A Survey of Autonomous Driving: Common
Practices and Emerging Technologies
Ekim Yurtsever∗, Jacob Lambert∗, Alexander Carballo∗, Kazuya Takeda∗†
Abstract—Automated driving systems (ADSs) promise a safe,
comfortable and efficient driving experience. However, fatalities
involving vehicles equipped with ADSs are on the rise. The full
potential of ADSs cannot be realized unless the robustness of
state-of-the-art improved further. This paper discusses unsolved
problems and surveys the technical aspect of automated driving.
Studies regarding present challenges, high-level system architec-
tures, emerging methodologies and core functions: localization,
mapping, perception, planning, and human machine interface,
were thoroughly reviewed. Furthermore, the state-of-the-art was
implemented on our own platform and various algorithms were
compared in a real-world driving setting. The paper concludes
with an overview of available datasets and tools for ADS
development.
I. INTRODUCTION
ACCORDING to a recent technical report by the NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 94%
of road accidents are caused by human errors [1]. Automated
driving systems (ADSs) are being developed with the promise
of preventing accidents, reducing emissions, transporting the
mobility-impaired and reducing driving related stress [2].
Annual social benefits of ADSs are projected to reach nearly
$800 billion by 2050 through congestion mitigation, road ca-
sualty reduction, decreased energy consumption and increased
productivity caused by the reallocation of driving time [3].
Eureka Project PROMETHEUS [4] was carried out in Eu-
rope between 1987-1995, and it was one of the earliest major
automated driving studies. The project led to the development
of VITA II by Daimler-Benz, which succeeded in automat-
ically driving on highways [5]. DARPA Grand Challenge,
organized by the US Department of Defense in 2004, was
the first major automated driving competition where all of the
attendees failed to finish the 150-mile off-road parkour. The
difficulty of the challenge was due to the rule that no human
intervention at any level was allowed during the finals. Another
similar DARPA Grand Challenge was held in 2005. This time
five teams managed to complete the off-road track without any
human interference [6].
Fully automated driving in urban scenes was seen as the
biggest challenge of the field since the earliest attempts.
During DARPA Urban Challenge [7], held in 2007, many
different research groups around the globe tried their ADSs
in a test environment that was modeled after a typical urban
scene. Six teams managed to complete the event. Even though
∗E. Yurtsever, J. Lambert, A. Carballo and K. Takeda are with Nagoya
University, Furo-cho, Nagoya, 464-8603, JAPAN
† K. Takeda is also with Tier4 Inc. Nagoya, JAPAN.
Corresponding author: Ekim Yurtsever, [email protected]
this competition was the biggest and most significant event
up to that time, the test environment lacke.
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This document provides a comprehensive literature review and analysis of various traffic prediction techniques. It begins with an abstract that outlines the need for accurate traffic forecasting to address issues caused by increased road traffic. The document then reviews several existing traffic prediction methods and technologies, including fuzzy logic-based systems, intelligent traffic signal controllers, dynamic traffic information systems, and frameworks that utilize IoT, cloud computing, and machine learning. It identifies gaps in current literature, such as a lack of sensor data and advanced application frameworks for prediction. Finally, the document presents several comparison tables analyzing traffic prediction techniques based on the datasets, parameters, merits and demerits of each approach. The overall purpose is to conduct a systematic analysis of past work and identify future research
Problems in Autonomous Driving System of Smart Cities in IoTijtsrd
This paper focuses on the problems and challenges during self driving. In the modern era, technologies are getting advanced day by day. The field of smart city has introduced a new technology called ""Autonomous Driving"". Autonomous driving can be defined as Self Driving, Automated Vehicle. Google has started working on this type of system since 2010 and still in the phase of making changes in this technology to take it to a higher level. Any technology can reach up to an advanced level but it cannot provide a full fledged result. This paper facilitates the researchers to understand the problems, challenges and issues related to this technology. Shweta S. Darekar | Dr. Anandhi Giri ""Problems in Autonomous Driving System of Smart Cities in IoT"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-2 , February 2020,
URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd30079.pdf
Paper Url : https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/other/30079/problems-in-autonomous-driving-system-of-smart-cities-in-iot/shweta-s-darekar
A CAR POOLING MODEL WITH CMGV AND CMGNV STOCHASTIC VEHICLE TRAVEL TIMESEditor IJMTER
Carpooling (also car-sharing, ride-sharing, lift-sharing), is the sharing of car journeys so
that more than one person travels in a car. It helps to resolve a variety of problems that continue to
plague urban areas, ranging from energy demands and traffic congestion to environmental pollution.
Most of the existing method used stochastic disturbances arising from variations in vehicle travel
times for carpooling. However it doesn’t deal with the unmet demand with uncertain demand of the
vehicle for car pooling. To deal with this the proposed system uses Chance constrained
formulation/Programming (CCP) approach of the problem with stochastic demand and travel time
parameters, under mild assumptions on the distribution of stochastic parameters; and relates it with a
robust optimization approach. Since real problem sizes can be large, it could be difficult to find
optimal solutions within a reasonable period of time. Therefore solution algorithm using tabu
heuristic solution approach is developed to solve the model. Therefore, we constructed a stochastic
carpooling model that considers the in- fluence of stochastic travel times. The model is formulated as
an integer multiple commodity network flow problem. Since real problem sizes can be large, it could
be difficult to find optimal solutions within a reasonable period of time.
A TECHNICAL REVIEW ON USE OF VEHICLE MONITORING SYSTEM IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYIRJET Journal
This document provides a technical review of using vehicle monitoring systems in the construction industry. It discusses the challenges currently faced in construction such as monitoring vehicles, fuel waste, safety issues, and increasing demand for technologies to address these problems. It then proposes implementing a vehicle tracking system using an Arduino chip, GPS receiver, and GSM modem to continuously monitor vehicle location, speed, distance traveled and send this data to users via SMS or a mobile app/website. The literature review covers previous research on GPS tracking systems and their use in industries like mining, oil/gas and transportation. It also discusses the methodology and components of the proposed system like the GPS receiver obtaining location from satellites and sending it to the GSM modem. The conclusion is
This document provides an overview of a graduation project on vehicle infrastructure integration (VII) conducted by a team of students at Ain Shams University in Egypt. The project aims to reduce traffic accidents and monitor traffic by enabling communication between vehicles and between vehicles and roadside infrastructure using wireless technology. It discusses technical issues around communication methods, GPS tracking, microcontrollers and interfaces. It also outlines the system components, hardware, applications including intersection collision avoidance and monitoring systems, and the future work planned for DSRC and wireless communications kits.
