A Study Of The Development Of Monograms From Ancient Greek Coins To Contemporary Logos.

A study of the development of
monograms: from Ancient Greek coins
to contemporary logos.
Submitted in partial fulilment of the
requirements for the MA in Typeface Design
—University of Reading, 2015
Fermín Guerrero

Abstract
This dissertation traces the development of monograms from Ancient
Greece to contemporary logos. It starts from a general view, where dei-
nitions and the historical background are analysed, to focus on speciic
aspects of its development such as the relation between uses and objects,
the interplay between production methods: tools and materials, and form,
as well as the discipline of the design of the monogram.
This study demonstrates that monograms are incredibly versatile com-
munication devices, that manage still to be relevant despite all the changes
that society has gone through since their creation. This devices occupies a
unique place, between two of the most important activities of visual com-
munication: typography–letters, and graphic design.
Taking into consideration that Monograms are an under-researched ield
of design, and the lack of academic teaching related to monograms, this
study is believed to be of great interest for both the ield of graphic design
and typography.

Content
1. Introduction
2. Monograms
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Brief historical overview
3. The role of monograms
3.1. Individual use
–Coins
–Signature signs
–Personal objects
3.2. Collective use
–Masons’ marks
–House marks
–Arms/Heraldry
3.3. Market use
–Trade marks
–Logo and beyond
4. Interplay between technique and form
4.1. Relief printing
–Woodcut and wood engraving
4.2. Intaglio
–Copperplate engraving
4.3. Planographic
–Lithography
5. Study on the design of monograms
5.1. Planning
5.2. Adapting the letters
6. Conclusion
07
11
11
15
23
25
41
47
61
63
71
73
79
79
83
87

7
1.Introduction
Monograms have been much used on all kind of objects throughout
the centuries, having adopted may diferent forms and graphic styles, and
served a wide range of functional purposes. Almost all kings and nobles
were proud of their monograms; for farmers’ families they were treasured
inherited family signs that later reappeared in coats of arms and heraldry;
makers used these marks to sign their creations and so forth. Today a great
quantity of commercial irms, from all ields around the world, use mono-
grams as the centre of their visual identities under the name of logos.
This study aims to understand what factors shaped the evolution of a
symbol that has been with us for such a long period of time; what made it
relevant as a communication means throughout those diferent social, cul-
tural and technological scenarios, and how monograms adapted to all these
changes.
One of the main motivations for choosing monograms as a research topic
is that this ield has been identiied as an under-researched area of design.
Despite the fact that there are some books on speciic aspects of mono-
grams, there is a lack of research on their development from a global point
of view, analysing and connecting diferent aspects of their development,
such as design, context of use, techniques employed and so on. Further-
more, none of these books study the inluence of monograms on contem-
porary communication. That said, there is some material documenting
monograms in the form of compilations, showing examples from diferent
periods.
This dissertation studies the development of monograms throughout
the centuries, from their very early, rough and almost unreadable form
on Greek coins to their digital form in contemporary logos. The historical
evolution is broken down into research topics, aiming to take a closer look
at the factors that have had an impact on the development of monograms.
This work begins with a study of monograms from a general point of
view, exploring the ways they have been deined and giving an overall view
of their evolution. The next chapter analyses the relationship between
functional purposes and the contexts of use or objects, throughout history,
giving further contextualization for each case studied. Chapter 4 is dedi-
cated to the study of the interplay of techniques, tools, materials and form,
focusing on the most relevant printing techniques from a general point of
view, as well as looking at speciic examples. By analysing contexts of use
and tools/materials we can get a better understanding of the evolution of
the graphic expression of monograms. Frutiguer (1989) explains:
‘From architecture we learn that graphic expression is also composed
of two main elements: 1–the material (stone, wood, etc.), [...] and 2–the
spacial element, which in architecture is that which is actually used, but
in the graphic ield is usually given less attention.’1
1 Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning, Studio Edition, London, 1989,
p. 192

9
Chapter 5 focuses on the design of monograms as a discipline. Based on the
observations made in the process of this work, we have been able to identify
general rules, considerations and constraints that monogram designers
have been taking into account when designing monograms.
Given the wide angle of research, the diversity of topics and the broad
historical periods covered, some constraints were needed in order to be able
to delve deep enough into the research and thus be able to ind interesting
information. Besides these constraints, there are also constraints imposed
by the dissertation itself, such as time, format, and number of words.
Note: illustrations and photographies are provided at original sizes if possible, otherwise, the
original size will be stated.

10
a. Monogram
b. Cipher
c. Calligram
Figure 1. Examples used by Sprague to illus-
trate the definitions of monogram, cipher
and calligram.
Sprague, Elizabeth and Curtiss, How to design
Monograms, Birdman Publishers, New York,
1927, p. 11

11
2. Monograms
2.1. Definitions
Explaining the roots of the term monogram is pretty straightforward, as
there is general agreement that the term derived from two Greek words,
single, and a letter.1 But giving a deinition of a monogram is diicult. It
demands dealing with related terms such as cipher and calligram. Analys-
ing the deinitions given by the few authors who have studied and written
about the subject, we ind that there is a lack of consensus on exactly what
a monogram is and what it is not. Berri (1869) addresses this problem, mak-
ing a distinction between a monogram and a cipher. He wrote:
‘The term monogram should be conined to a device in which several
letters are combined together; generally a whole word is combined into
one character. For the cypher the letters are not combined, but interlaced;
and the cypher consist of two or more letters, the initials of several words
or names.’2
Sprague (1927), establishes that most people tend to use the term mono-
gram in a more open way, regardless of subtle differences:
‘To the average individual a monogram means any design evolved from
letters, any decorative form or spot which has for its motif the initials or
name of an individual or irm. Even an attractive arrangement of two or
more decorative initials is sometimes so classed.’3
Nevertheless, the author believes that this use of the word monogram is not
correct. Therefore Sprague divided this general idea of the monogram into
three distinct categories: monograms, ciphers, and calligrams, giving the
following deinitions for each:
‘Monogram — a compound letter, or, as its names implies, the combi-
nation in one sign (simple or complex) of two or more letters no longer
separate. Whether they are the initial s of a person’s several names, or
whether they are used as badge, symbol or trade mark doesn’t matter.
The point is that it is one sign conveying the signiicance of several letters
[Figure 1.a].
Cypher — a cypher difers from a monogram in that it is not a con-
traction, not a separate sign compounded of several letters, but a com-
mingling or interlacing of signs, each of which is in itself a perfect and
independent letter, the one place in front of the other, or more commonly
entangled with it [Figure 1.b].
Calligram — a calligram is similar to a monogram, with the exception
that it contains the whole word instead of the initials alone. The letters
in it are so planned as to make a pleasing design unit rather than a legible
word’ [Figure 1.c].4
1,2 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.5, p.16
3,4 Sprague, Elizabeth and Curtiss, How to design Monograms, Birdman Publishers, New York,
1927, p. 11

13
On the other hand A complete book of Monograms & Ciphers, 1978, takes the
relation between the letters, at a graphic/visual level, as the only diference
between a monogram and a cipher:
‘A monogram is a combination of two or more letters, in which one letter
forms part of another and cannot be separated from the whole. A Cipher
is merely an interlacing or placing together of two or more letters, being
in no way dependent for their parts on other of the letters’5.
This deinition is closer to the one given by Berri, above. Whereas in 1989
Adrian Frutiger proposed a more general and simpler deinition, treating
monogram and trade mark as equals, and aligning both to acronyms. He
also relates both to logo design as they all have the same goal:
‘Abbreviations of this kind (acronyms), when given graphic expression,
are known as logos, trademarks or monograms. […] The artist’s aim is to
produce a new, uncommon, and meaningful efect which will be easily
memorable and recognizable.’6
This analysis lets us see that the more deeply and precisely we try to deine
monograms the more complex and confusing it becomes, reducing the
possibilities of inding a consensus about what a monogram is and what it
is not. It seems that the deinitions have lost complexity over time, evolv-
ing into something more general and lexible. As noted by Elizabeth and
Curtiss Sprague(1927):
‘This distinction between diferent symbols is probably very interest-
ing(...) but can be confusing, as the line between a monogram and a
cypher is sometimes so close that it can hardly be determined and in that
case the design evolved is neither one nor the other. And after all, what
diference does the name make? There is only one idea back of all three,
the creating of the most efective design, using as your motif a given
number of letters.’ 7
Taking into consideration the purpose of this work, the way that the topic
of monogram is going to be approached and the angle of the research, there
is no point distinguishing monogram from cipher, or any other symbol of
similar characteristics. So, from now on, the term monograms is used in
a wider sense, close to Frutiger’s deinition, which refers to all symbols in
which the design is based on a combination of letters.
5 Turbayne, A., A., and Other Members of The Carlton Studio, A complete book of Monograms &
Ciphers, Maylowers Books Inc, New York, 1978 [no pagination]
p. 192
7 Sprague, Elizabeth and Curtiss, How to design Monograms, Birdman Publishers, New York, 1927,
p. 13

