This document summarizes a survey on routing algorithms and metrics for wireless mesh networks. It discusses the requirements of efficient mesh routing protocols including being distributed, adaptable to topology changes, loop-free, secure, scalable, and supporting quality of service. It reviews several important proactive routing protocols including destination-sequenced distance-vector routing, optimized link state routing, and mesh networking routing protocol. It also discusses reactive routing protocols and examples like dynamic source routing and ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing. Finally, it examines routing metrics and their impact on the performance of wireless mesh networks.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF OLSR PROTOCOL IN MANET CONSIDERING DIFFERENT MOBILITY...ijwmn
A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is created when an independent mobile node network is connected
dynamically via wireless links. MANET is a self-organizing network that does not rely on pre-existing
infrastructure such as wired or wireless network routers. Mobile nodes in this network move randomly,
thus, the topology is always changing. Routing protocols in MANET are critical in ensuring dependable
and consistent connectivity between the mobile nodes. They conclude logically based on the interaction
between mobile nodes in MANET routing and encourage them to choose the optimum path between source
and destination. Routing protocols are classified as proactive, reactive, or hybrid. The focus of this project
will be on Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol, a proactive routing technique. OLSR is known as
the optimized variant of link state routing in which packets are sent throughout the network using the
multipoint relay (MPR) mechanism. This article evaluates the performance of the OLSR routing protocol
under condition of changing mobility speed and network density. The study's performance indicators are
average packet throughput, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and average packet latency. Network Simulator 2
(NS-2) and an external patch UM-OLSR are used to simulate and evaluate the performance of such
protocol. As a result of research, the approach of implementing the MPR mechanism are able to minimise
redundant data transmission during the normal message broadcast. The MPRs enhance the link state
protocols’ traditional diffusion mechanism by selecting the right MPRs. Hence, the number of undesired
broadcasts can be reduced and limited. Further research will focus on different scenario and environment
using different mobility model
The congestion control within the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) plays a critical role in
amending data rate to evade congestion from happening possibilities. Based on TCP communication sender
not only guarantees the successful packet delivery, but also maintains the correct sequence of packets by
receiving the frequent acknowledgement from the receiver. In this research we proposed a congestion
control scheme with modified TCP and queue length variation with OLSR routing protocol in MANET. The
TCP protocol performance is modified by forwarding busy channel signals to predecessor nodes through
intermediate nodes in network. The congestion is controlled by that novel method of detecting the node is
busy or ready for communication. If the communication is start in network and the possibility if congestion
is arise, then in that case the queue length is handle the possibility of congestion. The congestion is
minimized due to awaring about the channel busy status and nodes buffer status or queue status. The TCP
protocol is able to handle the congestion situation but i.e. completely based on acknowledgement of receiver
and also not very effective to control it. The proposed TCP congestion control OLSR routing is improves
the network performance by reducing packet loss. The performance of network is measure through
performance metrics like throughput, PDF and Routing overhead in different node density scenarios. The
performance of proposed scheme is provides the better results.
Dvr based hybrid routing protocols in mobile ad-hoc network application and c...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
A QUALITY OF SERVICE ARCHITECTURE FOR RESOURCE PROVISIONING AND RATE CONTROL ...ijasuc
Prioritized flow control is a type of QoS provisioning in which each class is provided a different QoS by
assigning priority to one class over another in terms of allocating resources. It is an effective means to
provide service differentiation to different class of service in mobile ad hoc networks. So the objective is to
achieve a desired level of service to high-priority flows so that the wireless medium is completely utilized
using adaptive rate control. In this paper, we propose to design QoS architecture for Bandwidth
Management and Rate Control in MANET. Our proposed QoS architecture contains an adaptive
bandwidth management technique which measures the available bandwidth at each node in real-time and
it is then propagated on demand by the QoS routing protocol. The source nodes perform call admission
control for different priority of flows based on the bandwidth information provided by the QoS routing.
The network bandwidth utilization is monitored continuously and network congestion is detected in
advance. Then a rate control mechanism is used to regulate best-effort traffic.
A scalable and power efficient solution for routing in mobile ad hoc network ...ijmnct
Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a very dynamic and infrastructure-less ad hoc network. The actual
network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable. MANET is a resource limited network and therefore the developed routing
algorithm for packet transmission should be power and bandwidth efficient. These kinds of dynamic
networks should operate with minimal management overhead. The management functionality of the
network increases with number of nodes and reduces the performance of the network. Here, in this paper,
we have designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Graph theoretic routing algorithm is used to develop route for packet
transmission by using the minimum resources. In this paper, we developed routing algorithm for cluster
based MANET and finds a path from source to destination using minimum cumulative degree path. Our
simulation results show that this routing algorithm provide efficient routing path with the increasing
number of nodes and uses multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster to utilize minimum power for packet
transmission irrespective of number of nodes in the network.
MANET Routing Protocols , a case studyRehan Hattab
L. Yi, Y. Zhai, Y. Wang, J. Yuan and I. You , Impacts of Internal Network Contexts on Performance of MANET Routing Protocols: a Case Study, Sixth International Conference on Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing,2012.
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF OLSR PROTOCOL IN MANET CONSIDERING DIFFERENT MOBILITY...ijwmn
A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is created when an independent mobile node network is connected
dynamically via wireless links. MANET is a self-organizing network that does not rely on pre-existing
infrastructure such as wired or wireless network routers. Mobile nodes in this network move randomly,
thus, the topology is always changing. Routing protocols in MANET are critical in ensuring dependable
and consistent connectivity between the mobile nodes. They conclude logically based on the interaction
between mobile nodes in MANET routing and encourage them to choose the optimum path between source
and destination. Routing protocols are classified as proactive, reactive, or hybrid. The focus of this project
will be on Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocol, a proactive routing technique. OLSR is known as
the optimized variant of link state routing in which packets are sent throughout the network using the
multipoint relay (MPR) mechanism. This article evaluates the performance of the OLSR routing protocol
under condition of changing mobility speed and network density. The study's performance indicators are
average packet throughput, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and average packet latency. Network Simulator 2
(NS-2) and an external patch UM-OLSR are used to simulate and evaluate the performance of such
protocol. As a result of research, the approach of implementing the MPR mechanism are able to minimise
redundant data transmission during the normal message broadcast. The MPRs enhance the link state
protocols’ traditional diffusion mechanism by selecting the right MPRs. Hence, the number of undesired
broadcasts can be reduced and limited. Further research will focus on different scenario and environment
using different mobility model
The congestion control within the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) plays a critical role in
amending data rate to evade congestion from happening possibilities. Based on TCP communication sender
not only guarantees the successful packet delivery, but also maintains the correct sequence of packets by
receiving the frequent acknowledgement from the receiver. In this research we proposed a congestion
control scheme with modified TCP and queue length variation with OLSR routing protocol in MANET. The
TCP protocol performance is modified by forwarding busy channel signals to predecessor nodes through
intermediate nodes in network. The congestion is controlled by that novel method of detecting the node is
busy or ready for communication. If the communication is start in network and the possibility if congestion
is arise, then in that case the queue length is handle the possibility of congestion. The congestion is
minimized due to awaring about the channel busy status and nodes buffer status or queue status. The TCP
protocol is able to handle the congestion situation but i.e. completely based on acknowledgement of receiver
and also not very effective to control it. The proposed TCP congestion control OLSR routing is improves
the network performance by reducing packet loss. The performance of network is measure through
performance metrics like throughput, PDF and Routing overhead in different node density scenarios. The
performance of proposed scheme is provides the better results.
Dvr based hybrid routing protocols in mobile ad-hoc network application and c...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
A QUALITY OF SERVICE ARCHITECTURE FOR RESOURCE PROVISIONING AND RATE CONTROL ...ijasuc
Prioritized flow control is a type of QoS provisioning in which each class is provided a different QoS by
assigning priority to one class over another in terms of allocating resources. It is an effective means to
provide service differentiation to different class of service in mobile ad hoc networks. So the objective is to
achieve a desired level of service to high-priority flows so that the wireless medium is completely utilized
using adaptive rate control. In this paper, we propose to design QoS architecture for Bandwidth
Management and Rate Control in MANET. Our proposed QoS architecture contains an adaptive
bandwidth management technique which measures the available bandwidth at each node in real-time and
it is then propagated on demand by the QoS routing protocol. The source nodes perform call admission
control for different priority of flows based on the bandwidth information provided by the QoS routing.
The network bandwidth utilization is monitored continuously and network congestion is detected in
advance. Then a rate control mechanism is used to regulate best-effort traffic.
