forth
from a “fixed point”. It is speculated that the philosophy of word “wave” might be derived from the philosophy
of pendulum like sustained oscillation of elementary particles Photon, Electron, Proton..
j) Philosophy of English word “THEE’, “THREE”? …..
The word THEE in old English refers to indicate God (or) Godly person. The word THREE refers to
the state of particular level of division.
It is speculated that these words shall be closely associated with cosmology mean “Cosmo Universe”
derived from prehistoric tamil phonetics THEE, THRI (THREE)
i) “THEE” shall mean “FIRE”
ii) “THRI” shall mean “LIGHT”
18. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
18
THEE shall be considered as “J-Radiation” and THRI shall be considered as three kinds of genetically varied
“LIGHT” in three nuclear age.
k) Case study on Wave-particle duality:
Wave-particle duality is a theory that proposes that all matters exhibit properties of not only „Particles’
which have mass, but also “Waves” which transfers energy.
Case study shows that there is a fundamental question among scientists that
“LIGHT IS A PARTICLE (OR) WAVE?...”
i) Newton considers light as particle …
ii) Maxwell considers light as Wave …
iii) Einstein in his research on “Unified field theory” did not accept wave-particle duality and the double
nature of radiation.
k) Philosophy of Global Warming?...
Presently Global Warming is a serious concern and threat among global populations which
concernsabout consistent increase in “Atmospheric Temperature”. Scientists predict that the reason may be
due to “Green effect” of Green house gas and “Ozone depletion”. It is focused that Global warming shall be
considered as the 3rd
generation “CNO” Environment condition which may be due to consistent increase in
asymmetry among PHOTON, ELECTRON, PROTON Particles and growth of “INFRA RED” Higher level
of Heat Component in the atmosphere in the past 100 years.
V. CONCLUSION
1. Einstein Sir is Wrong?...
2. Tesla Sir is Wrong?...
3. Newton Sir is Wrong?...
4. Maxwell Sir is Wrong?...
5. Darwin Sir is Wrong?...
NO… NO… NO…
All are great scientists and they focused the empherical nature of matter pertain to 3rd
generation
property which accommodates as the integral part of 1st
generation, 2nd
generation property of matter. It is
speculated that all the matters in the 1st
generation shall be considered as having only property of particle, the
2nd
, 3rd
generation matter might have subsequently acquired, “Wave property” and “non-wave property”. It is
focused that Tesla, Newton, Einstein shall be considered as THREE-IN-ONE “Unified Forces Parameter” in
making the balanced law of quantum physics.
(i)
19. Matters are made of Light or Atom?!... (A new theory on Three dimensional particle wave)
19
(ii)
(i) Einstein was wrong: Aether exists - Nikhola Tesla
(ii) Einstein’s theory have fooled the world for almost 100 years - Ozo
(iii) Neutrinos travel one nanosecond faster than speed of Light. - OPERA experiment
(iv) The laws of physics wouldn’t change; only the universal constants. - Grossman
(v) Einstein may not be wrong; He probably began his experiment
in Region-III vacuum; But Aether exists. - Author
REFERENCE
[1]. Intensive Internet “e-book” study through, Google search and wikipedia
[2]. M.Arulmani, “3G Akkanna Man”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram, 2011
[3]. M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “Tamil the Law of Universe”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram, 2012
[4]. Harold Koontz, Heinz Weihriah, “Essentials of management”, Tata McGraw-Hill publications, 2005
[5]. M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “First Music and First Music Alphabet”, Annai Publications,
Cholapuram, 2012
[6]. King James Version, “Holy Bible”
[7]. S.A. Perumal, “Human Evolution History”
[8]. “English Dictionary”, Oxford Publications
[9]. Sho. Devaneyapavanar, “Tamil first mother language”, Chennai, 2009
[10]. Tamilannal, “Tholkoppiar”, Chennai, 2007
[11]. “Tamil to English Dictionary”, Suravin Publication, 2009
[12]. “Text Material for E5 to E6 upgradaton”, BSNL Publication, 2012
[13]. A. Nakkiran, “Dravidian mother”, Chennai, 2007
[14]. Dr. M. Karunanidhi, “Thirukkural Translation”, 2010
[15]. “Manorama Tell me why periodicals”, M.M. Publication Ltd., Kottayam, 2009
[16]. V.R. Hemalatha, “A Global level peace tourism to Veilankanni”, Annai Publications, Cholapuram,
2007
[17]. Prof. Ganapathi Pillai, “Sri Lankan Tamil History”, 2004
[18]. Dr. K.K. Pillai, “South Indian History”, 2006
[19]. M. Varadharajan, “Language History”, Chennai, 2009
[20]. Fr. Y.S. Yagoo, “Western Sun”, 2008
[21]. Gopal Chettiar, “Adi Dravidian Origin History”, 2004
[22]. M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “Ezhem Nadu My Dream” - (2 Parts), Annai Publications, Cholapuram,
2010
[23]. M. Arulmani; V.R. Hemalatha, “The Super Scientist of Climate Control”, Annai Publications,
Cholapuram, 2013, pp 1-3
M.Arulmani, B.E.(Engineer) V.R.Hema Latha, M.A., M.Sc., M.Phil(Biologist)
m.arulmani58@gmail.com vrhemalatha58@gmail.com