A Novel Review On Google Driverless Autonomous VehicleKarin Faust
1) Autonomous vehicles that can drive without human involvement are being developed by major car manufacturers and are expected to be available on roads in the next 10-30 years.
2) Technologies like GPS, radar, lidar, ultrasonic sensors and computer vision are used by autonomous vehicles to navigate and detect their surroundings. Different levels of vehicle automation are defined based on the degree of human involvement.
3) The document discusses the architecture of Google's driverless car, which includes sensor, drive-by-wire and processor sections to control steering, braking and acceleration without human input. It aims to keep vehicles always connected to receive real-time updates.
Similar to A Survey of Autonomous Driving CommonPractices and Emerging.docx (20)
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 19.docxronak56
According to the textbook, the Federal Disaster Assistance Act of 1950 (P.L. 81-875) defined the roles and responsibilities during natural disasters. Once the president issued a disaster declaration, federal relief resources could flow to the affected areas for response and recovery. The president would then delegate administrative control of relief efforts to the Housing and Home Finance Administration. This law also instituted the federal role in natural disasters as a supportive role, while instituting primary responsibility for disaster response and recovery with local and state governments. How had this changed by 1978? Why did it change? Do you agree with the change? Why, or why not?
300 WORDS
APA FORMAT
.
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5 Eng.docxronak56
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice:
Social workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers:
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To prepare: Working with your field instructor, identify, evaluate, and discuss policies established by the local, state, and federal government (within the last five years) that affect the day to day operations of the field placement agency.
The Assignment (1-2 pages):
Describe the policies and their impact on the field agency.
Propose specific recommendations regarding how you, as a social work intern, and the agency can advocate for policies pertaining to advancing social justice for the agency and the clients it serves.
.
According to the text, economic outcomes measured by economic gr.docxronak56
According to the text, economic outcomes measured by economic growth is affected by a number of factors. Also, hundreds of empirical studies on economic growth across countries have highlighted the correlation between economic growth and a variety of variables.
Claims regarding the determinants of economic growth are conditional, and the findings depend on the variables used. However, the availability of physical capital or infrastructure, government consumption, terms of trade, macroeconomic stability, the rule of law, regulatory quality, government effectiveness, foreign direct investments, population size, and natural resource availability are the most consistent findings of empirical studies on economic growth.
Review the literature on economic growth and provide a summary of how:
Population affects economic growth
Natural Resource Abundance affects economic growth
Note: The answers you provide to each of these sub-questions should not be more than 15 sentences.
Also note that because this is a literature review you must cite credible sources; avoid using news articles.
The examples below should serve as a guide
Example 1: The example below shows how inflation affects investment in a study of the effect of inflation on investment.
The destabilizing effect of inflation on investment has been a major source of debate in economic and business literature. Generally, inflation is often considered a sign of macroeconomic instability and the inability of government to control macroeconomic policy, both of which contribute to an adverse investment climate (Fischer, 2013; Greene & Villanueva, 1991). However, the empirical evidence is still far from convincing. While some authors claim positive effects of inflation on investment, others hold that inflation poses a “stealth” threat to investments. For example, Greene and Villanueva (1991) argue that high rate of inflation adversely affects private investment activity by increasing the riskiness of long-term investment projects. Also, Fischer (2013) observed that inflation uncertainty is associated with substantial reduction in total investment. On the contrary, McClain and Nicholes (1993) found that investment and inflation are positively related to each other.
Example 2: The example below shows how natural resource endowments affects income inequality in a study of the determinants of income inequality.
The nexus between natural resource endowments and income inequality has also been widely debated and has inspired a long history of research in both economics and political science (see, for example, Fum and Hodler, 2010; Goderis and Malone, 2011; Leamer, Maul, Rodriguez, and Schott, 1999; Carmignani, 2013; Parcero and Papyrakis, 2016; Bourguignon and Morrisson, 1998). For example, Anderson et al., (2004) argue that natural resources endowment provide a plausible explanation as to why the observed levels of inequality are significantly higher in both sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5.docxronak56
According to the Council on Social Work Education, Competency 5: Engage in Policy Practice:
Social workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers:
Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice.
This assignment is intended to help students demonstrate the behavioral components of this competency in their field education.
To prepare: Working with your field instructor, identify, evaluate, and discuss policies established by the local, state, and federal government (within the last five years) that affect the day to day operations of the field placement agency (
Georgia Department of Family and Children Services
).
The Assignment (1-2 pages):
Describe the policies and their impact on the field agency.
Propose specific recommendations regarding how you, as a social work intern, and the agency can advocate for policies pertaining to advancing social justice for the agency and the clients it serves.
.
According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), part of.docxronak56
According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), part of being a well-prepared special educator includes “developing relationships with families based on mutual respect and actively involving families and individuals with exceptionalities in educational decision making” (Council for Exceptional Children, 2015, Special Education Professional Ethical Principles, E). This includes advocating for parental involvement by providing information on educational rights and safeguards in a way that creates accessibility and transparent IEP meeting procedures (Council for Exceptional Children, 2015).
Hammond, Ingalls and Trussell (2008) investigated the experiences of those family members who attended an initial IEP meeting and then subsequent meetings over the next four years. Their findings indicated that the overwhelming majority of the 212 family participants agreed that the child needed special education services but had negative emotional responses to the initial team meeting. Some of the most beneficial information collected included acknowledging the emotions tied to having a child initial diagnosed with a disability; stronger communication skills by education professionals during the team meeting; and additional measures to better prepare parents for the team meetings (Hammond, Ingalls, & Trussell, 2008). Similarly, the article,
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
(Wellner, 2012) was written to emphasize the importance of trust building strategies to avoid costly due process hearings and to maximize relationships with all involved in making decisions on behalf of the student with special needs.