14
Figure 4. Illustration of the Nilometer on Island
of Rhoda, Cairo–Egypt. Drawn onto stone by Louis
Haghe. Professional later added hand colour.
Lithography. 1842.
F.G.Moon, London for The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea,
Arabia, Egypt and Nubia.
© Albion Prints

15
2.2. Brief historical overview
Since the earliest days of organized society, people have used a wide variety
of symbolic devices for the purposes of identiication: both at an individual
level (themselves and their status or rank), and on a collective level (their
family, tribe or nation).
The symbol itself appears at a very early stage of man’s development,
as results of his need for expression. Neanderthal man produced the irst
known rudimentary forms during the Mousterian era, when bones were
engraved with parallel and diagonal lines [Figure 2.a], and others with red
circles–cupules [Figure 2.b]. Palaeontologists inform us that the oldest sur-
viving man-made signs were found on a triangular grave slab discovered in
a rock shelter at La Ferrassie in the Dordone.8
We could say that, for our culture, the most important graphic symbols
inherited from the past are the letters of the alphabet, each of which repre-
sents a speciic sound. There are other cultures where the written language
is not based on the same sound-symbol relationship, but on symbols which
represent many syllables or even words.‘Syllabic languages require as many
as a hundred diferent graphic symbols, word based languages even more’.9
For this reason, given the constraint on the format of this work, the main
focus will be the Western world, rather than a global study of the evolution
of monograms.
This simpliication to letters, where a deinitive individual sign is des-
ignated for each consonant and each vowel, happened in ancient Greece,
when the development of the Western script reached a stage of completion.
This allowed the rendering of any word or sentence by assembling these
signs.10
The evolution of the monogram, being a design or ornament made up of
letters, as deined in the previous chapter, naturally echoes the development
of typography in many ways. Part of the challenge of this work is to study
aspects that speciically relate to monograms, avoiding falling into the
study of the evolution of typography.
Monograms may have taken their origin from the Egyptian, and the
letter tau [Figure 3] played an important role in the development of these
symbols. It seems to have been irst used by the Egyptians, and later by the
Israelites, Greeks, and others. The Greeks used to call it the ‘token of absolu-
tion’. This letter or symbol was also called the letter of life.11
It has been asserted that tau originally related to the form of the Egyp-
tian Nilometer [Figure 4], used to measure the height of the water of the
Nile, which was crucial for the life of the inhabitants of Egypt. Regardless
of what its original meaning could have been, that simple symbol has been
handed down from age to age.
8,9 Kepes, Gyorgy, Sign Image Symbol (Vision + Value Series), Braziller, New York, 1966, p.80, p.109
p. 311
11 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.5
Figure 3. Letter tau.
Illustration by the author.
a. Pink pebble engraved with parallel and
diagonal lines.
Figure 2. Early symbols.
Kepes, Gyorgy, Sign Image Symbol (Vision + Value
Series), Braziller, New York, 1966, p.81
b. Triangular grave slab with the first man
cupules.

16
Figure 6. The Constantinian monogram can be found in different forms, these are
the principals. The first (top left) being the most common one.
Whittick, Arnold, Symbols sign and their meaning and uses in design,
Leonard Hill, London, 1971, p.241
a.The earliest monogram
to be used is the Cross of
Constantine. The Catacombs
on the tombs of the early
Christian frequently had this
monograms.
b. When the X and P are
combined and surrounded
by a circle the sign becomes
the emblem of Our Lord’s
Eternity.
c. Sometimes this monogram
is drawn with the X placed
perpendicularly.
d. Another variation of this
monogram is this one, where
the X is combined with the I
(Iota), referring to the initial
letters of the full name Jesus
Christ–I X in Greek.
e. This monogram consist
in a assembling the X the
I and placing a horizontal
bar through the centre, ob-
taining the initials of Jesus
Christ plus the Cross.
f. This version consist of the
I (Iota), X, and the bar for the
Cross, the P is placed on the
arms of the X.

17
The Israelites bore the letter tau on their banners, and sometimes they
used it in a monogram composed of three, called the triple tau [Figure 5]. For
them, this sacred symbol was seen as a sign of security.12
In the Middle Ages we ind this symbol or monogram, if it may be so
called, used on heraldic devices, where it was known as St. Anthony’s Cross
(since that saint always bore it on his habits)–see illustration of St. Anthony
on page 35 [Figure 13/Chapter 3]. Bearing this form of the tau on heraldry,
implied that the person was a supporter of his prince, and defender of the
Christian faith.13
Constantine the Great, who founded Constantinople, used the mono-
gram of Christ on the labarum or imperial standard. This monogram was
constructed using the Greek letter X (chi) with a P (rho) placed perpendicular
through it, getting the two irst letters of the name Christ in Greek [Figure
6.a]. We find similar signs stamped on Greek coins, and displayed on Ro-
man standards, long before the time of Constantine. Although Constantine
had the sacred monogram on the imperial banner, he curiously did not use
it on any of his coins. However, his son, Constantinus, did have it stamped
on his coinage, as did his successors of the Lower Empire.14
The monogram of Christ also appears on the coins of the Anglo-Saxon
prince, Ethelwolf–father of Alfred the Great, who had a coin with a mono-
gram of London occupying the entire reverse [Figure 7]. Charlemagne also
had the sacred monogram on his coins [Figure 8].15
From a historical perspective, monograms have been widely used by
almost all kings and nobles. They were not only proud of their heraldry, but
their names, or a contraction of them, were designed with decorative pur-
poses and used in their castles and on their personal belongings. Moreover,
monograms were more associated with the nobility than the coat of arms,
which represented their families.
Nowadays, monograms have largely transcended exclusive use by the
individual, and are used by thousands of commercial irms, having a strong
presence in the global landscape of brands. The products and services they
ofer are associated with their monogram, with the help of advertisements.
These symbols can be registered and protected through a patent or copy-
right, allowing them to be used as trade mark: ‘a small design in black and
white which has more intrinsic advertising value to the manufacturer than
any elaborate or expensive painting he could buy’.16
The term monogram is today associated with something belonging to a
past era. This is a matter of nomenclature, as in the contemporary design
scene we simply refer to it as a symbol, or more generally a logo, since they
belong to the large category of logo design. Monograms, far from being
dead as a means of modern communication, show every sign of thriving.
12,13,14,15 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.5, p.6, p.7, p.8
16 Sprague, Elizabeth and Curtiss, How to design Monograms, Birdman Publishers, New York,
1927, p. 19
Figure 5. triple tau
Illustration by the author.

18
Figure 7. Monogram of London struck on silver penny to
commemorate Alfred the Great’s assumption of power over
London. 880.
The Fitzwilliam Museum, FiCM.YG.1139-R
© The Fitzwilliam Museum

19
Figure 8. Coin featuring the personal monogram of Charle-
magne (centre) and the sacred monogram (edges). He decided
to replaces his bust and use his monogram instead, as a recog-
nisable sign of his authority. 768-814
The Fitzwilliam Museum, PG.13806
© The Fitzwilliam Museum

20
b. Another version of the sacred monogram is
usually this one, where the Iota is lengthened
and turned into a cross by adding a horizon-
tal bar in the top.
IHS can also be read as Jesus Hominum Salva-
tor–Jesus Saviour of man.
a. The sacred monogram ‘ihs’ or ‘ihc’ are used
instinctively. They are the two irst Greek let-
ters of Jesus–which remains always the same
I (Iota) and H (Eta). The last letter assuming
three forms, S, C, and E, which are those of
the Greek Sigma.
Figure 9. Examples of sacred monogram.
A practical Illuminator, Church Decoration: a practical manual of
appropiate ornamentation, Frederick Warne & Co., London, p.10

21
Figure 10. The sacred monogram ‘ihs’ en-
graved on a shield. 1455-1490
Metal cut with hand-colouring. (detail below)
The British Museum, 1926,1214.6
© The Trustees of the British Museum