A scalable and power efficient solution for routing in mobile ad hoc network ...ijmnct
Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a very dynamic and infrastructure-less ad hoc network. The actual
network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable. MANET is a resource limited network and therefore the developed routing
algorithm for packet transmission should be power and bandwidth efficient. These kinds of dynamic
networks should operate with minimal management overhead. The management functionality of the
network increases with number of nodes and reduces the performance of the network. Here, in this paper,
we have designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Graph theoretic routing algorithm is used to develop route for packet
transmission by using the minimum resources. In this paper, we developed routing algorithm for cluster
based MANET and finds a path from source to destination using minimum cumulative degree path. Our
simulation results show that this routing algorithm provide efficient routing path with the increasing
number of nodes and uses multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster to utilize minimum power for packet
transmission irrespective of number of nodes in the network.
MANET Routing Protocols , a case studyRehan Hattab
L. Yi, Y. Zhai, Y. Wang, J. Yuan and I. You , Impacts of Internal Network Contexts on Performance of MANET Routing Protocols: a Case Study, Sixth International Conference on Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing,2012.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Adaptive QoS Multicast Routing with Mobility Prediction in MANETs ijasuc
A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a collection of wireless mobile hosts that form a temporary network
without a centralized administration or wired infrastructure. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network
topology of MANETs changes very fast, making it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use.
Network control with Quality of Service (QoS) support is a key issue for multimedia applications in MANET.
Most of the real time applications have stringent requirements on bandwidth, delay, delay-jitter, packet loss
ratio, cost and other QoS metrics. This paper proposes a Multi-constrained QoS routing with mobility
prediction protocol. If the node has enough resources to transmit data packets, it uses the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to get the location information of the mobile nodes and selects the routing path
with the maximum Route Expiration Time (RET). A set of static and mobile agents are used to find the
multicast routes and transmit the packets. Extensive simulations have been conducted to evaluate the
performance of MC_MAODV using Network Simulator (NS-2). The simulation results show that the
proposed protocol achieves good performance in terms of improving packet delivery ratio and minimizing
end-to-end delay.
Packet Transfer Rate & Robust Throughput for Mobile Adhoc NetworkEswar Publications
An ad-hoc wireless network is highly different considering dynamic stochastic process of its underlying links, leads to link breaks during data transaction. Hence, to provide free flow data transaction, many routing algorithms have the property of link recovery and maintenance procedures to minimize the loss of data during transmission. However these routing method do not guarantee reliable data transmission in some special application conditions with wide requirements on Packet delivery ratio and link quality of the network. Routing is a critical issue in MANET and hence the focus of this paper is the performance analysis of different routing protocols used in the
wireless network. We evaluate the ability of a mobile ad hoc wireless network to distribute flows across robust routes by introducing the robust throughput measure as a performance metric. The utility gained by the delivery of flow messages is based on the level of interruption experienced by the underlying transaction. We describe the mathematical calculation of a network’s robust throughput measure, as well as its robust throughput capacity. We introduce the robust flow admission and routing algorithm (RFAR) to provide for the timely and robust transport of flow transactions across mobile ad hoc wireless systems.
Study of Attacks and Routing Protocol in Wireless Networkijsrd.com
Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) are attractive as a new communication paradigm. Ad hoc routing protocols for WMNs are classified into: (1) proactive, (2) reactive, and (3) hybrid approaches. In general, proactive routing is more suitable for a stationary network, while reactive routing is better for a mobile network with a high mobility. In many applications, a node in WMN is mobile but it can fluctuate between being mobile. Wireless mesh networks is an emergent research area, which is becoming important due to the growing amount of nodes in a network.
A novel routing technique for mobile ad hoc networks (manet)ijngnjournal
Actual network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable and efficient. Each routing protocol should support small as well as large
scale networks very efficiently. As the number of node increase, it increases the management functionality
of the network. Graph theoretic approach traditionally was applied to networks where nodes are static or
fixed. In this paper, we have applied the graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. Here,
we designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Each cluster supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intracluster
connectivity amongst the nodes within the cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure
handling mobility in such a way that no service disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also
achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However, for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are
connected. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop connectivity
path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling delay end-toend.
It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster communications. The
performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster communications is more power
efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power coverage. We also showed the total
number of required intermediate nodes in the transmission from source to destination. However, dynamic
behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node degree and mobility at each instance of
time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service provisioning. Our simulation results show that
the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall delay and improves the physical
layer data frame transmission.
IRJET-Mobility Aware Refined Counter Based Broadcasting Model of MANETIRJET Journal
Manjusha Deshmukh,Ratnadeep Deshmukh, Sangeeta Kakarwal, "Mobility Aware Refined Counter Based Broadcasting Model of MANET", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Vol2,issue-01 March 2015. p-ISSN:2395-0056, e-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net ,published by Fast Track Publications
Abstract
The MANET is a special type of wireles mobile network in which mobile hosts can communicate without any aid of established infrastructure. Broadcast or flooding is a dissemination technique oparamount importance in mobile ad-hoc networks MANETs are generating lots of interest due to their dynamic topology and decentralized administration Due to the mobility of nodes there are many problem occurred during the packet transmission. Basic routing protocols such as Ad hoc on Demand Distance Vecto(AODV), Dynamic source routing (DSR) could lead toissues such as Broadcast Storm Problem, Large power consumption, link failure due to mobility. Counter based approaches inhibit a node from broadcasting a packet based on number of copies of the broadcaspacket received by the node within a random accessdelay time. It relies on the threshold value to decide whether or not to forward broadcast packet. In this paper, model is proposed which refines the counter based threshold based on network density and the mobility of nodes. The paper refined the sparse threshold as low sparse threshold and high sparse threshold and dense threshold as low dense threshold and high dense threshold.
Efficient Load Balancing Routing in Wireless Mesh Networksijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Mobile environment pretense a number of novel
theoretical and optimization issues such as position, operation
and following in that a lot of requests rely on them for
desirable information. The precedent works are sprinkled
across the entire network layer: from the medium of physical
to link layer to routing and then application layer. In this
invention, we present outline solutions in Medium Access
Control (MAC), data distribution, coverage resolve issues
under mobile ad-hoc network environment based on
congestion control technique using Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). In mobile ad-hoc network issues can arise
such as link disconnections, channel contention and recurrent
path loss. To resolve this issue, we propose a Cross Layer
based Hybrid fuzzy ad-hoc rate based Congestion Control
(CLHCC) approach to maximize network performance. Based
on the destination report it regulates the speed of data flow to
control data loss by monitoring the present network status
and transmits this report to the source as advice. The source
adjusts the sending flow rate as per the advice. This is
monitored by channel usage, ultimate delay, short term
throughput.
A Survey of Various Routing and Channel Assignment Strategies for MR-MC WMNsijsrd.com
One fundamental problem of WMNs with a limited number of radio interfaces and orthogonal channels is that the performance degrades significantly as the network size grows. This results from increased interference between nodes and diminished spatial reuse over the network. A WMN node needs to share a common channel with each of its neighbours in the communication range, requiring it to set up a virtual link. Moreover, to reduce network interference, a node should minimize the number of neighbours that it shares a common channel with. The objective of a channel assignment strategy is to ensure efficient utilization of the available channels (e.g., by minimizing interference) while maximizing connectivity in the network. However, since these two requirements are conflicting with each other, the goal is to achieve a balance between these two. The major constraints which need to be satisfied by a channel assignment scheme include fixed number of channels in the network, limited number of radios in mesh nodes, common channel between two communicating nodes, and limited channel capacity. Also, a channel assignment scheme should take the amount of traffic load supported by each mesh node into consideration.
Efficient and Fair Bandwidth Allocation AQM Scheme for Wireless NetworksCSCJournals
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks are considered nowadays as one of the potential areas in research and development. The traffic management’s schemes that have been used at the fusion points between the different wireless networks are classical and conventional. This paper is focused on developing a novel scheme to overcome the problem of traffic congestion in the fusion point router interconnected the heterogeneous wireless networks. The paper proposed an EF-AQM algorithm which provides an efficient and fair allocation of bandwidth among different established flows. Finally, the proposed scheme developed, tested and validated through a set of experiments to demonstrate the relative merits and capabilities of a proposed scheme
Active Path Updation For Layered Routing (Apular) In Wireless Mesh Networkschetan1nonly
Routing is the major research issues in the Wireless Mesh Network (WMN). Ad-hoc networks routing protocols can be applied for WMN, but due to limited success & less efficiency there is need of more efficient routing protocols. In Infrastructure Wireless Mesh Routing Architecture (IWMRA) routing protocol, source node initiates a path establishing process whenever path breaks. This is not an ideal method in WMN where every nodes rather than source and destination in the path are motionless. One way of overcoming this is by initiating the local route repair by destination node. In this paper, we propose an active path updating procedure APULAR for quickly repair the broken path. Moreover, to improve throughput and to reduce the co-channel interference, we use multiple interface with multi channels. We are considering 4-hop as an interference range and will use fixed channel assignment within the mesh routers to reduce the inter flow interference. Our procedure is simulated in NS2 and compared with AODV – MI3 and APULAR-MI2, APULAR-MI3, APULAR-MI5. Simulation results show that our protocol performs better AODV in key performance metrics like packet delivery ratio, control overhead, average throughput and end-to-end delay.