Initial Post:
After reading the article, After reading the article,
The 5-Point Plan
, reviewing the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC) , reviewing the Council for Exceptional Children’s (CEC)
Special Education and Professional Ethical Principles and Practice Standards (Links to an external site.)
, and reading
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
you will create an initial response depending on the first letter of your last name.
If your last name begins with the letters A – M:
You will respond as one of the parent participants in this the Hammond, Ingalls and Trussell study. Begin by explaining how you felt attending your child’s first IEP meeting, using the article and the Instructor Guidance as a foundation for your narrative. Then, describe how future IEP meeting experiences changed (improved or declined) and why. Finally, using the
CEC Professional Practice Standards for Parents and Families (Links to an external site.)
and
Building Parent Trust in the Special Education Setting (Links to an external site.)
, provide at least three suggestions to the special education team leader for how to improve this experience for parents of newly diagnosed children with disabilities.
.
According to the article, Answer these two questions. Why did Ma.docxronak56
According to the article, Answer these two questions.
Why did Marx believe that capitalism would fall on its own? Why did his predictions not come true? (hint: how has the economy changed since Marx’s time?
Describe Robert Owen’s “New Lanark” community? What were his innovations? Did he suspend either private property or market economics? Are there people today who follow a similar business model?
.
According to Neuman’s theory, a human being is a total person as a c.docxronak56
According to Neuman’s theory, a human being is a total person as a client system and the person is a layered, multidimensional being. Each layer consists of a five-person variable or subsystem: (1) physiological, (2) psychological, (3) sociocultural, (4) developmental, and (5) spiritual.
Considering the 'spiritual' variable- Do you feel this variable exists at all? Does it have as wide-ranging results as Neuman claims? Is it appropriate for an APRN to participate in or work with the patient’s spiritual dimension?
.
According to Rolando et al. (2012), alcohol socialization is the pr.docxronak56
According to Rolando et al. (2012), “alcohol socialization is the process by which a person approaches and familiarizes with alcohol learns about the values connected to its use and about how, when and where s/he can or cannot drink.”
Based on the focus group findings, describe what the first drink means in both Italy and Finland, and what types of attitudes are connected with different types of socialization processes.
.
According to your readings, cloud computing represents one of th.docxronak56
According to your readings, cloud computing represents one of the most significant paradigms shifts in information technology (IT) history, due to an extension of sharing an application-hosting provider that has been around for many years, and was common in highly regulated vertical industries like banks and health care institutions. The author’s knowledge from their research continue to assert that, the impetus behind cloud computing lies on the idea that it provides economies of scale by spreading costs across many client organizations and pooling computing resources while matching client computing needs to consumption in a flexible, real-time version.
Identify the issues and risks that pose concern to organizations storing data in the cloud - briefly support your discussion.
.
According to this idea that gender is socially constructed, answer.docxronak56
According to this idea that gender is socially constructed, answer the following questions:
1. What does it mean to be a man in the U.S.? What does it mean to be a woman?
2. From what institutions do we learn these gender roles?
3. How do these clips demonstrate the ways in which gender is socially constructed in the U.S.? Do the concepts discussed in the clips resonate with you? Why or why not?
In Persepolis, the main character Marji struggles to define her identity as an Iranian woman in a changing society.
· What roles are depicted for women in Iranian society in the film? How do they change over time?
· How does Persepolis demonstrate the ways in which gender and identity are influenced in many ways, by different processes across cultures? How are gender roles in Iran similar, or different to gender in the U.S.?
· What are some of the stereotypes that exist about Muslim women and how does Abu-Lughod in “Do Muslim Women Need Saving” and Persepolis complicate these stereotypes?
Answer the following questions 2 full pages
Running head: MAJOR HEALTH CARE PROBLEMS IN THE U.S. 1
Major Health Care Problems in the U.S.
Jane Doe
ID: 1212121
MAJOR HEALTH CARE PROBLEMS IN THE U.S. 2
Major Health Care Problems in the US
Problem statement: High and continuously rising cost of health care has been and still is one of
the biggest challenges affecting the Health Care system in United States.
Methods of Examining the Problem
Both qualitative and quantitative research methods should be used to fully understand the
issue of high cost of care in the US. Quantitative methods like surveys and experimentations will
aid in estimating the prevalence, magnitude and frequency of the problem in different regions.
On the other hand, qualitative methods like case studies and observation will help describe the
extent and complexity of the issue. The two approaches need to work in complementation to
obtain a clear understanding of this menace.
Surveys, as a quantitative research method, is one of the most effective in the social
research and present a more viable method of examining the cost of health in the country. They
involve asking of questions in the form of questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaires are
written questions to which the response can be open ended or multiple-choice format. This
would be used to gain information about cost within determinants that are of
disagree/neutral/agree nature. An example is if patients are contented with the cost of services
they get or they deem the cost of cover worthy. Interviews, the researcher discussing issues with
the respondents, are to be used to gain more details on already known aspects of the system. This
may include gathering information to inform policies, administration and use of technology to
minimize the cost of care.
Since health cost in the US is not a new challenge and there have been studies about it,
qualitative methods like .
According to Thiel (2015, p. 40), CSR literature lacks consensus fo.docxronak56
According to Thiel (2015, p. 40), “CSR literature lacks consensus for a standard definition. Typically, many people who are familiar with the concept will initially define CSR within the three domains of the social, economic and natural environments.”
Come up with your own definition of what you believe is a good definition of CSR that you would like your company to follow.
Afterward, explain each part of your definition and why you believe it is best.
.
According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines are t.docxronak56
According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines are the three most popular countries for IT outsourcing. Write a short paper (2-4 paragraphs) explaining what the appeal would be for US companies to outsource IT functions to these countries. You may discuss cost, labor pool, language, or possibly government support as your reasons. There are many other reasons you may choose to highlight in your paper.
.
According to Rolando et al. (2012), alcohol socialization is th.docxronak56
According to Rolando et al. (2012), “alcohol socialization is the process by which a person approaches and familiarizes with alcohol learns about the values connected to its use and about how, when and where s/he can or cannot drink.”
Based on the focus group findings, describe what the first drink means in both Italy and Finland, and what types of attitudes are connected with different types of socialization processes. Respond to two posts identifying how positive values can be connected to first memories of drinking.