23
3. The role of monograms
The role of monograms has changed throughout history. All monograms
have identiication and decoration as irst utilities, however we can ind
diferent purposes or context for where monograms have been conceived
to have a diferent nature. We ind monograms used as a manufacturer’s
signature, an owner’s mark, or conirmation of responsibility for a decision,
on a large number of all kinds of objects from the past.
After analysing the evolution of the monogram throughout history,
a table has been devised in order to give an overview of the relationship
between monograms (divided by thematics, then subdivided by physical
implementation) and their functional purposes.
Authentication
Validation
Ownership
Identification
Exchange
Decoration
Guarantee/
responsibility
Signature
signs
× × ×
× ×
×
×
×
×
× ×
× × ×
× ×
× ×
×
×
×
×
×
×
Coins Arms/
Heraldry
Collective use Market use
Individual use
House
marks
Personal
objects
Masons’
marks
Trade
marks
Logo
and beyond
Relating function with diferent types of monogram is not an easy task,
as the boundaries between functions sometimes blur. For instance, if we
look at house marks and we take the case of marking herds [see page 43],
we will see that the signiicance of the original mark of ownership changes
when the animal is taken to market for sale, since it then becomes a sign of
quality.1
p. 325

24
Figure 1. Greek alloy coin with monogram, from
late 3rd-4th centuries AD
Figure 2. Silver coin, featuring the proile bust
of Justinian I (obverse) and a monogram of Theo-
doric (reverse).
Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. 536-538
The British Museum, B.12341

25
The irst trade marks for many products were born in this way. The trader
would mark sacks, cases and boxes of spices, groceries, fruit and so on, in or-
der to avoid possible confusion during transport. Once at the marketplace,
these signs on the packages became marks of identiication of the content of
the pack and its origins and, through experience, the signs were associated
with the quality of the products. In this way the mark of ownership turned
into the trade mark.
Many early seals were possibly trademarks as well. For instance, the
marks used for sailing jars in Mesopotamia are usually considered seals of
ownership or house marks, but if the jars were delivered sealed, the mark
made by the producer could be regarded as a very early trade mark.2
The role of a monogram is analysed in depth bellow, providing context,
following the logic of the table.
3.1. Individual use
Initially it was mainly the ruling class that had their names turned into
monograms.
‘Rulers and spiritual leaders showed the stamp of their power by apply-
ing their seals as authorization of titles, deeds, laws and other documents,
stamping their image on coins, or by ordering inscriptions on property
and banners.’3
–Coins
Communities always needed to have objects, goods or tokens representing
fixed values as tools for buying and selling. In ancient times we find cattle
used as an early medium of exchange, as well as, to a lesser extent, agricul-
tural instruments and household utensils. This imprecise ‘currency’ was re-
placed by pieces of metal, sometimes in the form of bars, valued by weight.
In order to avoid the need for constantly re-weighing them, the pieces of
metal were stamped with their weight and the name or mark of the authori-
ty issuing them, which was at first the private trader or banker and later the
State. These marks were used to show responsibility and as a guarantee. The
value of these pieces of metal was eventually fixed by the state, and this was
the origins of coins and money as we use it today.4
Monograms seem to have appeared on the irst coined money, which is
considered to be a Greek or Lydian invention of 7 or 8 hundred years B.C.
The coinage of that period shows many examples of sacred monograms,
certainly abbreviations of proper names or names of places where the coins
were made.5
2 Whittick, Arnold, Symbols sign and their meaning and uses in design, Leonard Hill, London, 1971,
p.87
p. 311
p.74
5 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical; London, 1869, p.6

26
Figure 3. Mesopotamian limestone cylinder
seal and impression. Worship of Shamash.
2300–2000 BC
Musée du Louvre. Department of Oriental
Antiquities, Richelieu, ground loor, room 6,
case 4
© Musée du Louvre
Figure 4. Greek cruciform monogram carved
on wood stamp, from the Early Byzantine
period. 6th–7th century.
Dimensions: 813 mm (diameter)
The British Museum; 1890,0701.6.

27
–Signature signs
It is diicult for us to imagine today that, in the past, there were people that
could not be identiied as distinct individuals since the concept of the name
was not yet in use. The practice of assigning names to individuals may date
back to prehistoric times, long before any form of writing had been devel-
oped.
‘The drive towards personal identification by means of visible signing
may be regarded as a basic point of departure for the history of the sign
in its widest sense and must be dated back to the time of humankind’s
earliest mental awakening’.6
A mark introducing some complexity in order to render imitation diicult,
is clearly a good method to employ to authenticate ownership, agreements
and documents. Seals and stamps have been employed to this end since
ancient times.
The cylinder seals and circular stamps from the Uruk period in Meso-
potamia, (before 3000 B.C.) are among the earliest seals of which there is a
record. In roughly the same period we ind cylinder seals in Elam and Syria.
At that time the thematics are related to the early religion or mythology of
Mesopotamia, showing fertility, regeneration and animal worship [Figure
3]. These cylinder seals were irst used for sealing jars. The use of seals for
documents and contracts was a later development.7
Seals were also incorporated into rings, taking the form of signet–rings
[Figure 5]. These rings, especially common at the beginning of the Byzan-
tine period, were used for signing and validating personal documents.
p. 305
p.36
Figure 5. Silver signet-ring; plain hoop with lat disc bezel
engraved with monogram and pearled border. 15thC
The British Museum; AF.578.

28
Figure 6. Monogram RP on seal-matrix (bro-
ken handle), for wax impression. 14th century
The British Museum; 1871,0103.16

29
Figure 7. Many models of monograms on this catalogue of
seals for wax from Michael Twyman’s collection.
Bradley Brothers, Specimen of dies, seals, visiting cards, &c. Chapel
Works, London, 1900

30
Figure 9. Various monograms used for signing documents.
Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, plate VI.
a. The signet ring of Paules from King’s
Antique Gems. [No date]
b. Bishop of Nevers HUGO EPIScOPVS (1301)
c. Otho or Otto, Emperor of Germany (936-
973)
d. Pope Leo III (795–816)

31
Figure 8. Charlemagne’s personal monogram
(742-814), used for signing documents, as well
as for other purposes. In this monogram the
irst letter, K, being the principal character,
has been emphasised, and is made larger than
the other letters. This approach was adopted
and became a rule in designing monograms.
We see in the centre part of the design a
rhomboid shape, which is the Gothic O. The
letters are connected by vertical and horizon-
tal lines forming a cross.
Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and
practical, London, 1869, plate VI.
Charlemagne is believe to have been the irst to sign documents with a
monogram [Figure 8], either by using a thin plate of metal, ivory or wood,
with the design perforated so that the mark could be traced with a pen, or
rubbed with a brush charged with ink–a technique known as stencilling –
or by using a stamp, with the characters engraved in relief.8
During the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries, this method of signing
names was very common among kings, nobles and persons who could not
write [Figure 9]. The practice of using a mark or monogram as means of a
signature on documents was continued by the kings of France and lasted
until the time of Philip III. Spanish kings also adopted this practice and
used it until a much later period. The Anglo Saxon kings also seem to have
used it, as did William the Conqueror while Duke of Normandy.9
8,9 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.8

32
Figure 10. Stamp of Princess Augusta Sophia (1768 - 1840)
Bessel, Johann Georg. Chronicon Gotwicense. Togernsee.
University of Toronto Libraries, Stamp of Princess Augusta
Sophia, 1732, https://armorial.library.utoronto.ca/mono-
gram-list, Retrieved on 25/08/2015

33
Figure 11. This monogram (CWSC) which is highly
ornamented seeking to render imitation diicult, for security
reasons, echoes the purposes of a signature. Engraved by
Ashby & Co. 1818
Dimensions: 176 mm x 93 mm
The British Museum; CIB.631

34
Figure 12. Example of monogram (HBG)
used as the signature by Hans Baldung,
called Grien (1484-1545).
St Thomas the Apostle. 1519
Woodcut.
Accession Number: 26.72.107
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art

35
Figure 13. Artist Seitz’s signature on the form
of monogram. The image shows St Anthony
in the desert. 1860.
Wood engraving.
In the context of art (print-related artwork), monograms were very im-
portant, as they became the artist’s signature, which has great importance
for collectors, historians and so on. The oldest preserved impressions were
not signed and some of the artists remain anonymous. The irst signatures
began to appear in the middle of the 15th century.10 These signatures took
the form of monograms incorporated into the design and they were en-
graved in the wood or metal at the same time as the drawings. Some of them
have been deciphered allowing us to attribute the artwork to known artists,
whereas others remain a mystery. These unknown artist have been called
after their monograms, for example: ‘the monogrammist E.S.’ or ‘Master
E.S.’. This practice was superseded towards the end of the 19th century
by signed impressions below the printed design using a pencil, as is done
today.
10 Anon, Print-Making Techniques, Octopus Books Group, London, 1982, p.13

36
Figure 14. EM (Elaine and Marshal) Monogram, designed by
Crane & Co. for a wedding invitation.
Crane & Co, Alexandra invitation monogram, 2015, http://blog.
crane.com/2015/03/10/introducing-our-new-2015-wed-
ding-invitation-designs/, Retrieved on 14/07/2015
Figure 15. Monogram on napkins featuring the initials of the
owner.
Leontine Linens, Table linens monogram, 2015, http://www.leon-
tinelinens.com/features/linensense, Retrieved on 14/07/2015