International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science is an open access peer-reviewed international forum for scientists involved in research to publish quality and refereed papers. Papers reporting original research or experimentally proved review work are welcome. Papers for publication are selected through peer review to ensure originality, relevance, and readability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Adaptive QoS Multicast Routing with Mobility Prediction in MANETs ijasuc
A Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) is a collection of wireless mobile hosts that form a temporary network
without a centralized administration or wired infrastructure. Due to the high mobility of nodes, the network
topology of MANETs changes very fast, making it more difficult to find the routes that message packets use.
Network control with Quality of Service (QoS) support is a key issue for multimedia applications in MANET.
Most of the real time applications have stringent requirements on bandwidth, delay, delay-jitter, packet loss
ratio, cost and other QoS metrics. This paper proposes a Multi-constrained QoS routing with mobility
prediction protocol. If the node has enough resources to transmit data packets, it uses the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to get the location information of the mobile nodes and selects the routing path
with the maximum Route Expiration Time (RET). A set of static and mobile agents are used to find the
multicast routes and transmit the packets. Extensive simulations have been conducted to evaluate the
performance of MC_MAODV using Network Simulator (NS-2). The simulation results show that the
proposed protocol achieves good performance in terms of improving packet delivery ratio and minimizing
end-to-end delay.
Packet Transfer Rate & Robust Throughput for Mobile Adhoc NetworkEswar Publications
An ad-hoc wireless network is highly different considering dynamic stochastic process of its underlying links, leads to link breaks during data transaction. Hence, to provide free flow data transaction, many routing algorithms have the property of link recovery and maintenance procedures to minimize the loss of data during transmission. However these routing method do not guarantee reliable data transmission in some special application conditions with wide requirements on Packet delivery ratio and link quality of the network. Routing is a critical issue in MANET and hence the focus of this paper is the performance analysis of different routing protocols used in the
wireless network. We evaluate the ability of a mobile ad hoc wireless network to distribute flows across robust routes by introducing the robust throughput measure as a performance metric. The utility gained by the delivery of flow messages is based on the level of interruption experienced by the underlying transaction. We describe the mathematical calculation of a network’s robust throughput measure, as well as its robust throughput capacity. We introduce the robust flow admission and routing algorithm (RFAR) to provide for the timely and robust transport of flow transactions across mobile ad hoc wireless systems.
Study of Attacks and Routing Protocol in Wireless Networkijsrd.com
Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) are attractive as a new communication paradigm. Ad hoc routing protocols for WMNs are classified into: (1) proactive, (2) reactive, and (3) hybrid approaches. In general, proactive routing is more suitable for a stationary network, while reactive routing is better for a mobile network with a high mobility. In many applications, a node in WMN is mobile but it can fluctuate between being mobile. Wireless mesh networks is an emergent research area, which is becoming important due to the growing amount of nodes in a network.
A novel routing technique for mobile ad hoc networks (manet)ijngnjournal
Actual network size depends on the application and the protocols developed for the routing for this kind of
networks should be scalable and efficient. Each routing protocol should support small as well as large
scale networks very efficiently. As the number of node increase, it increases the management functionality
of the network. Graph theoretic approach traditionally was applied to networks where nodes are static or
fixed. In this paper, we have applied the graph theoretic routing to MANET where nodes are mobile. Here,
we designed all identical nodes in the cluster except the cluster head and this criterion reduces the
management burden on the network. Each cluster supports a few nodes with a cluster head. The intracluster
connectivity amongst the nodes within the cluster is supported by multi-hop connectivity to ensure
handling mobility in such a way that no service disruption can occur. The inter-cluster connectivity is also
achieved by multi-hop connectivity. However, for inter-cluster communications, only cluster heads are
connected. This paper demonstrates graph theoretic approach produces an optimum multi-hop connectivity
path based on cumulative minimum degree that minimizes the contention and scheduling delay end-toend.
It is applied to both intra-cluster communications as well as inter-cluster communications. The
performance shows that having a multi-hop connectivity for intra-cluster communications is more power
efficient compared to broadcast of information with maximum power coverage. We also showed the total
number of required intermediate nodes in the transmission from source to destination. However, dynamic
behavior of the nodes requires greater understanding of the node degree and mobility at each instance of
time in order to maintain end-to-end QoS for multi-service provisioning. Our simulation results show that
the proposed graph theoretic routing approach will reduce the overall delay and improves the physical
layer data frame transmission.
IRJET-Mobility Aware Refined Counter Based Broadcasting Model of MANETIRJET Journal
Manjusha Deshmukh,Ratnadeep Deshmukh, Sangeeta Kakarwal, "Mobility Aware Refined Counter Based Broadcasting Model of MANET", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Vol2,issue-01 March 2015. p-ISSN:2395-0056, e-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net ,published by Fast Track Publications
Abstract
The MANET is a special type of wireles mobile network in which mobile hosts can communicate without any aid of established infrastructure. Broadcast or flooding is a dissemination technique oparamount importance in mobile ad-hoc networks MANETs are generating lots of interest due to their dynamic topology and decentralized administration Due to the mobility of nodes there are many problem occurred during the packet transmission. Basic routing protocols such as Ad hoc on Demand Distance Vecto(AODV), Dynamic source routing (DSR) could lead toissues such as Broadcast Storm Problem, Large power consumption, link failure due to mobility. Counter based approaches inhibit a node from broadcasting a packet based on number of copies of the broadcaspacket received by the node within a random accessdelay time. It relies on the threshold value to decide whether or not to forward broadcast packet. In this paper, model is proposed which refines the counter based threshold based on network density and the mobility of nodes. The paper refined the sparse threshold as low sparse threshold and high sparse threshold and dense threshold as low dense threshold and high dense threshold.
Efficient Load Balancing Routing in Wireless Mesh Networksijceronline
International Journal of Computational Engineering Research (IJCER) is dedicated to protecting personal information and will make every reasonable effort to handle collected information appropriately. All information collected, as well as related requests, will be handled as carefully and efficiently as possible in accordance with IJCER standards for integrity and objectivity.
Mobile environment pretense a number of novel
theoretical and optimization issues such as position, operation
and following in that a lot of requests rely on them for
desirable information. The precedent works are sprinkled
across the entire network layer: from the medium of physical
to link layer to routing and then application layer. In this
invention, we present outline solutions in Medium Access
Control (MAC), data distribution, coverage resolve issues
under mobile ad-hoc network environment based on
congestion control technique using Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). In mobile ad-hoc network issues can arise
such as link disconnections, channel contention and recurrent
path loss. To resolve this issue, we propose a Cross Layer
based Hybrid fuzzy ad-hoc rate based Congestion Control
(CLHCC) approach to maximize network performance. Based
on the destination report it regulates the speed of data flow to
control data loss by monitoring the present network status
and transmits this report to the source as advice. The source
adjusts the sending flow rate as per the advice. This is
monitored by channel usage, ultimate delay, short term
throughput.
A Survey of Various Routing and Channel Assignment Strategies for MR-MC WMNsijsrd.com
One fundamental problem of WMNs with a limited number of radio interfaces and orthogonal channels is that the performance degrades significantly as the network size grows. This results from increased interference between nodes and diminished spatial reuse over the network. A WMN node needs to share a common channel with each of its neighbours in the communication range, requiring it to set up a virtual link. Moreover, to reduce network interference, a node should minimize the number of neighbours that it shares a common channel with. The objective of a channel assignment strategy is to ensure efficient utilization of the available channels (e.g., by minimizing interference) while maximizing connectivity in the network. However, since these two requirements are conflicting with each other, the goal is to achieve a balance between these two. The major constraints which need to be satisfied by a channel assignment scheme include fixed number of channels in the network, limited number of radios in mesh nodes, common channel between two communicating nodes, and limited channel capacity. Also, a channel assignment scheme should take the amount of traffic load supported by each mesh node into consideration.