.
According to the author, Social Security is an essential program, .docxronak56
According to the author, Social Security is an essential program, but its future is looking unpromising unless we start by eliminating the payroll tax cap.
In the author’s proposal to keep the funding open, the author proposes the acceptance of Bernie Sanders’ “Keeping Our Social Security Promises Act,” which the author suggests would removes the payroll tax cap. To elaborate further, the author stated that the reason for the cap on the social security is because of the uneven amount of participation during elections which makes the rich influential in governance. The author stated that, research have found that the rich who made over $125,000 contributed 35% in campaigns. According to the author, this act causes a major problem regarding the shaping of the social security because people with lower income would not be able to contribute that amount of money towards campaigns. The author also states that it causes greater income equality, since those who contribute are rich and as a matter of fact get more benefits from political power in the form of payroll tax cap. This in the authors words, compromises the state of social welfare in the United States because those active in politics don’t have the same views as the poor who are focused on housing, poverty, and health. Congressional Research Service was used to predicts that, if tax cap is not removed, there will be a permanent increase of tax rate from 12.4% to 15.1% which would hurt people making less than the current tax cap currently at $132,900 or, cutting benefits by 20% in 2035 and continuously rising every year.
In as much as the author makes a good point on the percentage of rich people that donated to campaign, the author failed to state how much the rich get in payroll tax cap since that is a major part of the authors argument. The authors failed to indicate how an increase in tax rate would affect people making less than the current tax cap which is $132,900. To sum it up, the author failed to expand and give more numeric evidence to support the argument.
In addition, to provide a guideline in eliminating payroll tax cap, the author suggested a bill introduced by Bernie Sanders called, Keeping Our Social Security Promises Act. The bill according to the author seeks to remove the cap placed on payroll taxes. The author further stated the bill will help Solvency to expand for 75 years without increasing taxes for those who earn less than $250,000, the only people who will see a change are those earn more than $250,000. According to the Congressional Research Service as stated by the author, removing the cap would eliminate 84% of the projected shortfall. The author stated that, the top 200 CEOs would have to contributed $341,291,106 towards Social Security when the tax cap is removed. In addition, the author stated that, removing the cap would eliminate 84% of the projected shortfall. The author proposes an increase in the taxable payroll from 12.40% to 12.83% to keep it solvent.
According to Morrish, the blame for the ever-growing problem of disc.docxronak56
According to Morrish, the blame for the ever-growing problem of discipline in schools rests at least in part on popular discipline theories, which he believes have gone to excess in allowing students to make choices concerning how they will conduct themselves in school. What are your thoughts about Morrish’s ideas?
.
According to DuBrin (2015), Cultural intelligence is an outsiders .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), "Cultural intelligence is an outsider's ability to interpret someone's unfamiliar and ambiguous behavior the same way that person's compatriots would" (p. 177). In this case, how would you incorporate cultural intelligence within a team setting? Please explain.
Your journal entry must be at least 200 words
.
According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture are the shared.docxronak56
According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture are the shared beliefs and values among a group of people which influences how they perceive, think, and react in the organization. There are four types of organizational culture:
Clan-Internal focus that values flexibility
Adhocracy-A risk taking culture with an external focus on flexibility
Market-A competitive culture with an external focus on profits over employee satisfaction
Hierarchy-A structured culture valuing stability and effectiveness internally
How would you describe the organizational culture of a pr
evious or current place of employment? And why?
Do you think this type of culture is best suited to help the company achieve its strategic goals? Explain.
.
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are identified for enhancing your career:
develop career goals,
capitalize on your strengths and build your personal brand,
be passionate about and proud of your work,
develop a code of professional ethics and prosocial motivation,
develop a proactive personality,
keep growing through continuous learning and self-development,
document your accomplishments,
project a professional image, and
perceive yourself as a provider of services. (p. 430)
Identify and explain three career-enhancing techniques or tactics in advancing your career.
Your essay should be at least two pages and should include an introduction, a body of supported material (paragraphs), and a conclusion. Be sure to include two references (on a reference page), and follow all other APA formatting requirements. The reference page does not count toward the total page requirement.
Be sure to apply the proper APA format for the content and references provided.
.
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics .docxronak56
According to DuBrin (2015), the following strategies or tactics are identified for enhancing your career:
develop career goals,
capitalize on your strengths and build your personal brand,
be passionate about and proud of your work,
develop a code of professional ethics and prosocial motivation,
develop a proactive personality,
keep growing through continuous learning and self-development,
document your accomplishments,
project a professional image, and
perceive yourself as a provider of services. (p. 430)
Identify and explain three career-enhancing techniques or tactics in advancing your career.
Your essay should be at least two pages and should include an introduction, a body of supported material (paragraphs), and a conclusion. Be sure to include two references (on a reference page), and follow all other APA formatting requirements.
.
Access the Mental Measurements Yearbook, located in the Univer.docxronak56
Access
the Mental Measurements Yearbook, located in the University Library.
Select
two assessments of intelligence and two achievement tests.
Prepare
a 13 slide presentation about your selected instruments. In your analysis, address the following:
Critique the major definitions of intelligence. Determine which theory of intelligence best fits your selected instruments. Explain how the definition and the measures are related.
Evaluate the measures of intelligence you selected for reliability, validity, normative procedures, and bias.
Your selected intelligence and achievement assessments. How are the goals of the tests similar and different? How are the tests used? What are the purposes of giving these differing tests?
.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Juneteenth Freedom Day 2024 David Douglas School District
A Survey of Autonomous Driving CommonPractices and Emerging.docx
1. A Survey of Autonomous Driving: Common
Practices and Emerging Technologies
Ekim Yurtsever∗ , Jacob Lambert∗ , Alexander Carballo∗ ,
Kazuya Takeda∗ †
Abstract—Automated driving systems (ADSs) promise a safe,
comfortable and efficient driving experience. However,
fatalities
involving vehicles equipped with ADSs are on the rise. The full
potential of ADSs cannot be realized unless the robustness of
state-of-the-art improved further. This paper discusses unsolved
problems and surveys the technical aspect of automated driving.