37
–Personal objects
Monograms are used on personal objects such as invitations (e.g. wedding
or birthday), personal stationery, gifts, or embroidered onto clothing, linen,
luggage and so forth. These monograms are used as identiication of owner-
ship, or simply for decoration purposes. For these decorative objects, status
is particularly important, and could be the main reason for monograms of
this kind.
It would be logical to think that this behaviour of putting names (mon-
ograms) on personal objects is somehow related to house marks or owner-
ship marks, but the signs we are referring to here are of a more ephemeral
and personal nature. They are composed of the individual’s initials, or the
couple’s initials in the case of a wedding invitation, rather than family
marks that were inherited and handed down through generations, as was
the case with house marks. These signs might also belong to more recent
times, even though some of the devices could be seen as mason’s marks.
We noticed a certain tendency in the way that the letters are used for
creating monograms within the context of personal objects. The initial of
the person’s last name has the most prominence given to it, made larger
than the others, whereas the initial of the irst name is normally placed on
the left. In the case that the middle name’s initial is included it is generally
positioned on the right.‘A striking monogram, combining the irst letters
of the full name or the irst and last name is an enviable possession’.11
In the case of couples (engaged or married), the monogram is commonly
composed of two letters–both initials. Sometimes a third letter is incorpo-
rated, being the initial of their shared surname.
Today a wide variety of companies exist ofering services related to
monograms. These include design and production of devices, from printing
related matter to linens and laser engraving objects, allowing clients to use
their own monogram, on almost any object. Normally, these companies also
ofer clients the possibility to design a monogram based on their names.
Figure 16. This mug shows a good example
of a monogram used on a personal object.
The monogram does not feature the initial of
the maker (trade mark), but the initial of the
owner AR – Augustus Rex, King of Poland,
added to the object as a sign of style– for
decoration purposes. 1720-1725
The British Museum, Franks.42
11 Wilde, Clark Jean, A Desk Book on the Etiquette of Social Stationery. Eaton, Crane & Pike Compa-
ny, New York, 1910, p.7

38
Figure 17. Diferent types of dies stamping, using Bradley
Brothers monogram as sample, for use on personal stationery.
Bradley Brothers catalogue from 1950. Ditail of a A4 sheet.
© Fermin Guerrero

39
Figure 18. Diferent patterns of stock dies to be stamped on
personal stationery: paper and envelops.
Bradley Brothers catalogue from 1950. Ditail of a A4 sheet.
© Fermin Guerrero

40
Figure 19. Various masons’ marks.
Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, plates IV and V
f. One example from Roslin Chapel, near
Edinburgh. [No date]
e. Five examples from the chapel Holyrood Palace (1128–1180 A.D.)
c. Two examples from the chapel Holyrood
Palace (1128–1180 A.D.)
a. One example from Furness Abbey. [No date]
d. Two examples from Glasgow Cathedral
(1200 A.D.)
b. One example from Westley, Waterless,
Cambridgeshire. [No date]
g. One example from the Cathedral of
Strasburg. [No date]

41
3.2 –Collective use
–Masons’ marks
Masons’ marks–sometimes called stonemasons’ signs, were inscribed on
the stones of buildings at the time of construction by stonemasons. These
marks are probably the marks that remain in the greatest quantities, for
the simple reason that a sign carved into stone is able to last though the
centuries in good condition. The most prosperous period for masons’ marks
is around the twelfth century, given the great demand for ecclesiastical
buildings at that time.11
Masons’ marks adopted a very particular aesthetic [Figure 19], which
greatly separates them, visually, from other kind of marks. Berri (1869)
attributes this aesthetic to the ield of activity:
‘As architecture is based upon mathematics and geometry, the various
marks adopted by masons in diferent ages, and in countries widely sepa-
rated from each other, all point towards a common origin.’12
We could also think that given the resistance of the material, stone, they
might opted for the simplest designs that require the minimum efort to
produce, while still being distinctive. Simple straight lines, predominant in
masons’ marks, meet this criteria.
We have seen in other places intricate shapes being carved with great
precision on stone, long before this*. But this was the work of specialized
and highly trained people whose profession consisted of carving letters.
The profession of the stonemasons was as construct masons, not making
beautiful letters. The masons’ marks were made with a practical approach,
for identiication and ownership purposes, rather than seeking aesthetics or
decoration.
As regards the role of these signs, it is believed that they were used to
indicate the building, or piece of the building, that they (the stonemasons)
had worked on, allowing them to be paid accordingly (Frutiger, 1989),
although Dr Jenny Alexander, Art Historian at the University of Warwick,
asserts that these marks could have also served to give indications or in-
structions for the construction that was being carried out.13
What does not seem clear is the lifespan of a mason’s mark; whether they
were passed from generation to generation; whether apprentices inherited
them from their master; if they were allowed to introduce variations on the
original design; or if stonemasons created their own entirely new symbol at
the beginning of their working life. These questions are especially relevant
when trying to establish whether a mason’s mark, appearing in diferent
buildings, belongs to the same individual.
11, 12 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.17
* An example of this could be the Roman letters on the Trajan Column–Rome
13 Tobin, Lucy, Masons’ marks get a revival, The guardian, 2010, Retrieved 13/08/2015, http://www.
theguardian.com/education/2010/nov/16/masons-marks-research

42
Figure 20. House mark of Aymonet Probi
and Jean Gerbel engraved on their tomb-
stone.
Dimensions: 2100mm x 1230mm (stone)
Late 16C.
Musée d’art et d’histoire–Geneva.
© Fermin Guerrero

43
Figure 21. Example of house mark on the
bowl of this silver spoon that has been lightly
incised with an alpha, chi-rho, omega inscrip-
tion. It is believed that an earlier inscription
may have been scraped down and replaced by
the present one. [No date]
The British Museum; T304
–House Marks
During the Middle Ages, approximately in parallel with the introduc-
tion of masons’ marks, a similar need for a sort of graphic personiication
appeared, principally among farming families and prominent citizens of
towns, resulting in the design of individual signs that were used on house
walls, items of equipment and also gravestones. Some of these signs were
later used on important documents as well. These marks are known today
as house marks or ownership marks.14
‘This designation of ownership on tools, household goods, etc., was an
expression of an individual will to mark property that was not entirely
due to motives of security, since most equipment, furniture and so on,
remained under the owner’s roof ’.15
Nevertheless, domestic animals, especially cattle, were in a different situa-
tion, as they were not geographically confined within the boundaries of a
property, and had no permanent location. Cattle, goats and sheep were put
together in herds, to be moved from pasture to pasture, in search of feeding.
Therefore, ownership marking of herds was absolutely necessary. Burning
a sign into the skin, horn or hide, was the only way of marking the animal
for life. This method of differentiating ownership is still in practice world-
wide.16
The phenomenon of introducing personal marks and house marks was
not exclusive to the Western world. Similar developments took place in all
cultures. There are examples from the Far East of Chinese seals, consisting
mainly of combinations of ideograms and illustrated images which are
fascinating examples of applied art.
14, 15, 16 Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning, Studio Edition, London,
1989, p.315, p. 325

44
Figure 22. Bookplate for the Royal Library in
Windsor Castle, with the royal coat of arms.
Etching, printed in brown ink. 1898

45
–Arms/Heraldry
The development of house marks continued over the centuries as inherit-
ed family signs and reappeared later in heraldry, on coats of arms, shields,
banners and so on.17
Although, at irst, the complete look of the herald, or knight, was
planned out in heraldic design, including the tunic and saddle cloth,
among other elements, this identiication became limited with the pas-
sage of time to a few items of equipment, such as the ornamentation of the
helmet. Finally it was mainly the shield of the knight in armour, given its
generous lat surface, that carried the function of bearing the colours of
kinship and the graphical elements of their respective clan or group.
As time went on, the design of arms started to be regulated by strict rules
that applied to the way the surface of the shield was divided, the use of
diferent areas, the structure etc. The design as a whole became subject to
precise convention.
Arms as identiication of the warrior started to loose relevance through
the Middle ages. Some of symbols remained later as marks of social pres-
tige. The evolution of heraldic symbols happened in Western Europe and
Japan at about the same time (1000–1200 A.D).18
p. 315
18 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.10
Figure 23. Coat of arms diagram. The motto
semper paratus.
Nancy Sharon Collins, The complete engraver:
monograms, crests, ciphers, seals, and the etiquette
of social stationery. Princeton Architectural
Press, New York, 2012, p.123
Figure 24. Two examples of monograms on coats arms used
as marks of social prestige.
Bradley Brothers, Specimen of dies, seals, visiting cards, &c. Chapel
Works, London, 1900, [no pagination]