Efficient and Fair Bandwidth Allocation AQM Scheme for Wireless NetworksCSCJournals
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks are considered nowadays as one of the potential areas in research and development. The traffic management’s schemes that have been used at the fusion points between the different wireless networks are classical and conventional. This paper is focused on developing a novel scheme to overcome the problem of traffic congestion in the fusion point router interconnected the heterogeneous wireless networks. The paper proposed an EF-AQM algorithm which provides an efficient and fair allocation of bandwidth among different established flows. Finally, the proposed scheme developed, tested and validated through a set of experiments to demonstrate the relative merits and capabilities of a proposed scheme
Active Path Updation For Layered Routing (Apular) In Wireless Mesh Networkschetan1nonly
Routing is the major research issues in the Wireless Mesh Network (WMN). Ad-hoc networks routing protocols can be applied for WMN, but due to limited success & less efficiency there is need of more efficient routing protocols. In Infrastructure Wireless Mesh Routing Architecture (IWMRA) routing protocol, source node initiates a path establishing process whenever path breaks. This is not an ideal method in WMN where every nodes rather than source and destination in the path are motionless. One way of overcoming this is by initiating the local route repair by destination node. In this paper, we propose an active path updating procedure APULAR for quickly repair the broken path. Moreover, to improve throughput and to reduce the co-channel interference, we use multiple interface with multi channels. We are considering 4-hop as an interference range and will use fixed channel assignment within the mesh routers to reduce the inter flow interference. Our procedure is simulated in NS2 and compared with AODV – MI3 and APULAR-MI2, APULAR-MI3, APULAR-MI5. Simulation results show that our protocol performs better AODV in key performance metrics like packet delivery ratio, control overhead, average throughput and end-to-end delay.
International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science is an open access peer-reviewed international forum for scientists involved in research to publish quality and refereed papers. Papers reporting original research or experimentally proved review work are welcome. Papers for publication are selected through peer review to ensure originality, relevance, and readability.
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IRJET-A_AODV: A Modern Routing Algorithm for Mobile Ad-Hoc NetworkIRJET Journal
Ritu Parasher, Yogesh Rathi "A_AODV: A Modern Routing Algorithm for Mobile Ad-Hoc Network", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume2,issue-01 April 2015.e-ISSN:2395-0056, p-ISSN:2395-0072. www.irjet.net .published by Fast Track Publications
Abstract
Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is an autonomous wireless network, deploy without any fixed infrastructure and assistance of base stations. Each node in network shares wireless link for interconnections and not only operates as an end system, but also as a router to forward packets. Since the network nodes are mobile, can be move in any direction with varying paces that generate high dynamicity of network so the protocols that are developed for general ad hoc networks are unsuitable for such an environment. In addition, on-hand routing protocols performance decreases as size of network increased. In this context, to enhance the recitation of routing in MANETs, we propose a new approach in this paper, named Advanced Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (A_AODV). It is a modified version of traditional AODV routing protocol, shrink the active path whenever optimal pathway is available and switches the traffic on it. Simulation studies are conducted using NS2 to prove that proposed approach enhance network performance when network size, load or the mobility increases
ANALYSIS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN WIRELESS MESH NETWORKIJCSIT Journal
There are two methods to improve the performance of routing protocols in wireless mesh networks. One way is to improve the methods used for select the path. Second way is to improve the algorithms to add up the new characteristics of wireless mesh networks. We also propose a new protocol that is used for Multi Interfaces and Multiple Channels (MIMC) named as Hybrid Wireless Mesh Protocol.
Quality of Service Routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks Using Location and Energ...ijwmn
Mobile Ad hoc Networks are highly dynamic networks. Quality of Service (QoS) routing in such networks is usually limited by the network breakage due to either node mobility or energy depletion of the mobile nodes. Also, to fulfill certain quality parameters, presence of multiple node-disjoint paths becomes essential. Such paths aid in the optimal traffic distribution and reliability in case of path breakages. Thus, to cater such problem, we present a node-disjoint multipath protocol. The metric used to select the paths takes into account the stability of the nodes and the corresponding links. The proposed technique is also illustrated with an example.
QUALITY OF SERVICE ROUTING IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS USING LOCATION AND ENERG...ijwmn
Mobile Ad hoc Networks are highly dynamic networks. Quality of Service (QoS) routing in such networks is usually limited by the network breakage due to either node mobility or energy depletion of the mobile nodes. Also, to fulfill certain quality parameters, presence of multiple node-disjoint paths becomes essential. Such paths aid in the optimal traffic distribution and reliability in case of path breakages. Thus, to cater such problem, we present a node-disjoint multi path protocol. The metric used to select the paths takes into account the stability of the nodes and the corresponding links. The proposed technique is also illustrated with an example.
Quick Routing for Communication in MANET using Zone Routing Protocolijceronline
rnational Journal of Computational Engineering Resaerch 2014, Volume 4 ~ Issue 11 (November 2014)
Abstract
The paper discusses the voltage control of a critical load bus using dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) in a distribution system. The critical load requires a balanced sinusoidal waveform across its terminals preferably at system nominal frequency of 50Hz .It is assumed that the frequency of the supply voltage can be varied and it is different from the system nominal frequency. The DVR is operated such that it holds the voltage across critical load bus terminals constant at system nominal frequency irrespective of the frequency of the source voltage. In case of a frequency mismatch, the total real power requirement of the critical load bus has to be supplied by the DVR. Proposed method used to compensate for frequency variation, the DC link of the DVR is supplied through an uncontrolled rectifier that provides a path for the real power required by the critical load to flow .A simple frequency estimation technique is discussed which are Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), ANN controller. The present work study the compensation principle and different control strategies of DVR used here are based on DFT, and ANN Controller .Through detailed analysis and simulation studies using MATLAB. It is shown that the voltage is completely controlled across the critical load.
Energy Saving DSR and Probabilistic Rebroadcast Mechanism are used to Increas...IJTET Journal
Abstract- MANETs are infrastructure less and can be set up anytime anywhere. Due to high mobility of nodes in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), there exist frequent link breakages which lead to frequent path failures and route discoveries. The overhead of a route discovery cannot be neglected. In a route discovery, broadcasting is a fundamental and effective data broadcasting mechanism, where a mobile node blindly rebroadcasts the first received route request packets unless it has a route to the destination, and thus it causes the broadcast storm problem and without consider the nodes energy level of route selection it leads to reduce the network lifetime. In this paper proposed to focus is on a two mechanism ESDSR and Neighbor coverage based Probabilistic rebroadcast to overcome those problems. A Energy Saving Dynamic Source Routing in MANETs (ESDSR) which will efficiently utilize the battery power consideration in the route selection time of mobile nodes in such a way that the network will get more life time and Neighbor coverage based Probabilistic rebroadcast mechanism, which can significantly decrease the number of retransmissions so as to reduce the routing overhead, and can also improve the routing performance. The simulation was carried out using the NS-2 network simulator.
Energy efficiency cross layer protocol for wireless mesh networkIJCNCJournal
Wireless mesh network (WMN) is a novel emerging tec
hnology that will change the world more effectively
and efficiently. It is regarded as a highly promisi
ng technology being increasingly important in mobil
e
wireless networks of the future generation. In this
paper, we consider energy management for wireless
mesh networks from a point of view that started rec
ently to attract the attention means the conservati
on of
energy for operational and the environment reasons
which is known as the Green Networking. This paper
discusses different routing protocols to establish
a protocol which considers energy efficiency. The e
xisting
protocols are compared using the basic functions of
routing and the suggest protocol is designed to
overcome some of their shortcomings. We are focusin
g on the conception of the cross-layer routing
protocol that is implemented in TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access) wireless mesh networks based
MAC protocol.
Similar to A survey on routing algorithms and routing metrics for wireless mesh networks (20)
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
Kubernetes & AI - Beauty and the Beast !?! @KCD Istanbul 2024Tobias Schneck
As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
"Impact of front-end architecture on development cost", Viktor TurskyiFwdays
I have heard many times that architecture is not important for the front-end. Also, many times I have seen how developers implement features on the front-end just following the standard rules for a framework and think that this is enough to successfully launch the project, and then the project fails. How to prevent this and what approach to choose? I have launched dozens of complex projects and during the talk we will analyze which approaches have worked for me and which have not.
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Fig. 1: Wireless Mesh Architecture [4]
Distributed: The protocol should be a distributed, as network size. This requires that control overhead should
centralized routing involves higher control in order to be minimized and routing protocol should be able to adapt
have improved reliability. As node mobility is very to the network size. In [5, 6] researchers showed that
minimal, therefore, mesh networks prefer the decentralized scalability declines with the large number of users.
routing protocol. Gupta and Kumar [7] computed per node capacity. The
Adaptable to Topology Changes: The algorithm should would be able to scale or not [8-10]. The network
adapt to minimal changes in the topology caused by coverage area results in an increase of load. In [11-13],
node's mobility. This is a substitute to the uniformly showed how to keep the deterioration to a minimum level.
distributed traffic within the network and needs The effect of physical layer on scalability was shown in
maintenance of the routing paths of all the nodes [14]. It was seen thatdirectional antenna increases
continuously. performance and scalability [15-16]. Other researchers
Loop-Free: This is a fundamental requirement of any WMN.
routing protocol to avoid unnecessary wastage of
bandwidth. In the mesh network, due to node mobility, Quality of Service (QoS): In WMNs, the quality of
loops may be formed during the route establishment. service (QoS) features requires a great amount of
So a routing protocol should eliminate such loops. A challenge due to resource limitations and node movement.
routing protocol should be loop-free in order to avoid Therefore, it is essential that QoS metrics are incorporated
wastage of bandwidth. in WMN routing protocols for route discovery and
Security: If the security doesn’t exist, then the routing is on end to end delay, bandwidth, Packet delivery ratio
protocol issusceptible to different types of attacks such and energy and mechanism overheads. Hence, it is
as spoofing and redirect messages. To prevent such mandatory for WMNs to have a proficient routing and
vulnerabilities, security schemes are required. QoS mechanism for supporting various applications.