Studies regarding present challenges, high-level system
architec-
tures, emerging methodologies and core functions: localization,
mapping, perception, planning, and human machine interface,
were thoroughly reviewed. Furthermore, the state-of-the-art was
implemented on our own platform and various algorithms were
compared in a real-world driving setting. The paper concludes
with an overview of available datasets and tools for ADS
development.
I. INTRODUCTION
ACCORDING to a recent technical report by the
NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 94%
of road accidents are caused by human errors [1]. Automated
driving systems (ADSs) are being developed with the promise
of preventing accidents, reducing emissions, transporting the
mobility-impaired and reducing driving related stress [2].
Annual social benefits of ADSs are projected to reach nearly
2. $800 billion by 2050 through congestion mitigation, road ca-
sualty reduction, decreased energy consumption and increased
productivity caused by the reallocation of driving time [3].
Eureka Project PROMETHEUS [4] was carried out in Eu-
rope between 1987-1995, and it was one of the earliest major
automated driving studies. The project led to the development
of VITA II by Daimler-Benz, which succeeded in automat-
ically driving on highways [5]. DARPA Grand Challenge,
organized by the US Department of Defense in 2004, was
the first major automated driving competition where all of the
attendees failed to finish the 150-mile off-road parkour. The
difficulty of the challenge was due to the rule that no human
intervention at any level was allowed during the finals. Another
similar DARPA Grand Challenge was held in 2005. This time
five teams managed to complete the off-road track without any
human interference [6].
Fully automated driving in urban scenes was seen as the
biggest challenge of the field since the earliest attempts.
During DARPA Urban Challenge [7], held in 2007, many
different research groups around the globe tried their ADSs
in a test environment that was modeled after a typical urban
scene. Six teams managed to complete the event. Even though
∗ E. Yurtsever, J. Lambert, A. Carballo and K. Takeda are with
Nagoya
University, Furo-cho, Nagoya, 464-8603, JAPAN
† K. Takeda is also with Tier4 Inc. Nagoya, JAPAN.
Corresponding author: Ekim Yurtsever, [email protected]
this competition was the biggest and most significant event
up to that time, the test environment lacked certain aspects
of a real-world urban driving scene such as pedestrians and
cyclists. Nevertheless, the fact that six teams managed to
complete the challenge attracted significant attention. After
DARPA Urban Challenge, several more automated driving
3. competitions such as [8]–[10] were held in different countries.
Common practices in system architecture have been estab-
lished over the years. Most of the ADSs divide the massive
task of automated driving into subcategories and employ an
array of sensors and algorithms on various modules. More
recently, end-to-end driving systems started to emerge as an
alternative to modular approaches. Deep learning models have
become dominant in many of these tasks [11]. A high level
classification of ADS architectures is given in Figure 1.
The accumulated knowledge in vehicle dynamics, break-
throughs in computer vision caused by the advent of deep
learning [12] and availability of new sensor modalities, such
as lidar [13], catalyzed ADS research and industrial imple-
mentation. Furthermore, an increase in public interest and
market potential precipitated the emergence of ADSs with
varying degrees of automation. However, robust automated
driving in urban environments has not been achieved yet [14].
Accidents caused by immature systems [15]–[18] undermine
trust, and furthermore, they cost lives. As such, a thorough
investigation of unsolved challenges and the state-of-the-art is
deemed necessary here.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) refers to
hardware-software systems that can execute dynamic driving
tasks (DDT) on a sustainable basis as ADS [19]. There are also
vernacular alternative terms such as ”autonomous driving” and
”self-driving car” in use. Nonetheless, despite being commonly
used, SAE advices not to use them as these terms are unclear
and misleading. In this paper we follow SAE’s convention.
The present paper attempts to provide a structured and com-
prehensive overview of the hardware-software architectures of
state-of-the-art ADSs. Moreover, emerging trends such as end-
to-end driving and connected systems are discussed in detail.
4. There are overview papers on the subject, which covered
several core functions [20], [21], and which concentrated on
the motion planning aspect [22], [23]. However, a survey that
covers: present challenges, available and emerging high-level
system architectures, individual core functions such as local-
ization, mapping, perception, planning, vehicle control, and
human-machine interface altogether does not exist. The aim
of this paper is to fill this gap in the literature with a thorough
survey. In addition, a detailed summary of available datasets,
software stacks, and simulation tools is presented here. An-
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TABLE I: Comparison of survey papers
Related work Survey coverage
Connected
systems
End-to-end Localization Perception Assessment Planning
Control HMI Datasets &
software
Implementation
[20] - - X X - X X - - X
[21] - - X X - X - - - -
[22] - - - - - X X - - -
[23] - - - - - X - - - -
[24] X X X X - - - - - -
[25] X - X - - - - - X -
[26] X - - - - - - - - -
[27] - - X X - X X - - X
[28] - X - - X X X - - -
Ours X X X X X X - X X X
other contribution of this paper is the detailed comparison and
analysis of alternative approaches through implementation. We
implemented the state-of-the-art in our platform using open-
6. source software. Comparison of existing overview papers and
our work is shown in Table I.
The reminder of this paper is written in eight sections.
Section II is an overview of present challenges. Details of
automated driving system components and architectures are
given in Section III. Section IV presents a summary of state-
of-the-art localization techniques followed by Section V, an in-
depth review of perception models. Assessment of the driving
situation and planning are discussed in Section VI and VII
respectively. In Section VIII, current trends and shortcomings
of human machine interface are introduced. Datasets and
available tools for developing automated driving systems are
given in Section IX.
II. PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES
A. Social impact
Widespread usage of ADSs is not imminent, yet, it is still
possible to foresee the potential impact and benefits of it to a
certain degree.
1) Problems that can be solved: preventing traffic acci-
dents, mitigating traffic congestions, reducing emissions
2) Arising opportunities: reallocation of driving time, trans-
porting the mobility impaired
3) New trends: consuming Mobility as a Service (MaaS),
logistics revolution
Widespread deployment of ADSs can reduce the societal
loss caused by erroneous human behavior such as distraction,
driving under influence and speeding [3].
Globally, the elder group (over 60 years old) is growing
7. faster than the younger groups [29]. Increasing the mobility
of elderly with ADSs can have a huge impact on the quality
of life and productivity of a large portion of the population.