46
Figure 25. Example of trade mark in the
form of monogram (KL) painted on a porce-
lain plate. 1780-1790 (circa)
Diameter: 253 mm
The British Museum; 1938,0517.1.CR
Figure 26. Trade mark inscription (TR mono-
gram) on gold ring. 1595-1633

47
3.3 Market use
–Trade marks
In all periods we see producers or manufacturers using signs and devices
to identify and authenticate their creations and goods. Notice that some
authors (e.g. Adrian Frutiger, 1989) make a distinction between trade marks
and other devices such as ‘manufacturer marks’ or sometimes ‘makers’
marks’. Analysing them, we notice that the elements separating them from
trade marks are not consequential enough or relevant to this work, so we
have decided to make no distinctions between them and call both trade
marks.
Handcraft history shows a very early process of specialization. This in-
volved individuals producing a speciic kind of artefact, instead of work-
ing in all ields. This started what could be called ‘professional pride’. The
maker would therefore ‘sign’ his work by stamping a mark of conirmation
of his responsibility on the inished product.19
The growth of civilization led to an increase in terms of specialization,
and diversiication of specialized activities, although times of slavery did
not allow individual craftsmen to sign their objects. Instead, the names of
the masters are to be found on these objects. Therefore, identiication of
workers on their products can only be found from the Middle Ages.20
The Crusades led to the development of commerce and the manufac-
turing industries. The people of Europe were directly inluenced by these
changes and society was transformed. The process of gaining wealth and in-
luence by the grant of the sovereign or at the point of the sword came to an
end, and a new class of men emerged, a new nobility that were not entitled
to bear coats of arms (as a consequence of their detachment on the battle
ield). Signatures of manufacturers on objects from this period are seen as
the earliest forms of trade marks.21
Many church from that period show monograms of those wealthy mer-
chants who contributed towards the building of the church.‘not having any
armorial bearings whereby they (The merchants) might be distinguished,
they had their monograms or merchant’s marks, carved or painted in the
ediice, in order to commemorate their muniicence’22
Whether these merchant’s monograms were a substitute for a coat of
arms is not totally clear, since in some buildings both were identiied, as in
the case of William Canynges, a merchant of Bristol.23
19,20 Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning, Studio Edition, London, 1989,
p. 327, p.328
22,22,23 Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and practical, London, 1869, p.26, p.27, p28

48
Figure 27. The monogram of the producer,
BPG, is printed through chromolithography
on this tarot packaging. 1920
The British Museum; 1927,0720.1.1-78

49
Figure 28. Monogram (RF) as a trade mark
imitating a seal, applied on the reverse of a
plate. 1890–1892

50
Figure 29. Charlemagne’s name, particularly
design, embedded in the epitaph of Pope
Hadrian I (St Peter’s, Rome). As it monogram,
this sign was used in diferent places.
University of Leicester, Charlemagne’s mono-
gram, http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/
mrc/research, Retrieved on 17/06/2015
Figure 30. Charlemagne personal mono-
gram.
Berri, D., Garden, Monograms, historical and
practical, London, 1869, plate VI.

51
–Logo and beyond
This section refers to contemporary logo design, which could have also been
called contemporary trade marks, as the trade mark naturally led to the
logo as we know it today.
The reason that a logo is also called a ‘mark’, gives some indication of
its roots. As we can see in previous chapters, several forms of mark can be
identiied in diferent historical periods. For instance, in ancient Greece
and Rome the producer or manufacturer would stamp a mark on pottery,
masonry or bricks. Other methods from the Middle Ages consist of signa-
tures, signs or devices that craftsmen used to identify their work as a means
of authentication. These marks were built on letters, monograms or sym-
bolic devices of various kinds, and can be regarded as the origin of the trade
marks used today under the name logos.
A logo does not exist by itself, it stands for a message or idea, and it is
conceived to work within a speciic context. It needs to be lexible, capable
to mould itself to diferent situations, otherwise it becomes some sort of
‘stamp’ that it is used the same way regardless of its context. For this reason,
logos normally have variations, diferent versions derived from the main
sign, that suit better a situation where the main logo might fail. This diver-
sity and interplay between diferent elements of visual identity may also
introduce a fresh way that the idea is presented and render it more attrac-
tive. All these, and many other things, are taken into account in the design
of a visual identity, where the logo plays a central role.
The fact that a visual sign as highly abstract as a logo, could be such a
powerful and efective way of passing a message has to do with cultural
background, the thousands of years that people have been using symbols
and the conventions that have emerged from that. The same happens with
colours. When deciding on a colour for a visual identity, we base our choice
on the fact that there is common knowledge, and agreement on certain pic-
torial codes. This give us clues to the way that a colour would be perceived
within a speciic cultural context. There is a discipline called semiotics that
studies signs and symbols and the way they are used in the context of hu-
man communication, trying to understand the interplay between sign and
signiier.
We could say that Charlemagne developed a very early model of visual
identity. He created a system of visual signs conceived to be used on various
items, without losing coherence, aiming to pass a message, and let people
know he was in charge. We could assume that he had a kind of graphic
mind-set, and he believed in the power of simple graphic elements over
complex images, which motivated him to introduce drastic changes, such
as replacing his face (or bust) on coins, as was the convention up until that
point, with his monogram. Among his signs we ind two versions of his
name, KAROLUS [Figure 29] and his monogram, shown on page 31 [Figure
30], which can be seen as the short and long versions of a logo. This allowed
him to use those signs on many diferent objects: coins, stamps on doc-
uments, buildings, streets signs, clothes, the shields of his troops, and so
forth. If we set aside the social and technological changes, this is not that
diferent from what visual identities do today. Charlemagne’s approach can
perhaps be seen in the context of a political campaign, rather than a corpo-
rate context.

52
Figure 31. Just a few examples of the wide use of monograms as logos within
contemporary visual identity. Images taken from their respective official web-
site and edited by the author.
f. General Electric
d. Luis Vuitton
b. The Art Directors Club
h. NY Yankees
e. Volkswagen
c. Chanel
a. Type Directors Club
g. Real Madrid Football Club

53
Figure 33. Norwegian Property uses a
monogram–logo, as the central element of its
visual identity. We can see that it is used on
all kind of objects.
Ludvig Bruneau Rossow, Norwegian Property,
2015, Retrieved 30/07/2015, https://www.
behance.net/gallery/27034989/Norwe-
gian-Property
Figure 32. Albrecht Dürer’s monogram, used
for signing his creations. Note that the logo
of the internationally recognized organiza-
tion ADC [Figure 31.b.], which was the first
to celebrate and award leaders in creative
communication, seems to have been highly
influenced by the monogram used by this
famous engraver of the 15th–16th century.
Dürer’s monogram influenced many artists,
not only from his own period, as we can see.
Nowadays, many enterprises from all kinds of ields–technology, fashion,
visual design, sports, and so forth, use symbols, as part of their visual iden-
tity, which can be considered monograms. Some of them are at the top of
their respective ields. It is perhaps surprising that some enterprises ofer-
ing services and products with an innovative or avant-garde proile have, as
part of their visual identity, a symbol that is connected with such an ancient
history.
In the context of visual identities, it has been observed that monograms
are especially in use in the luxury sector of the market. In order to under-
stand the association between monograms and luxury we need to go back in
time and look at the place that monograms occupied throughout history. As
we have already seen, monograms have been related mainly to the domi-
nant class, rich people. Consequently they are associated with wealth and
status.
‘The Victorian appetite for fancy goods and the genteel desire to associate
with the rich and famous rivaled our current state of consumerism and
penchant for notoriety.’24
During the Victorian era, monograms became popular elements to engrave
on personal objects. This combination of desire for notoriety and a wider
use of monograms turned monograms into a kind of trend among wealthy,
and ‘wealthy–aspirant’, people.
Monograms have had an impact on visual communication that goes
beyond logo design. Some designers have used this visual language in other
media, such as posters, books covers, and so on.
24 Collins, Nancy Sharon, The complete engraver: monograms, crests, ciphers, seals, and the etiquette of
social stationery. Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2012, p.112

54
Figure 34. Lubalin chose to make his personal
signature–logo, in the form of a monogram.
Lubalin, Herb. Logo, Retrieved 13/07/2015,
http://meetinghouse.co/2013/02/10/inspira-
tion-herb-lubalin/
Figure 35. Some designers of monograms
from the past, have designed monograms
that combine the whole alphabet [Figure
36]. Lubalin seems to have taken those early
experimentations as an inspiration for this
poster.
Lubalin, Herb. The alphabet set in Avant Garde
Gothic, 1979, Retrieved 17/06/2015, http://
www.printmag.com/interviews/designer-for-
the-age-of-austerity-adrian-shaughnessy-on-
herb-lubalins-life-and-work/
Figure 36. Monogram combining the whole
alphabet.
The keystone, The Art of Engraving: a practical
treatise to the engraver’s art, with special references
to the letter and monogram engraving, The Key-
stone, Philadelphia, 1904, p.187