Cryptographic mechanisms are utilized to solve security The routing protocol should ensure the required level of
issues and prevent such attacks. quality of service and that too should also be in real time
Scalability: Scalability is the protocol capability to have focused their work to study and improve QoS in
maintain its performance with an increase of users and WMN.
topology of the network decides whether the network
[17-20] have also studied the effects on scalability on
maintenance to support end-to-end QoS. QoS main focus
to support current traffic. Some of the researchers [21-28]
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Routing Protocols: The routing protocols can be number of hops for every destination. To avoid loops,
categorized into proactive routing, reactive routing and DSDV uses sequence numbers. The routing updates are
hybrid routing protocols. Some of the important protocols either event driven or time driven. Each node transmits
in these categories have been discussed below. routing table updates and its routing information to its
Proactive Routing Protocols: Proactive routing of updates are possible. The first one is full dump and an
broadcasts periodic HELLO messages, like traditional incremental update. In the full dump, the complete routing
routing in the internet, in order to determine the global information is carried and may require the number of
view of the network topology, which is useful when route Network Protocol Data Unit (NPDU). In contrast, only
establishments are needed. However, established routes, entries of available destinations with recent changes
which are cached in each node might never be used. from the routing table are sent in the incremental update.
This leads to wastage of network bandwidth, especially in When the nodes are relatively static, incremental update
high node density. In addition, in proactive routing avoids extra traffic compared to the full dump update.
protocols, there is a trade-off between the freshness of However, the full dump update is more efficient in the
cached routes and the frequency of message broadcasts. network with high speed mobile nodes. In both update
Frequent broadcast messages are useful in order for the mechanisms, the route update packet is sent with a
packet carrier node to calculate efficient routes to the unique sequence number with the routing information.
specified destination. However, this is at the expense of During the selection, the path having the greatest
high bandwidth consumption, which grants the channel sequence number is selected as the current path. If two
for broadcast traffic. On the other hand, this type of paths have the same sequence number, the shortest path
routing is suitable for real time applications (delay is selected.
sensitive services) since the route between a pair of
sources and destinations is created beforehand. In other Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR):
words, the source does not need to flood route discovery Optimized Link State Routing Protocol is built over the
requests on demand as the route is established in the link state algorithm. In this protocol, information about the
background. In spite of the low end-to-end latency of link state of every node is broadcasted to every other
packet forwarding, the recovery of unused cached routes node of the network. In OLSR, all nodes keep a track of
wastes massive bandwidth, especially in high mobile the information of their two hop neighbors. HELLO
environments. Few key examples of proactive routing messages are used by OLSR to get the information about
protocols are Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector the links. Multi Point Relays (MPR) is a vital feature of the
Routing (DSDV) [29], Fisheye State Routing (FSR) [30], OLSR protocol to minimize broadcasting. Each node
Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) [31], Source Tree selects a set of MPR among its one hop bidirectional link
Adaptive Routing (STAR) protocol [32], HEAT Protocol neighbors to all other nodes those are two hops away.
[33], Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) [34], Mobile Mesh This set can change with timeand is specified by the
Routing Protocol (MMRP) [35], Linked Cluster selecting nodes in their HELLO messages.
Architecture (LCA) [36], Hierarchical State Routing Whenever a node transmits a message, all of its
protocol (HSR) [37], Topology Dissemination based on neighbors receive the message. Only that MPR which
Reverse-Path Forwarding routing protocol (TBRPF) [38], receives the message for the first time, transmits the
Direction Forward Routing (DFR) [39] and Distributed message. Due to this, the overhead due to flooding is
Bellman-Ford Routing Protocol (DBF) [40]. In this paper minimized.
only a few important proactive protocols are discussed. Two types of control messages are used by OLSR.
DestinationSequencedDistanceVectorRoutingProtocol messages are periodically sent. The TC messages can be
(DSDV): Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing forwarded only by MPR hosts.
Protocol is proactive unicast routing protocol. DSDV is The major advantage of OLSR over other proactive
based on traditional Bellman Ford algorithm. In DSDV, protocols is that it broadcasts its link state information
every node maintains a routing table. Each entry in the rather than routing tables and messages can be delivered
routing table keeps information of all likely node in any order due to the sequence number. This protocol
destinations in the network. It also keeps a record of the is good for large and dense networks.
adjacent neighbor nodes periodically. In DSDV, two types
They are HELLO and TOPOLOGY CONTROL (TC). TC
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Fig. 2: MRP route establishment message sequence [9]
Mesh Networking Routing Protocol (MRP): Mesh Fish-Eye State Routing Protocol (FSR): In [30], the
Networking Routing Protocol (MRP) is a proactive authors developed an efficient link state algorithm that
protocol. In this protocol, to connect to the internet every maintains the global knowledge of the network topology
client chooses a gateway. In the eventuality of the node at each node and disseminates the local information to
moving away or breaking down of the gateway node a the direct neighbor nodes instead of the whole network.
different gateway is selected. The entire traffic movement In FSR protocol, the updates of link state information vary
to the internet is through the gateway. One of the with the distance.
versions of Mesh Protocol is MRP On-Demand. Towards the destination. Figure 3 shows the basic
MRP on-demand (MRP-O) [41] is a purely on-demand operation of FSR. That is, every node defines a boundary
protocol. This protocol uses the messages like Route around itself. The inner boundary is formed by the closer
Discovery Message (RDIS),Route Advertisement nodes and they receive the link state information with the
(RADV), Registration Request (RREG), Route Check highest frequency, whereas the further nodes broadcast
Packets (RCHK) and Registration Acknowledgment the update with lower frequency. Thus, the FSR protocol
(RACK). The node which is intended to join the network exchanges the link state information frequently with the
will send RDIS to its neighboring user nodes to find the vicinity nodes and with lower frequency for the further
way to the closest gateway. Here only the source node nodes. In this way, the nodes can get up-to-date link state
one-hop neighbors gets the message. The nodes information about the nearby neighbor nodes.
receiving the RDIS message respond by sending a RADV Apparently, there is a trade-off between the reduction of
packet containing the information about their current overhead and the staleness of the link state information,
routes metrics. All the neighboring nodes will send the leading to suboptimal route selection.
RADV packets with some random delay to avoid
collisions. If a new node joins the network, then all RADV Reactive Routing Protocol: The basic operation of
packets will be stored by it. Once all the RADV’s have reactive routing protocols [42-44] is route discovery from
been received, it will choose one or more upstream route source node to destination node and works in reverse to
to perform routing. Figure 2 showsthe MRP route the on demand Topology-based routing. This routing
establishment message sequence. The metrics used for solution establishes a route when a node makes a request
this protocol are hop-count, route stability, minimum to transmit packets to another node in the network.
delay, maximum bandwidth and minimum packet loss. At this time, the node re-broadcasts the requested route
The metrics used for this protocol are hop-count, route establishment to find the intended destination. When the
stability, minimum delay, maximum bandwidth and destination receives the query (or the en-route nodes
minimum packet loss. know the path to it), it responds to the source for route
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Fig. 3: FSR protocol basic operation are forwarded hop-by-hop. Unlike other on-demand
establishment between source and destination. Whenever for neighbor detection, or link status detection in DSR.
the source node wants to transmit data packets towards Therefore, DSR operates truly on demand to minimize the
the destination, it floods the network with route request routing overhead. The route maintenance mechanism is
packets. The destination sends a route reply message, initiated when a node cannot deliver packet to its
after which the source sends the data packet to the next-hop node as shown in Figure 6. This node then
destination. The advantage of this approach is that it generates route error messages towards the source node
does not maintain unused routes and reduces bandwidth to find the most viable route as shown in Figure 7. Hence,
overhead in the network. the broken link is removed from the route cache of the
Some of the important examples of reactive protocol source node.
are Ad Hoc on Demand Distance Vector (AODV)
protocol, Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) Ad-HocOn-DemandDistanceVectorRoutingAlgorithm
protocol [45], Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol (AODV): AODV is a reactive unicast routing protocol.
[46], ABR (Associativity Based Routing) protocol [47], AODV protocol doesn’t deploy flooding. AODV does not
Link Quality Source Routing Algorithm (LQSR) protocol store routing information of all the nodes, instead it just
[48], Dynamic MANET on Demand (DYMO) [49], keeps information about the nodes falling on the active
Lightweight Mobile Routing protocol (LMR) [50], route.