A shift from personal vehicle-ownership towards consuming
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an emerging trend. Currently,
ride-sharing has lower costs compared to vehicle-ownership
under 1000 km annual mileage [30]. The ratio of owned to
shared vehicles is expected to be 50:50 by 2030 [31]. Large
scale deployment of ADSs can accelerate this trend.
B. Challenges
ADSs are complicated robotic systems that operate in inde-
terministic environments. As such, there are myriad scenarios
with unsolved issues. This section discusses the high level
challenges of driving automation in general. More minute,
task-specific details are discussed in corresponding sections.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) defined five
levels of driving automation in [19]. In this taxonomy, level
zero stands for no automation at all. Primitive driver assistance
systems such as adaptive cruise control, anti-lock braking
systems and stability control start with level one [32]. Level
two is partial automation to which advanced assistance systems
such as emergency braking or collision avoidance [33], [34]
are integrated. With the accumulated knowledge in the vehicle
control field and the experience of the industry, level two
automation became a feasible technology. The real challenge
starts above this level.
Level three is conditional automation; the driver could focus
on tasks other than driving during normal operation, however,
s/he has to quickly respond to an emergency alert from the
vehicle and be ready to take over. In addition, level three ADS
8. operate only in limited operational design domains (ODDs)
such as highways. Audi claims to be the first production car to
achieve level 3 automation in limited highway conditions [35].
However, taking over the control manually from the automated
mode by the driver raises another issue. Recent studies [36],
[37] investigated this problem and found that the takeover
situation increases the collision risk with surrounding vehicles.
The increased likelihood of an accident during a takeover is a
problem that is yet to be solved.
Human attention is not needed in any degree at level four
and five. However, level four can only operate in limited ODDs
where special infrastructure or detailed maps exist. In the case
of departure from these areas, the vehicle must stop the trip
by automatically parking itself. The fully automated system,
level five, can operate in any road network and any weather
condition. No production vehicle is capable of level four or
level five driving automation yet. Moreover, Toyota Research
Institute stated that no one in the industry is even close to
attaining level five automation [38].
Level four and above driving automation in urban road
networks is an open and challenging problem. The envi-
ronmental variables, from weather conditions to surrounding
human behavior, are highly indeterministic and difficult to
predict. Furthermore, system failures lead to accidents: in the
Hyundai competition one of the ADSs crashed because of rain
[15], Google’s ADS hit a bus while lane changing because it
failed to estimate the speed of a bus [16], and Tesla’s Autopilot
failed to recognize a white truck and collided with it, killing
Fig. 1: A high level classification of automated driving system
architectures
9. Fig. 2: A generic end-to-end system information flow diagram
the driver [17].
Fatalities [17], [18] caused by immature ADSs undermine
trust. According to a recent survey [30], the majority of
consumers question the safety of the technology, and they want
a significant amount of control over the development and use
of ADS. On the other hand, extremely cautious ADSs are also
making a negative impression [39].
Ethical dilemmas pose another set of challenges. In an
inevitable accident situation, how should the system behave
[40]? Experimental ethics were proposed regarding this issue
[41].
Risk and reliability certification is another task yet to be
solved. Like in aircraft, ADSs need to be designed with high
redundancies that will minimize the chance of a catastrophic
failure. Even though there is promising projects in this regard
such as DeepTest [42], the design-simulation-test-redesign-
certification procedure is still not established by the industry
nor the rule-makers.
Finally, various optimization goals such as time to reach the
destination, fuel efficiency, comfort, and ride-sharing optimiza-
tion increases the complexity of an already difficult to solve
problem. As such, carrying all of the dynamic driving tasks
safely under strict conditions outside a well defined, geofenced
area has not been achieved yet and stays as an open problem.
III. SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND ARCHITECTURE
A. System architecture
Classification of system architectures is shown in Figure
10. 1. ADSs are designed either as standalone, ego-only sys-
tems [20], [43] or connected multi-agent systems [44]–[46].
Furthermore, these design philosophies are realized with two
alternative approaches: modular [20], [43], [47]–[54] or end-
to-end designs [55]–[63].
TABLE II: End-to-end driving architectures
Related
works Learning/training strategy Pros/cons
[55]–[59] Direct supervised deep
learning
Imitates the target data:
usually a human driver. Can
be trained offline. Poor
generalization performance.
[60], [61] Deep reinforcement learning Learns the optimum way
of
driving. Requires online
interaction. Urban driving has
not been achieved yet
[62], [63] Neuroevolution No backpropagation. Requires
online interaction. Real world
driving has not been achieved
yet.
1) Ego-only systems: The ego-only approach is to carry
all of the necessary automated driving operations on a single
self-sufficient vehicle at all times, whereas a connected ADS
11. may or may not depend on other vehicles and infrastructure
elements given the situation. Ego-only is the most common
approach amongst the state-of-the-art ADSs [20], [43], [47]–
[52], [52]–[54]. We believe this is due to the practicality
of having a self-sufficient platform for development and the
additional challenges of connected systems.
2) Modular systems: Modular systems, referred as the
mediated approach in some works [55], are structured as a
pipeline of separate components linking sensory inputs to
actuator outputs [11]. Core functions of a modular ADS
can be summarized as: localization and mapping, perception,
assessment, planning and decision making, vehicle control,
and human-machine interface. Typical pipelines [20], [43],
[47]–[52], [52]–[54] start with feeding raw sensor inputs to
localization and object detection modules, followed by scene
prediction and decision making. Finally, motor commands are
generated at the end of the stream by the control module [11],
[64].
Developing individual modules separately divides the chal-
lenging task of automated driving into an easier-to-solve set
of problems [65]. These sub-tasks have their corresponding
literature in robotics [66], computer vision [67] and vehicle
dynamics [32], which makes the accumulated know-how and
expertise directly transferable. This is a major advantage of
modular systems. In addition, functions and algorithms can
be integrated or build upon each other in a modular design.
E.g, a safety constraint [68] can be implemented on top of
a sophisticated planning module to force some hard-coded
emergency rules without modifying the inner workings of
the planner. This enables designing redundant but reliable
architectures.
The major disadvantages of modular systems are being
prone to error propagation [11] and over-complexity. In the
12. unfortunate Tesla accident, an error in the perception module,
misclassification of a white trailer as sky, propagated down
the pipeline until failure, causing the first ADS related fatality
[42].