55
It is thought, that the work of Herb Lubalin (examples below), among
others, has deep roots in the visual language that we can ind in the design
of monograms: the interlacing or combining of letters, the use of the space,
the composition, and so on.
Lubalin, one of the most prominent graphic designers of the 20th centu-
ry, has taken this language and made it evolve into something else; doing
further experimentation on the relation between letter-shapes, applying
the ideas and research done within monogram devices to whole phrases,
rather than limiting himself to the combinations of few letters–initials of
words, like ‘monogrammists’ did. Part of his experimentation consisted of
approaching the design in a ‘modern’ way: mono-line, clean, putting away
the ornamentation and calligraphic inluence.
Figure 37. The approach of Lubalin to logo
design presents resources that we identify in
monogram design, such as reversing (mir-
roring) letters or using the interior space of a
letter to it another.
Lubalin, Herb. Logo: Marriage , Mother, 1965,
Retrieved 13/07/2015, http://meetinghouse.
co/2013/02/10/inspiration-herb-lubalin/
Figure 38. If we look at Lubalin’s typeface
ITC Avant Garde, the solution used for the
GA-ligature could well be a monogram
sharing the horizontal strokes. We can ind
this approach in many of his ligatures and
alternates as well.
Lubalin, Herb. ITC Avant Garde, 1970-1977,

56
Figure 39. Lubalin’s monogram integrated
in the text.
Lubalin, Herb, http://www.printmag.com/
design-education/ten-or-more-things-you-
didnt-know-about-herb-lubalin/, Retrieved
23/08/2015

57
Figure 40. Lubalin, Herb. Beards, 1971,

58
Figure 41. Visual identity for Vetter Klunker,
a fashion and jewellery designer. Every
element of the identity is printed by means of
rubber stamps.
Renzler, Hans, Vetter Klunker, 2014, Retrieved
15/08/2015, https://www.facebook.com/
renzler.design/photos_stream?ref=page_in-
ternal
Figure 42. Page Three Hundred realized a
limited edition packaging & branding for
its fall/winter 2014 collection, in which a
branded wax seal is used to close the padded
bubble envelopes.
Page Three Hundred, packaging & branding,
2014, Retrieved 15/08/2015, http://pagethree-
hundred.com/work/packaging.html

59
Figure 43. Monogram (KK) on stamping and
wax seal, for use on documents and station-
ery, designed by Studio 33 as part of the visual
identity for the Croatian jewellery Karat.
Studio 33, Karat visual identity, 2014, Retrieved
01/08/2015, https://studio33.rocks/portfolio/
jewelers-karat-identity
Another remarkable thing is that a large number of design studios have
decided to take back the use of the seal as a powerful tool of communi-
cation, becoming a trend within young studios doing forward-thinking
design. Some go for a classic solution, such as wax seals, as could be found
more than ive hundred years ago; others take advantage of modern tools
such as the laser stamp machine, that can produce a multi-coloured stamp
design, or a multi-coloured rubber stamp.
This has been adopted by many design studios as a means of diferen-
tiation. It represents a cheap way of printing that can be adjusted to pro-
duction necessities, particularly convenient for small businesses. This is
connected with another trend that has been developing almost in parallel,
which is ‘do it yourself’–DIY. Here designers try to integrate the client or
user into the creation process, giving them the opportunity to somehow
modify/alter the product, having an impact on the result. The level of inclu-
sion of the user in the creation process may vary.

60
Common name
Printed area
Press
Material
Common tools
Relief
Woodcut, linocut,
embossing
Wood or metal
block/plate
Knife, gouge
and burin
What remains of
the original surface
Manual pressure
or letter press
Engraving,
etching
Cooper, zinc
Etching needles,
burin and acids
What is below the
surface of the plate
Etching press
Lithography
Limestone, zinc,
aluminium plates, etc.
Litho crayon, tusche,
litho rubbing ink
What is drawn
on the surface
Lith Press (sliding,
scraping pressure)
Intaglio Planographic
Table highlighting important aspects of each
printing method.

61
4. Interplay between technique and form
We are going to be looking at the inluence of techniques, tools and print-
ing methods, on monogram’s form. We aim to understand what the techno-
logical changes were that introduced the most signiicant incidents in the
development of the form of monograms, regardless of trends in fashion.
The formal standards for each kind of script are a consequence of the use
of diferent writing instruments and tools, in association with diferent ma-
terials. When tracing the evolution of scripts and signs, we can notice that
their visual representations and forms have experienced many changes and
simpliications over time. This is principally due to the means of writing
that have been employed over the centuries, which difered from one geo-
graphical zone to another. The tools were produced in order to be suitable
for the materials on which they were going to be used so they enabled infor-
mation to be drawn and recorded.
‘For example, in ancient Egypt hieroglyphics were chiselled into stone
and later written on papyrus; in northern lands runes where engraved
on wood, bone, and stone; in Mesopotamia signs were stamped into clay
tables, and in south-eastern regions, writing was scratched onto long, dry
palms.’1
Thus, signs have been determined by the form of the tools and these by the
material of the object on which they were used. This process of adjustment,
where the drawing is adapted to the form and material of the object, is
known nowadays as ‘stylization’.2
Given the close relation between monograms and typography, as we have
established, the changes happening in the ield of typography had a direct
impact on monograms. This connection is also seen in the tools that were
used for producing both monograms and letter-shapes. Therefore the tech-
nological reasons behind the changes related to form are, for the most part,
the same in both ields.
The table (left) gives an overview of the printing methods broken down
by the aspects relevant to each process. This allows us to understand, in a
brief way, the main elements that we are going to look at next, when further
studying each of these methods. Note that there are some contemporary
techniques that this work is not going to cover.
1,2 Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning, Studio Edition, London, 1989,
p. 97, p.242

62
Figure 1. Various types of knives and gouges
for the woodcut.
Anon, Print-Making Techniques, Octopus Books
Group, London, 1982, p.34
Figure 2. This monogram printing through woodcut tech-
nique, evidences the roughness of this method: uncontrolled
and almost mono-line strokes, lack of detail and imprecise
shapes. The ink is unevenly printed either because of the
printing surface or the press method, sometimes hand press.
We see that text, illustration and the monogram have the
same formal characteristics as they were cut on the same block
using the same tools. Because of the tools and material in
woodcut, the drawing is done, as far as possible, in such a way
as to avoid crossing lines and small details, as such parts are
very diicult to cut. The diferent tone values, for example in
shade, are made by the use of parallel lines. 1920
The British Museum; 1927,0720.1.1-7

63
4.1 Relief printing
The oldest printing methods are those of relief printing. Their origins are
connected with the origins of human cultural history, giving them a promi-
nent place among all the printing techniques.
The method of relief printing consists basically of drawing the design
on a printing surface, either a plate or block, and removing the parts that
are not meant to be printed from the surface through various mechanical
and sometimes chemical processes. The printing ink is then applied to the
printing surface, which stands out from the rest as it has not been hollowed,
and these areas are printed on the paper by applying pressure, which can
be apply either by hand or by one of the types of printing press [Figure 3].
With regards to the printing plates or blocks, they can be made from various
materials, although the most commonly used are wood and metal. The
characteristics of the printed design evidence the tools and method used for
the impression.
–Woodcut and wood engraving
Woodcut is the oldest and most broadly used relief printing technique.
This technique was introduced and developed in Europe during the 14th
century, but Europe was preceded by the eastern world by seven centuries.
The development in Europe was principally a consequence of the trading
possibilities offered by the Crusades, which allowed the introduction of
manufactured paper. Parchment was then superseded by this new cheap
material.3
The wooden block is obtained from the length of a trunk and then the
non printing areas are removed using sharp knives and gouges [Figure 1].
Thus, the design surface remains above the rest of the wood so that the ink
can be applied and the design can be printed. Initially woodcut consisted of
a simple, often ungraceful, contour drawing, with no tonal value, relecting
the basic methods that were used: a knife to cut a block of linden or pear
wood (fairly soft). Both the inking and the pressure were done by hand.4
These early prints present drawing and text together in the same block,
where the text was either incorporated in the drawing or placed next to it,
but was always engraved from the same printing block. This kind of print-
ing is known by the name ‘plate prints’, and was soon replaced by ‘book
printing’ that used plate prints in a continuous sequence.5
3,4,5 Anon, Print-Making Techniques, Octopus Books Group, London, 1982, p.23, p.24

64
Figure 3. Various types of hand lever presses
(17th–19th century), system invented by
Gutenberg in parallel with the invention of
book-printing.