Load-Balancing Curveball Routing (LBCR) [51], Scalable In AODV when a source node has data packets and
Location Update-Based Routing Protocol (ScrRR ) [52] intends to communicate with another node, it initiates the
and Interference-Aware Load-Balancing Routing (IALBR) route discovery process in the network. As the source
[53]. has no suitable route for the destination, it broadcasts the
Dynamic Source Routing Algorithm (DSR): Dynamic RREQ packet contains the address of the source node,
Source Routing Algorithm (DSR) is the source based address of the destination node and broadcast id.
routing protocol where the source records the sequence Broadcast id is an identifier that contains the most-current
of intermediate nodes in a data packet which is sent to the sequence number of the source and the destination node.
destination. The basic operation of the protocol consists Each RREQ begins with the least Time to Live (TTL)
of two phases, namely the path discovery and path value. The TTL value increments by 1 if the destination
maintenance process. In DSR, a path discovery phase is node is not found.HELLO messages, are used to notify
begun when the source node without a valid path intends adjacent neighbor nodes.
to transmit a data packet to the destination node. DSR Routing tables keep records for a specific period.
applies the source routing strategy to broadcast a route A cache is maintained by each node. The cache keeps the
request message. This includes source id, destination id, entries of the received RREQs. The RREQ with the
a route record with an empty list of addresses of all greatest sequence numbers is accepted and others are
intermediate nodes and a unique request id towards the rejected. The cache also saves the return path. RREP
destination node. On receiving route request, an message is generated and is transmitted back to the
intermediate node caches the route record. Figure 4 shows source node provided the sequence number of the
the construction of route cache during node discovery. destination node is equal to or larger. This can be seen
A route reply message may be replied if the destination from Figure 9.
node is arrived. The destination node cache stores the
route record. Then it uses the cached path in the route
record for the propagation of route reply back to the
source node as shown in Figure 5. Otherwise, if this node
is not in the route cache of route request, it appends its
address to the route record and broadcasts the route
request messages. To avoid the overhead, DSR optionally
defines the unique request id for each message in the
route discovery mechanism. In addition, these messages
driven algorithms, there are no proactive periodic probes
Route request (RREQ) message as shown in Figure 8.
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Fig. 4: Constructing route cache during node discovery
Fig. 5: Route Reply
Fig. 6: Route Error between Node 5 and Node 8
Fig. 7: Route Error sent from N5 to N1
Link Quality Source Routing Algorithm (LQSR): Link LQSR allocates comparative weights to the links
Quality Source Routing Algorithm was designed by between the wireless meh nodes after the nodes have
Microsoft Research Group for their Mesh Connectivity been detected. Besides allocating weights, for every
Layer (MCL). Through LQSR, the computers are probable link the bandwidth, loss and the channel are
connected to form a mesh network using WiMax or Wi-Fi. calculated. All the nodes are conveyed this information.
The LQSR protocol is built on Dynamic Source Routing Depending on this information, LQSR uses Weighted
(DSR). Cumulative Expected Transmission Time (WCETT)
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Fig. 8: Broadcasting RREQ Packets
Fig. 9: Route of the RREP to the Source
routing metric to find the best routing path from source to Generally, TORA offers several routes from source to
the destination node. The path between two nodes may destination. TORA functions can be broadly classified
be one hop or more depending whether intermediate into three types, which are a) 1) route creation, 2)
nodes exist or not between the source and the destination maintaining route and 3) removal of route. It uses height
node. The route is amended accordingly if the optimal metric during route creation and maintenance to form a
path between source and destination is modified. Directed Acrylic Graph. (DAG) fixed at destination.
This amendment is done without interruption of the link Links are allocated on the basis of relative height of the
among the nodes. The LQSR protocol does not require neighboring nodes. Timing is very crucial in TORA as
very little administration like DSR protocol to function the height metric relies on link failure logical time.
automatically. When TORA wishes to delete the routes, it broadcasts a
In LQSR, after a node gets a RREQ packet, a link clear (CLR) packet flooding the entire network to delete
quality metric is appended for the link over which the the invalidated paths.
packet is received. When the source node gets a RREP The messages move in a downward flow that is a
packet, it contains information about link quality and from a higher height node to a lower height node.
node. To get the information about link state, adjacent Discovery and updating of routes is through Query (QRY)
nodes are broadcasted HELLO messages by LQSR. and Update (UPD) packets. The QRY packet circulates
These messages are utilized to find out the quality of the over the network until it finds a node which is either the
link over which the message was got. destination node or has route information. A UPD packet
containing the node’s height is then broadcasted.
Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm- (TORA): On getting the UPD packet each node sets its height
Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is an on larger than the height mentioned in the UPD message.
demand routing protocol. It is a distributed routing After setting its height higher, this node broadcasts its
protocol. It is designed to reduce the communication own UPD packet resulting in many routes.
overhead involved in adjusting to the changes which
occur whenever there is a change in network topology. Hybrid Routing Protocol: Hybrid routing protocols
TORA's control messages are generally restricted to a combines the advantages of both reactive and proactive
very minor group of nodes. It ensures loop free routes. routing protocols for performance and scalability.
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It provides a mechanism such that it implements proactive Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP): ZRP falls in the category
routing for the nearby and frequently used routes. The of a hybrid protocol having reactive and proactive routing
reactive routing technique is used for far away nodes and characteristics. It creates routing zones based on the
seldom used for data relay. They minimize proactive neighbor nodes hopping distance. There are two zones
routing protocol control overhead and reduces the delay created by it. One is the inside zone also called Intra Zone
in reactive routing protocol during the route discovery where the packets are sent to the peripheral nodes from
process. Examples of hybrid routing protocols are Hazy- the originating node and the other zone which is outside
Sighted Link State Routing (HSLS) protocol [54], Zone zone also called Inter Zone from where the packet is
Routing Protocol (ZRP) [55], Hybrid Ad-Hoc Routing delivered to the sink node. This is shown in Figure 10
Protocol (HARP), Hybrid Routing Protocol for Large Scale below. The zones are formed from the origin node at two
Ad-Hoc Networks with Mobile Backbones (HRPLS) [56] hops away.
and Zone-based Hierarchical Link State routing (ZHLS) ZRP is created by two routing protocols, which are
[57]. In this section only a few important hybrid protocols Intra-Zone Routing Protocol (IARP) [57], a proactive
are discussed. routing protocol used for intra zone and a reactive routing
Hazy-Sighted Link State Routing Algorithm (HSLS): used for Inter Zone, respectively. The path from origin to
Hazy-Sighted Link State Routing Protocol (HSLS) is one sink node is made by IARP. Generally, all the current
of the most efficient hybrid routing protocol for mesh proactive routing algorithms can be used as the IARP for
networks. Cowing Foundation is involved in the ZRP. For the inter zone paths, it uses IERP to find the
development of HSLS. Researchers at BBN Technologies route. The originating node generates a route request to
created the HSLS routing protocol. The network is not peripheral nodes. Peripheral nodes check their zone for
flooded by HSLS. HSLS features are built on reactive, the sink node. If the destination node is not a part of this
proactive and suboptimal routing methodology. By zone, the peripheral node appends its own address to the
restricting link state updates in time and space domain, route request packet and forwards the packet to its
the updates are combined and sent once thereby saving peripheral nodes. If the sink node is a member of its zone,
transmission capacity. it generates a route reply packet on the reverse path back
In HSLS, two proactive algorithms are integrated. to the source. The originating node saves this path and
The algorithms are Near-Sighted Link-State Routing sends the route reply to the sink nodes.
(NSLSR) and Discretized Link-State Routing (DLSR).
NSLSR restricts the number of hops for the Design Requirements and Characteristics of Routing
communication of routing information. DLSR restricts the Metrics: There are four key requirements of routing
number of times a routing information may be metrics for ensuring a good performance. First of all, there
communicated. The reactive routing is needed due to a should be route stability to guarantee that the network is
failed attempt in the usage of a nearby link. This causes stable. It means that the routing metrics should not
the expiry of the next timer, maybe to recover the change the route frequently. Secondly, WMN
information in finding a substitute route. The reactive characteristics can be captured by the metric for ensuring
routing takes place when there is a failure to use a good performance is on the paths having least weights.
neighboring link which causes the expiry of the next timer. Thirdly, for computing, the routing metrics should have
It then tries to find another route. proficient algorithms with polynomial complexity to
The main aim is to measure the global network compute paths having the least weight. Lastly, the routing
wastage. It includes transmitting route updates of metrics should precisely capture quality links and help in
inefficient transmission routes. Researchers used calculating efficient paths while ensuring that routing
arithmetical optimization technique to compute how much protocols do not create forwarding loops. For creating a
time link state updates take to transmit and what is the routing metric some important components required are
coverage of nodes link state updating. Whenever there is number of hops, channel diversity and link quality. In a
a broken connection, a local routing cache update is WMN, a good routing metric should address the
required. This is the reactive portion of the algorithm. following criteria.