3) End-to-end systems: End-to-end driving systems, re-
ferred as direct perception in some studies [55], generate
ego-motion directly from sensory inputs. Ego-motion can be
either the continuous operation of steering wheel and pedals
or a discrete set of actions, e.g, acceleration and turning left.
There are three main approaches for end-to-end driving: direct
supervised deep learning [55]–[59], neuroevolution [62], [63]
and the more recent deep reinforcement learning [60], [61].
The flow diagram of a generic end-to-end driving system is
shown in Figure 2 and comparison of the approaches is given
in Table II.
The earliest end-to-end driving system dates back to
ALVINN [56], where a 3-layer fully connected network was
trained to output the direction that the vehicle should follow.
An end-to-end system for off-road driving was introduced in
[57]. With the advances in artificial neural network research,
deep convolutional and temporal networks became feasible
for automated driving tasks. A deep convolutional neural
network that takes image as input and outputs steering was
proposed in [58]. A spatiotemporal network, an FCN-LSTM
architecture, was developed for predicting ego-vehicle motion
in [59]. DeepDriving is another convolutional model that tries
to learn a set of discrete perception indicators from the image
input [55]. This approach is not entirely end-to-end though,
the proper driving actions in the perception indicators have
to be generated by another module. All of the mentioned
methods follow direct supervised training strategies. As such,
13. ground truth is required for training. Usually, the ground truth
is the ego-action sequence of an expert human driver and the
network learns to imitate the driver. This raises an import
design question: should the ADS drive like a human?
A novel deep reinforcement learning model, Deep Q Net-
works (DQN), combined reinforcement learning with deep
learning [69]. In summary, the goal of the network is to select
a set of actions that maximize cumulative future rewards. A
deep convolutional neural network was used to approximate
the optimal action reward function. Actions are generated
first with random initialization. Then, the network adjust
its parameters with experience instead of direct supervised
learning. An automated driving framework using DQN was
introduced in [60], where the network was tested in a sim-
ulation environment. The first real world run with DQN was
achieved in a countryside road without traffic [61]. DQN based
systems do not imitate the human driver, instead, they learn
the ”optimum” way of driving.
Neuroevolution refers to using evolutionary algorithms to
train artificial neural networks [70]. End-to-end driving with
neuroevolution is not popular as DQN and direct supervised
learning. To the best of our knowledge, real world end-to-
end driving with neuroevolution is not achieved yet. However,
some promising simulation results were obtained [62], [63].
ALVINN was trained with neuroevolution and outperformed
the direct supervised learning version [62]. A RNN was
trained with neuroevolution in [63] using a driving simulator.
The biggest advantage of neuroevolution is the removal of
backpropagation, hence, the need for direct supervision.
End-to-end driving is promising, however it has not been
implemented in real-world urban scenes yet, except limited
demonstrations. The biggest shortcomings of end-to-end sys-
tems in general are the lack of hard coded safety measures and
14. interpretability [65]. In addition, DQN and neuroevolution has
one major disadvantage over direct supervised learning: these
networks must interact with the environment online and fail
a lot to learn the desired behavior. On the contrary, direct
supervised networks can be trained offline with labeled data.
4) Connected systems: There is no operational connected
ADS in use yet, however, some researchers [44]–[46] be-
lieve this emerging technology will be the future of driving
automation. With the use of Vehicular Ad hoc NETworks
(VANETs), the basic operations of automated driving can be
distributed amongst agents. V2X is a term that stands for
“vehicle to everything.” From mobile devices of pedestrians
to stationary sensors on a traffic light, an immense amount of
data can be accessed by the vehicle with V2X [26]. By sharing
detailed information of the traffic network amongst peers [71],
shortcomings of the ego-only platforms such as sensing range,
blind spots, and computational limits may be eliminated. More
V2X applications that will increase safety and traffic efficiency
are expected to emerge in the foreseeable future [72].
VANETs can be realized in two different ways: conventional
IP based networking and Information-Centric Networking
(ICN) [44]. For vehicular applications, lots of data have to be
distributed amongst agents with intermittent and in less than
ideal connections while maintaining high mobility [46]. Con-
ventional IP-host based Internet protocol cannot function prop-
erly under these conditions. On the other hand, in information-
centric networking, vehicles stream query messages to an area
instead of a direct address and they accept corresponding
responses from any sender [45]. Since vehicles are highly
mobile and dispersed on the road network, the identity of
the information source becomes less relevant. In addition,
local data often carries more crucial information for immediate
driving tasks such as avoiding a rapidly approaching vehicle
15. on a blind spot.
Early works, such as the CarSpeak system [73], proved that
vehicles can utilize each other’s sensors and use the shared
information to execute some dynamic driving tasks. However,
without reducing huge amounts of continuous driving data,
sharing information between hundreds of thousand vehicles
in a city could not become feasible. A semiotic framework
that integrates different sources of information and converts
raw sensor data into meaningful descriptions was introduced
in [74] for this purpose. In [75], the term Vehicular Cloud
Computing (VCC) was coined and the main advantages of it
over conventional Internet cloud applications was introduced.
Sensors are the primary cause of the difference. In VCC,
sensor information is kept on the vehicle and only shared if
there is a local query from another vehicle. This potentially
saves the cost of uploading/downloading a constant stream
of sensor data to the web. Besides, the high relevance of
local data increases the feasibility of VCC. Regular cloud
computing was compared to vehicular cloud computing and
it was reported that VCC is technologically feasible [76]. The
term ”Internet of Vehicles” (IoV) was proposed for describing
a connected ADS [44] and the term ”vehicular fog” was
introduced in [45].
Establishing an efficient VANET with thousands of vehicles
in a city is a huge challenge. For an ICN based VANET,
some of the challenging topics are security, mobility, routing,
naming, caching, reliability and multi-access computing [77].
Fig. 3: Ricoh Tetha V panoramic images collected using our
data collection platform, in Nagoya University campus. Note
some distortion still remains on the periphery of the image.
16. In summary, even though the potential benefits of a connected
system is huge, the additional challenges increase the com-
plexity of the problem to a significant degree. As such, there
is no operational connected system yet.