66
Figure 4. Various types of cross-sections of
gravers for wood engraving.
The gravers use for wood engraving are made
from high-quality, well-tempered steel. There
are blades from various sections, which are
contained in a mushroom-shaped wooden
holder with the underside cut away. These
ergonomic tools are a big improvement from
the knives used in woodcut, allowing to have
a better control not only of the route but the
depth of the incision. This were very similar,
sometimes the same, as the one used for
copperplate engraving.
Figure 5. If we compare the monogram from
Figure 41 with the monogram in Figure
14–Chapter 3, (both signatures of the artist
at original size) we see that the second one,
done by wood engraving, is of a higher
complexity, with outlined letters, thin and
more controlled strokes/shapes and serifs
fairly well deined. These are consequences
of the diferent tools/materials used for each
process.

67
Further progress was achieved towards the middle of the 16th centu-
ry, when some artists trained their own woodcutters, drawing for them
straight onto the wooden plates which were then copied with absolute
precision. End-grain wood started to be used for the blocks. Its extreme
hardness enables the artist to engrave, rather than cut, much thinner lines
than were possible before.6
‘These drawings were already a long way from the simple linear eforts of
the early woodcutters; indeed they made full use of cross-hatching for the
modelling forms. The most common was the black drawings on a white
background.’7
Towards the end of the 16th century the woodcut started to compete
strongly with cooper engraving, which ofered richness of tone and a iner
execution.
The technique of wood engraving is a reined version of the original con-
cept of the woodcut that was developed in 1775. Buy using hardwood blocks
that are cut across the wood trunk, instead of longitudinally (for wood-
cut), and using copper engraving burins in place of knives, this technique
allowed for easier handling of the wood surface and ofered a richer and
wider range of tones.8
Figure 6. Diagram of relief printing using
letterpress.
6,7,8 Anon, Print-Making Techniques, Octopus Books Group, London, 1982, p.27, p.30, p.39

68
Figure 7. Some artists came to master the technique of wood
engraving managing to produce highly precise designs. This
was possible thanks to the tools that were used: copperplate
gravers were sometimes used for wood engraving.
The keystone, The Art of Engraving: a practical treatise to the
engraver’s art, with special references to the letter and monogram
engraving, The Keystone, Philadelphia, 1904, p.191

69
Figure 8. Colour wood engraving, from a unique album
found in Michael Twyman’s Collection.
Hendriks, Frederick, Alphabets and Illuminations, arranged in
1872, by Frederick Hendriks, from his own Collections and those of
Dawson Turner, F.R.S. and Thos.Willement, F. S.A. original leaces
from early MSS. on vellum, facsimiles, tracings of ancient inscriptions,
original capitals from 16th century books, etc. with Autograph Letters
of Henry Shaw,Thomas King and Prof. Seyfarth; neatly mounted in
half green morocco scrap book., 1872
During the 19th century diferent methods of colour printing using
woodcut started to appear in Europe. These process are technically called
Chromoxylography. Colour woodcut requires complete mastery of the
method of single-colour in order to obtain good results. There are no
restrictions regarding the number of colours that can be used for printing,
but one must take into account that when two or more colours are printed
on top of each other a further colour is obtained through this mix. This
technique of mixing colours can naturally be used deliberately and taken
into account when planning the design. If the printing is done by hand,
several colours can be printed at the same time using the same plate by
applying them on the respective areas using tools such as the brush.9
The introduction of colour in printing was very important in general as
a communication tool, as it allowed the visual diferentiation of elements,
but it played a particularly important role in the ield of monograms. Given
the characteristics of monograms, where the readability of the letters is a
crucial aspect and, at the same time, one of the most problematic. The use
of colour separated elements could now be visually connected, indicating
which shapes belong to which letters, as well as create hierarchy, inluenc-
ing the order in which the letters are read. It is clear, that colour was impor-
tant not exclusively for woodcutting, but for all the printing techniques.

70
Figure 9. Various types of copper plates
engraving gravers (burins).
Figure 10. Example of copperplate engrav-
ing, from Michael Twyman’s collection. The
shapes were afected by the new tools which
allow the production of ine and swelling
lines. Flowing curves, changing stroke
thickness (from thick to very thin lines), and
controlled shapes are to be found among
the characteristics of the designs produce
by this method. A tapered line, which varies
in width at the entrance and exit points, is
characteristic of copperplate engraving.
Early 19th century.
If we look carefully, this detail lets us see a
line in relief surrounding the printed mon-
ogram. The strong pressure applied at the
moment of printing leaves the shape of the
printing plate visible on the paper.

71
Figure 11. These monograms–intaglio, most
certainly copperplate engraving, are from a
completely diferent graphic style to the one
in Figure 10. This shows us how diicult it
is in some cases to relate graphic expression
with tools and materials. Even though Figure
10 shows a style that is most representative
of copperplate engraving, there are always
exceptions. In this case, the style of the
letters, and shapes in general, are closer to
what we would expect in wood engraving.
Some small details allowed us to identify the
real technique, and it has required a close
inspection from Michael Twyman with the
help of a magniier.
Atchley & Co, Ornamental and early English al-
phabets: initial letters, &c., for engravers, designers,
marble masons, painters, decorators, etc., Atchley &
Co. London, 1858, [no pagination].
4.2 Intaglio
For a long time this technique was seen as the most perfect way of print-
ing, and artists found it to be the one that delivered the best results. In this
technique the design is hollowed out into a smooth metal plate by a me-
chanical or chemical process. Thus, the lines or points of the design remain
beneath the original surface. The ink is applied to the plate and the surface
wiped clean, whereas the ink within the cut channels remains. At the time
of printing, heavy pressure applied by the printing machine which pushes
the dampened paper into the grooves of the plate, and the ink is passed out
from the plate to the paper. One of the characteristic of the intaglio print
is that when the paper is removed, the ink on the surface generates a slight
relief which is part of the attractiveness of the technique. Another charac-
teristic feature is the visible printing form, where the edge appears in relief
around the design [Figure 10].10 The plates used for intaglio or engraving
are usually made from copper or zinc, but other materials can sometimes be
used, such as steel, iron or aluminium.
–Cooperplate engraving
Copperplate is the most frequently used for Intaglio engraving as it is the
most suitable material. Frutiger (1989) states that this technique of print-
ing had a big impact on letterforms in the 18th century, leading to a fairly
important transformation of the typeface style, which was also seen in
monograms.
‘The typeface increased the contrast of the stroke, mixing very ine parts
The increased contrast between very ine bridging strokes and heavy
down strokes gave the letters an appearance which is still in use today
under the name of Didonic or Modern.’11
Figure 12. Diagram of intaglio printing
p. 164

72
Figure 13. Some of the instruments used for
lithographic work: pen, chalk in wooden
holder and scraper. This range of tools and
lexibility of this method lead to the design
of all kind of from.
Figure 14. Senefelder’s cylinder lithographic
press.
Figure 15. Various mono-
grams produced by Lithogra-
phy. The designs were done
in a free way, using many
curves and crossing lines.
Atchley & Co, Ornamental and
early English alphabets: initial
letters, &c., for engravers, design-
ers, marble masons, painters,
decorators, etc., Atchley & Co.
London, 1858, [no pagina-
tion].

73
A large number of renowned artists decided to abandon the roughness
of woodcut, seduced by the expressiveness and precision of copperplate
engravings.
The printing of small quantities is normally done on a hand copperplate
printing press, but stamps or bank notes, for instance, are industrially
printed by means of high-speed horizontal gravure press, rotogravure or
special machines.
4.3 Planographic
–Lithography
The printing technique known as lithography appears at the end of the 18th
century. The artist experienced the freedom given by the polished surface
of limestone that liberated him from the limitation of engraving tools, now
allowing him to use pen, brush, compasses and ruler or even to draw totally
freehand.
The drawing was made on the stone using fatty ink which was ixed
though a chemical process, thus prints could be taken from it using the
popular process of water-repellent printing ink. It is clear that the situa-
tion for type design was completely shaken by this revolutionary printing
technique. This new freedom naturally led to innovation in the style of
letters, introducing decoration that no longer relied on the graceful hand
of the calligrapher or the copper engraver’s tools, but was freely created and
executed by the artist.
‘Serifs and bridging strokes were thickened at will, producing the
slab-serif type styles, the triangular serif of typical Roman alphabets, and
also sans serif typefaces, whose origins lies in the development of lithog-
raphy.’12
The development of the style of typefaces for letterpress of the 19th century
was clearly inluenced by lithography. Foundries’ type libraries started to
show a much richer variety as a result of lithography, which liberated the
creativity of typeface design from the restrictions of engraving techniques.
Besides slab-serif and sans serif, letterforms suddenly adopted all sort of
decorative forms, outlining, solid, perspective efects and an abundance of
ornamentation can be seen.13
Figure 16. ‘Liberation of form through new
techniques’.
Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design
and Meaning, Studio Edition, London, 1989,
p.166
12, 13 Frutiger, Adrian, Signs and Symbols Their Design and Meaning, Studio Edition, London, 1989,
p. 164, p.182