HSLS provides good scalability properties and creates
good routes in real time. The data transfer and routing Intra-Flow Interference: Intra-flow interference takes
information are distributed, so it provides good reliability place due to the interference of adjacent nodes on the
and performance. same routing path. They compete against each other for
protocol called Inter-Zone Routing Protocol (IERP) [57],
9. P
O
S
Originating Node
Sink Node
Intra Zone
Inter Zone
Peripheral Node
World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
878
Fig. 10: An example of ZRP Protocol
Fig. 11: Intra-flow interference [58]
utilizing the channel. This intra-flow interference causes Figure 12 shows inter-flow interference because of the
throughput to degrade severely due to the consumption two paths namely 1 4 3 and 5 6 7. A good inter-flow
of the flow bandwidth across every node on the same aware metric should assign a low weight 1 2 3 then to
routing path. The Hop-Count of the flow increases with 1 4 3 as path 1 2 3 has less inter-flow interference.
an increase in the end to end delay. This causes
congestion. For example, in Figure 11, it is shown that the Load Balancing: It is defined as the capability of a routing
path 1 2 3 causes intra-flow interference because of the metric to balance the traffic load so that overloading of
reuse of channel 1 on the flow 1 2 and from 2 3. So the gateways in wireless mesh networks can be avoided and
path 1 4 3 does not have intra-flow interference as two the network resources are used fairly. WMNs are different
different channels are assigned between 1 4 and 4 3. than other wired and wireless networks. The environment
It can be said, that 1 4 3 is a better path in comparison to of the shared channel, presence of stationary mesh node,
1 2 3. So a good intra-flow aware interference metric traffic routing pattern from the user to gateway node and
should assign 1 4 3 a lower weight than 1 2 3. In other the usage of multi radios distinguishes them from other
words, a good routing metric reduces inter-flow networks. This unique characteristics and unbalanced
interference by selection of different channels for load in WMN causes load balancing problem. Load
neighboring nodes coming on the same path. balancing problem becomes an important issue in WMN
Inter-Flow Interference: Inter-flow interference occurs the traffic in WMNs is directed towards the Internet
due to the other flows operational on one particular gateway. This may result in an increase in traffic load on
channel and nodes are contending for that channel. some path which are connected to the internet gateway.
This is caused by the multiple flows between different Due to the unbalanced load, channel overloading,
routing paths as shown in Figure 12. This consumes the gateway overloading and center loading may occur.
bandwidth of the nodes which are on this route. Channel overloading occurs when some of the channels
Furthermore, it competes for bandwidth occupation with are overloaded as compared to other channels. Center
the neighboring nodes. In comparison to intra-flow loading occurs when the nodes at the centre of the
interference, inter-flow interference is harder to control network topology are used more during the traffic flow
due to the involvement of multiple flows and routes. as they fall on the shortest path. The traffic is oriented
as the volume of the network traffic is very high. Most of
10. World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
879
Fig. 12: Inter-Flow interference [59]
towards the gateways as the traffic is routed through Routing Metrics: It is a recognized fact that routing
them. Due to the heavy traffic volume, congestion may metrics are a crucial part affecting the performance of
occur. The focusing of traffic on gateway causes a drop wireless mesh networks (WMN). When the routing
in the packets due to the overflow in the buffer. This protocols are implemented, the routing metrics are
dropping of packets is unfavorable for the network to be allocated to various paths. Their job is to compute the
efficient. This is called gateway overloading. best routing path. They are assimilated in routing
Thus, there is a critical need to avoid congestion due protocols to enhance WMNs efficiency in terms of
to the unbalanced load. This can be done by load reliability, latency, throughput, error rate and cost.
balancing at different gateways and on the paths leading Routing metric is very essential for calculation of the
to the gateway. Congested links should be avoided by best quality path. It does so by capturing an
segregating congested links from the new paths to have accurately good quality link. To study the impact of a
load balancing. Load balancing and interference are good routing metric design, is a challenge for researchers.
related. So to solve the problem of unbalanced load, To understand these challenges the current routing
interference problem should also be examined. metrics which have been presented for WMN
Isotonicity: It is defined as the characteristic of the prominent features have been done for their advantages
routing metric by which it ensures that the order relation and drawbacks.
between the weights of any two paths is conserved if
both are preceded by a third path which is common to the Hop-Count Metric: The most common metric used in the
two paths. For example, if W (p) is the weight which is the multi-hop routing protocols is Hop-Count metric. It is
function along the path p and W (q) is the weight which used in protocols like DSDV, DSR and AODV. Hop-Count
is the function of path q, isotonicity can be defined as: A metric finds route having the minimum number of hops.
routing metric is isotonic if the quadruplet (A, , W, ) is Hop-Count can outclass other metrics, which are
isotonic and if W (p) W (q) implies W(r p) W(r q) dependent on load in high agility situations. This shows
as shown in Figure 2.10. its agility. The metric is very stable and also has the
Isotonicity is a very crucial requirement of a routing isotonicity characteristic. As a result, least weight paths
metric for the efficiency of routing protocol. can be discovered proficiently. The weakness of this
Besides these characteristics, it is essential for a metric is that it does not address interference, channel
metric to find routes with the maximum throughput diversity, varying load of the link and capacity of the load.
constantly. They should have a low packet delivery ratio These are the factors that are experienced by the links.
during the transmission of the packet. It treats all the links identical. It finds path having poor
The next section will discuss the current routing throughput and high packet loss ratio. This is because the
metrics deployed by WMN routing protocol for their links which are slower, take a lot of time to transmit
strengths and drawbacks. packets.
protocols are analyzed and a comparison of their
11. p
q
p
q
r
11(1 )
1
1
k kETX kp p
p
k
∞
−= − =
−
=
∑
1
*
ETX
M Mf r
=
*
S
ETT ETX
B
=
World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
880
W(p) W(q) W(r p) W(r q)
Fig. 13: Isotonicity
Expected Transmission Count (ETX) Metric: The ETX computation of loop free routes and least weight as it is
metric [60] was presented to address the problems faced isotonic. The weakness of this metric is that it is not agile
by Hop-Count metric. The ETX is the number of and is meant for single channel only. It does not consider
transmissions required to successfully deliver a packet links interference and only captures a link loss ratio
over a wireless link at the MAC layer. The ETX of a path thereby compromising link quality affects the link data
is the summation of ETX of every link over the path. In rate transmission. It does not calculate traffic loss rate
mathematical terms, it can be written: precisely as it doesn’t capture variation in rates of
P= 1-(1-P ) (1-P ) (5.1) network, because it does not consider varying link loadf r
where, minimize intra-flow interference as it is not able to
P = Probability of unsuccessful transmission of packet differentiate among diverse channel routes and same
in a link from node a to node b. channel routes.
P = Probability of path loss in forward direction.f
P = Probability of path loss in reverse direction. Expected Transmission Time (ETT) Metric: ETT metricr
The expected number of transmissions to account the bandwidth of different links. ETT is the time
successfully deliver a packet in one hop can be taken to communicate a packet successfully to the MAC
represented by. layer.
(5.2) (5.4)
The ETX metric for a single link is measured in terms S = Packet size (average) and
of forward and reverse delivery ratio. B = Bandwidth of the current link.
(5.3) ETT metric is got by summation of all the ETT values
where, The advantage of ETT is, that it is isotonic and
M = Forward delivery ratio is (1-P ) increases the performance of the whole network byf f
M = Reverse delivery ratio is (1-P ) increasing the path throughput by determining linkr r
ETX measures the packet loss rate. Every one is unable to avoid the routing through the nodes and links
second, probe packets are sent to all neighboring nodes. which are severely loaded. It does not reduce inter- flow
On getting the probe packet, the neighboring node sums and intra-flow interference as it has not been designed for
the number of packets received. Based on this multi radio networks.
information, every ten seconds packet loss rate is
computed. It finds paths, which have a high throughput Weighted Cumulative Expected Transmission Time
with the minimum hops because a long path will have less (WCETT) Metric: WCETT [61] was presented toenhance
throughput because of intra-flow interference. It indirectly the ETT metric in the multi radio mesh networks by taking
handles inter-flow interference. It allows proficient into account the diversity of the channels.
transmission. It leads to an unbalanced load of the
and routes through heavily loaded nodes. ETX doesn’t
[61] was an enhancement over ETX as it took into
where,
of the different links on the path.
capability. It contains all the same drawbacks of ETX. ETT
12. (1 ) * *WCETT ETT MaxXp j=− +∑
1
n
X ETT j kj i
hops on channel j
= ≤ ≤∑
1
( )
* min( )
MIC p IRU CSCL i
N ETT
i p i p
= +
∈ ∈
∑ ∑
*
S
ETT ETXjk jk
Bjk
=
B j
B jk
jk
=
1
N
RC B gj j jl jl
k
= −
=
∑
World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
881
The WCETT metric of a path p is defined as follows: (5.7)
(5.5)
where, ETT value
X = Summation of links ETT values which are on It consists of components of MIC, IRU (Interferencej
channel j in a system having orthogonal channels. Aware Resource Usage) and CSC (Channel Switching
(5.6)
is a tunable parameter between 0 1 which controls CSC = w2 if Ch Ch , 0 w1 < w2
the preferences over the path length versus channel
diversity. N is the group of neighbors’ nodes, which interferes
WCETT is a weighted average of two components. with communications on link I. CH denotes channel
The first term is usually the summation of the individual allocated for i node communication and i-1 denotes the
link ETTs while the second term is the summation of the earlier hop of i node on the path p.