B. Sensors and hardware
State-of-the-art ADSs employ a wide selection of onboard
sensors. High sensor redundancy is needed in most of the
tasks for robustness and reliability. Hardware units can be
categorized into five: exteroceptive sensors for perception,
proprioceptive sensors for internal vehicle state monitoring
tasks, communication arrays, actuators, and computational
units.
Exteroceptive sensors are mainly used for perceiving the
environment, which includes dynamic and static objects, e.g.,
drivable areas, buildings, pedestrian crossings. Camera, lidar,
radar and ultrasonic sensors are the most commonly used
modalities for this task. A detailed comparison of exteroceptive
sensors is given in Table III.
1) Monocular Cameras: Cameras can sense color and is
passive, i.e. does not emit any signal for measurements. Sens-
ing color is extremely important for tasks such as traffic light
recognition. Furthermore, 2D computer vision is an established
field with remarkable state-of-the-art algorithms. Moreover,
a passive sensor does not interfere with other systems since
it does not emit any signals. However, cameras have certain
shortcomings. Illumination conditions affect their performance
drastically, and depth information is difficult to obtain from a
single camera. There are promising studies [83] to improve
monocular camera based depth perception, but modalities
that are not negatively affected by illumination and weather
conditions are still necessary besides cameras for dynamic
driving tasks. Other camera types gaining interest for ADS
17. include flash cameras [78], thermal cameras [80], [81], and
event cameras [79].
2) Omnidirection Camera: For 360◦ 2D vision, omnidirec-
tional cameras are used as an alternative to camera arrays. It
have seen increasing use, with increasingly compact and high
performance hardware being constantly released. Panoramic
view is particularly desirable for applications such as naviga-
tion, localization and mapping [84].
Fig. 4: DAVIS240 events, overlayed on the image (left) and
corresponding RBG image from a different camera (right),
collected by our data collection platform, at a road crossing
near Nagoya University. The motion of the cyclist and vehicle
causes brightness changes which trigger events.
Fig. 5: The ADS equipped Prius of Nagoya University. We
have used this vehicle to perform core automated driving
functions.
3) Event Cameras: Event cameras are among the newer
sensing modalities that have seen use in ADS [85]. Event
cameras record data asynchronously for individual pixels with
respect to visual stimulus. The output is therefore an irregular
sequence of data points, or events triggered by changes in
brightness. The response time is in the order of microseconds
[86]. The main limitation of current event cameras is pixel
size and image resolution. For example, the DAVIS40 image
shown in Figure 4 has a pixel size of 18.5 × 18.5 µm and a
resolution of 240×180. Recently, a driving dataset with event
camera data has been published [85].
4) Radar: Radar, lidar and ultrasonic sensors are very
useful in covering the shortcomings of cameras. Depth infor-
mation, i.e. distance to objects, can be measured effectively
to retrieve 3D information with these sensors, and they are
18. not affected by illumination conditions. However, they are
active sensors. Radars emit radio waves that bounce back
from objects and measure the time of each bounce. Emissions
from active sensors can interfere with other systems. Radar
is a well established technology that is both lightweight and
cost effective. For example, radars can fit inside side-mirrors.
Radars are cheaper and can detect objects at longer distances
than lidars. However, lidars are more accurate.
TABLE III: Exteroceptive sensors
Modality Affected byIllumination
Affected by
weather Color Depth Range Accuracy Size Cost
Lidar - X - X medium(< 200m) high large* high*
Radar - - - X high medium small medium
Ultrasonic - - - X short low small low
Camera X X X - - - smallest lowest
Stereo Camera X X X X medium(< 100m) low medium low
Flash Camera [78] X X X X medium(< 100m) low medium low
Event Camera [79] limited X - - - - smallest low
Thermal Camera [80], [81] - X - - - - smallest low
* Cost, size and weight of lidars started to decrease recently
[82]
TABLE IV: Onboard sensor setup of ADS equipped vehicles
19. Platform # 360
◦ rotating
lidars
# stationary
lidars # Radars # Cameras
Ours 1 - - 4
Boss [43] 1 9 5 2
Junior [20] 1 2 6 4
BRAiVE [48] - 5 1 10
RobotCar [49] - 3 - 4
Google car (prius) [51] 1 - 4 1
Uber car (XC90) [52] 1 - 10 7
Uber car (Fusion) [52] 1 7 7 20
Bertha [53] - - 6 3
Apollo Auto [54] 1 3 2 2
5) Lidar: Lidar operates with a similar principle that of
radar but it emits infrared light waves instead of radio waves.
It has much higher accuracy than radar under 200 meters.
Weather conditions such as fog or snow have a negative impact
on the performance of lidar. Another aspect is the sensor size.
Smaller sensors are preferred on the vehicle because of limited
space and aerodynamic restraints. Lidar is larger than radar.
In [87], human sensing performance is compared to ADS.
One of the key findings of this study is that even though
human drivers are still better at reasoning in general, the
perception capability of ADSs with sensor-fusion can exceed
humans, especially in degraded conditions such as insufficient
illumination.
20. 6) Proprioceptive sensors: Proprioceptive sensing is an-
other crucial category. Vehicle states such as speed, accel-
eration and yaw must be continuously measured in order
to operate the platform safely with feedback. Almost all
of the modern production cars are equipped with adequate
proprioceptive sensors. Wheel encoders are mainly used for
odometry, Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) are employed
for monitoring the velocity and position changes, tachometers
are utilized for measuring speed and altimeters for altitude.
These signals can be accessed through the CAN protocol of
modern cars.
Besides sensors, an ADS needs actuators to manipulate the
vehicle and advanced computational units for processing and
storing sensor data.
7) Full size cars: There are numerous instrumented vehi-
cles introduced by different research groups such as Stanford’s
Junior [20], which employs an array of sensors with different
modalities for perceiving external and internal variables. Boss
won the …
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King Faisal University
Computer Science MS Program
College of Computer Science and IT
Department of Computer Science
1440/1441H – 2019/2020
MAS: Assignment 2, Due date: 2020
Q. Please write the summary of the article in your own words
covering the pages all the sections of the articles. It may span
5-6 pages but with added section for your comments
(weaknesses and strengths of the paper). Marks 30