ETTs of every link of a given channel. This adds channel MIC addresses both types of interference. Breaking
diversity to the routing metric causing low intra-flow into imaginary nodes through a least weight algorithm
interference. Using WCETT, multi radio wireless mesh like Dijkstra's algorithm [64], it can be made isotonic.
network's performance is enhanced in comparison to ETX, This metric is based upon the assumption that whatever
ETT and Hop-Count metrics. WCETT metric is not links are positioned in the interference region for a
isotonic and due to this, it can’t be used with link state specific link adds an equal amount of interference. It
routing protocols. Secondly, the inter-flow interference calculates total interference on a particular link through
effects are not explicitly taken into account by WCETT. the placement of interference creating nodes irrespective
As a result of this, sometimes paths are created, which of participating in transmission concurrently or not.
have high levels of interference. WCETT is very effective Intra-flow interference is captured in two successive links
in selecting paths having channel diversity as it takes only by the CSC which is the second component.
intra-flow interference into consideration. It retains the
gains of ETT metric barring isotonicity.Multi-radio Load Aware Expected Transmission Time (LAETT
wireless mesh network performance is enhanced after Metric): There are two main aims of LAETT [65]. The aim
using WCETT in comparison to Hop-Count, ETX and is to create a path for fulfilling the flow bandwidth demand
ETT metrics. It maintains a balance between delay and and to keep a space for the future needs. It is a
throughput. combination of load estimation and features of wireless
WCETT does not consider the locality information of access. It comprises of an implementation of ETT metric.
the links instead, it considers those links which are
operational on that channel. It assumes that there is an (5.8)
interference by the links which are operational on the
same channel which may lead to congested paths. It is not
isotonic as it can be seen by the presence of the second ETX = Expected transmission count on the link (j, k)
term. As it does not have isotonicity, it is not easy to use S = Size of the packet
for link state routing protocols. This metric has the same B = Bit rate
limitations as ETT/ETX metric as it does not estimate
actual link presence. Also it does not take into account
inter-flow interference effect. As a result, routes with high
interference may be established.
Metric of Interference and Channel Switching (MIC):
MIC metric [62-63] is an isotonic metric and designed to
consider inter and intra-flow interference effects besides
providing load balancing. For a path p
N = Total nodes and min (ETT) = Network’s least
Cost).
IRU = ETT * N .L L L
CSC = w1 if Ch = CHi i–1 i
i i–1 i
L
i
th
th
jk
jk
Where B is the j node communication ratej
th
= Link Quality Factorjk
= 1 for a very good linkjk
Remaining capacity (RC) for every node is.i
13. *
2
S
LAETT ETXjk jk RC RCj k
jk
=
+
( )i
EETT ETTk i
link IS k
=
∈
∑
( )
( ) , ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
IL Qjk
AIL Q N Q N Q N Qjk L j k
N QNL L
= = ∪∑
1
min( ) * min( ), ( ) 0
1
min( ), ( ) 0
ETT AIL N Ql
ETT N Ql
= ≠
= =
( ) (1 )* * max1
1
n
iAware p iAWARE Xi k l k
i
=− + ≤ ≤
=
∑
ETTkiAWAREk
IRk
=
World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
882
f is the rate of transmission of current flow Nj that travels MTI metric can be defined by the following equation.jl
across j node. The flow cost on the leftover bandwidthth
is weighted by factor . A superior communication MTI (Q) = ETT (Q) * AIL (Q), N (Q) 0jl
results in a lower usage of bandwidth in comparison to MTI (Q) = ETT (Q), N (Q) = 0
inferior communication.
LAETT is defined by: when communicating amongst nodes j and kjk
(5.9)
The equation 5.9 consists of two parts. The later part
captures the leftover bandwidth present on either sides of Il (Q) = Neighbors interfering load
the node. If there are two paths having identical aggregate N (Q) = Interfering nodes set of neighbors j and k.
ETX weight, LAETT gives importance to the path having
the greatest leftover bandwidth. LAETT advantage is that “Scaling factor is applied to MTI metric for
it is isotonic and load aware. It utilizes shortest weighted balancing the difference in magnitude of two components
routing path for balancing the network load. It also (MTI and CSC). can be represented as:
captures traffic load and quality of links. The weakness of
this metric is that it does not consider intra-flow
interference and is not considered as it does not consider
inter-flow interference.
Exclusive Expected Transmission Time (EETT): EETT Min (AIL) ”= load average and
[66] is an innovative routing metric which is interference Min (ETT) = least ETT
aware. It finds multichannel routes having minimum
interference to have a high throughput. Multi-channel The estimation of interfering nodes' load is a key
paths are given better valuation by it. The k link EETT is issue in the deployment.th
given by the following equation: ILA takes into account disadvantages of prevailing
(5.10) successfully discovers lower congested and a low level
The path’s weight is the addition of EETTs of packet loss ratio. Inter-flow interference is calculated by
complete links falling on that route. EEET has all the ILA. The drawback of this metric is that in two successive
benefits of ETT as it has been built over ETT. It is also links only, the second component CSC can capture
isotonic. It efficiently takes into account intra-flow intra-flow interference.
interference directly and considers inter-flow interference
indirectly. The drawback of this is that it does not Interference Aware Routing Metric (iAWARE):
consider load variation. iAWARE metric [68] can be said as the first metric which
Interference Load Aware (ILA): ILAmetric [67] consists WMN. The iAWARE metric can be illustrated as.
of two components: Channel Switching Cost (CSC) and
Metric of channel interference (MTI). (5.11)
CSC component can be defined by the following
equation.
CSC = w1 if Ch = Ch value is.j j–1 j
CSCj = w2 if Ch Ch , 0 w1 < w2j–1 j
CH (j) represents channel assigned for node the
transmission and j-1 represents the previous hop of the Ir =Interference ratio among two nodes a and b for a
node j along path p. link k.
j jk jk l
j ij l
AIL = Neighbors average load which may interferejk
using channel Q.
jk
L
metrics like WCETT, ETX, ETT and Hop-Count. It
interference path which has high throughput and a low
considers both inter-flow and intra-flow interference in
X is identical to WCETT. For a link k,the iAWAREk
k
14. min( ( ), ( )
( )
( )
( )
IR IR a IR bk k k
SINR alIR aj
SNR al
=
=
World Appl. Sci. J., 30 (7): 870-886, 2014
883
Table 1: Comparison of the existing metrics.
Routing Metrics Inter Intra Link Loss Ratio Over Heads Load Balancing Multi Channel Isoto Nocity Link Data Rate Multi /Single Radio
HOP NO NO NO NO NO NO YES NO SINGLE
ETX NO NO YES NO NO NO YES NO SINGLE
ETT NO NO YES NO NO NO YES YES SINGLE
WCETT NO YES YES NO NO YES NO YES MULTI
MIC YES NO YES YES NO YES YES YES MULTI
ILA YES YES YES YES NO YES NO YES MULTI
iAWARE YES YES YES NO NO YES NO YES MULTI
EETT YES YES YES NO NO YES YES YES MULTI
LAETT NO NO YES NO YES NO YES YES MULTI
CONCLUSION
SNR (a) = for link l node a’s signal to noise ratio protocols and routing metrics proposed for wireless meshi
iAWARE can capture varying transmission rates, the basis of geographical, hierarchical and multi-path
intra and inter-flow interference and varying link loss ratio routing butin this survey only the broadly classified
effects. This metric preserves all the features of WCETT routing protocols for wireless mesh networks have
barring the mechanism of countering inter-flow been considered. Also an attempt to present a
interference calculation. Average interference produced comprehensive review of popular routing metrics has
from neighboring nodes is directly measured. SINR been done.
implementation is a big step forward for minimizing
inter-flow interference routing in comparison with metrics ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ETX and WCETT. The weakness of iAware is that it does
not possess isotonicity. If a link has higher IR in The researcher wish to thank the Deanship ofj
comparison to ETT , iAWARE value is lower as a result a Scientific Research, College of Engineering, King Saudj
lower ETT path but having greater interference is chosen. University for supporting this research.
The biggest weakness of iAWARE is that it allocates
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