74
Figure 17. Lithographer’s. drawing table with
drawing bridge, adjustable board and stand
for model and mirror.

75
Figure 18. Use of colour on monograms as a diferentiation
tool. Chromolithography. Furthermore, these monograms are
from a new level of complexity introducing volume, perspec-
tive, shadows, details, and so on.
Fleury, P., Nouvel Album de lettre peintes, Librairies–Imprimeries
réunies, Paris, 1903, p.36

76
Figure 19. Stone engraved letters from all
kind of typographic styles: Round Hand
(écriture anglaise), Roman (Serif), Sans Serif,
Gothic and so forth. This stone block is at
the Department of Typography and Graphic
Communication, University of Reading, and
was engraved by Michael Harvey.
Dimensions: 680mm x 220 x 5omm
© Fermin Guerrero

77
The next table shows the inluence of the diferent printing methods,
tools and materials, on monogram forms. In order to do so, we have de-
signed a monogram (AB) to use for each example, so that we can see the
diferences more clearly. This exempliication is based on the observation
of monograms belonging to each technique and the study of the respective
techniques.
Woodcut Copperplate engraving
Wood engraving Lithography
Despite understanding that the relation between tools and form is a com-
plex topic, as one method can lead to many solutions, and sometimes the
form is not just the consequences of a speciic technique but it also has to do
with convention or respecting the style of a certain genre, we believe that a
visual example that sums up a complex study is still very helpful to get the
general idea.
Taking the example of stone engraved letters from the past, we have
explained the formal characteristics of those letter styles, through the
analysis of the tools and materials used. But looking at our entourage we
understand the real complexity of this topic, since we can ind examples
that show that letters from all kind of styles could have been cut from
stone. This makes us wonder how important the technical constraints over
the cultural factors are with regards to the resulting form. This relection
applies for all techniques.

79
5.Study on the design of monograms
This chapter focuses on the design of monograms as a discipline. Initially
the artist, today the designer, monogram makers have had to deal with the
diicult task that lies in the design of symbols. We analyse the main issues
relevant to designing monograms that have emerged throughout the study
of this ield, from planning, where variants such as context and use must be
taken into account, to the adaptation of letters, choosing and modifying the
letters, and so forth.
It is believed that today there is no academic teaching related to the
design of monograms, either in typography or in the graphic design ield.
This study is, therefore, of great interest for both the ield of graphic design
and typography. Through the analysis of the development of symbols
throughout the past we can reach a better understanding of the interplay
between humans and signs, and thus gain necessary knowledge that can
lead to making good decisions based on our long relationship with symbols.
Therefore, in this section we are going to analyse the elements that should
be taken into account when approaching the design of monograms.
5.1. Planning
When planning the design of a monogram, the designer must bear many
things in mind. As logos, monograms must somehow indicate the ield to
which they refer and should attempt to give indications about the charac-
teristics of the product or service as well.
The context of use is highly important to consider in the design of a
monogram. We need to understand the purpose for which it is intended.
If it is for architectural decoration, for instance, we may want to consider
the style of the building, in order to make a visual correspondence. On the
other hand, if it is conceived to be used on personal stationery, the approach
might be completely diferent. In the context of commerce (corporate
design) it is especially important that the device should be recognisable and
easily read.
‘The diiculty in designing Monograms does not so often lie in being
able to plan the Monogram, as in being able to produce one that will be
read by others, and where all the letters will read.’1

81
However, in cases where the monogram is meant to visually enrich a piece
of jewellery or furniture, the binding of a book or the decoration of a house,
its readability would be perhaps less of a priority, and the most important
thing would be to create a good design..
‘Some of the most beautiful Ciphers I have seen are to be found on old
French bindings, many of which would be unintelligible if we did not
know for whom the books were bound.’2
As previously established, the relationship between monograms and typog-
raphy is very close, as monograms are the result of a combination of letters.
Therefore, we need to deine which typographic style would best suit the
concepts that we are trying to communicate. In the case of lettering, we
would need to design the letters in a way that will correspond with these
concepts. Typefaces may require some modiication, and a certain amount
of ornamentation might judiciously be introduced. Regardless of the con-
text, a monogram is, in all cases, intended for decoration.
Monograms tend to be visually circumscribed into simple shapes such as
circles, ovals, squares, rotated squares or rhombi, rectangles etc. If we look
at some of the monograms we have shown we can identify these shapes eas-
ily (in red below). Sometimes the shape is physically present as part of the
design [see igure 32.a., e., f., g., from chapter 3], and sometimes the shape
is visually suggested by the way the letters are arranged, which allows our
brain to perceive the suggested shape.
Figure 20. Same as igure 31

83
As we can see, these shapes, which work as containers of the group of let-
ters, are mainly symmetrical shapes, which give balance and stability to the
composition. Moreover, this suggested shape helps when using the device
in diferent contexts, as it looks good when applied to an object, or when
accompanied by other graphic elements, such as the name of the company,
the main text and so forth.
The reason for creating these visual containers may also be to do with
a deeply grounded habit, related to the nature of the objects for which
monograms were initially conceived. As we saw in Chapter 3, monograms
were irst used on coins and later seals, which were almost always circular,
otherwise, but less often, square (which has the same proportions). The
formal constraint given by these objects, could be responsible for the letters
being visually arranged into circles or squares. So, from the beginning,
monograms were naturally contained in these kinds of basic geometric
shapes, which can explain how comfortable we are with compositions of
this nature.
5.2. Adapting the letters
When modifying the shapes of the chosen typeface, if we are not working
with lettering, whether for functional (proportions, balance etc.) or aesthet-
ic (ornament) reasons, we need to respect the nature of the script and the
style. The stroke, modulation, contrast, proportions and so on, should be
taken into account and should guide the way the letters are altered, in order
to avoid certain parts of letters standing out or looking odd. In this regard,
the book A Complete Book of Monograms & Ciphers recommends avoiding
having three lines crossing at the same point, since having more than two
planes together generates confusion, rendering the interpretation of the
letter-shapes diicult, as well as making the intersection look heavy. This
multiple crossing of lines could also be a diicult part to produce, in the
case that the design is going to be engraved or cut.
Figure 21. Same as igure 34

84
Figure 22. O. Daniel, Collection complete de
chifres doubles composé et dédiée aux artistes indus-
triels, Imp. Kaeppelin, Paris, 1850, page 4

85
The overall design can follow a variety of styles of graphic expression; the
letters can be in positive or negative forms, outlined or solid, overlapped or
interlaced. Although there is one rule that seems to be strictly respected by
most designers of monograms from all periods, that various kinds of typo-
graphic styles should not be used together in one monogram.
‘Intermixure of style should always be avoided. If the Roman and Gothic
are found too severe to suit a given subject, the Cursive letters with their
easy lowing lines can be made to ill almost any space(...).’3
Another rule that seems to be adopted by designers of monograms is that
the principal letter has the most prominence given to it.
The reversing of letters seems to be a bit of a polemic within monogram
designs. Some designers, such as A. Turbayne, have no hesitation in either
reversing a letter or rotating it upside down or any other way, if this results
in a good design. It is believed that letters of similar form are the most suit-
able for being reversed, especially if they are turned towards one another.
This efect produces a natural feeling and a good balance4. Another case
that might be suitable for the reversing or turning upside down of a letter,
is where the letters A, B, C, D, E, K, M, N, S, V, W or Y happen to be repeated,
where the result of mirroring a letter will often be a design that reads the
same from all points of view [Figure 23]. Some of what could be considered
early books on monograms, from the middle of the 19th century, propose
some kind of specimen of monograms. The designers of these specimens
went through the alphabet systematically, combining every letter with ever
other letter as a kind of dictionary of possibilities. This could be useful as
reference when trying to igure out a potential combination of letters, as it
could give ideas on how to relate certain letters within a speciic typograph-
ic style. These designs based on the alphabet, where called ‘ornamental
alphabets’ [Figure 22].
We have seen that the design of monograms is a complex task, that aims
to create an attractive and bold device, unique enough to be recognisa-
ble, by just the use of a few letters. To succeed in the development of such
eye-catchers, a deep understanding of proportion, balance, legibility and
so on, is required. As stated by Steven Heller: ‘Monograms and signets are
beautiful typographic delights that require a keen design sense and a cal-
ligraphic hand.’5
3, 4 Turbayne, A., A., and Other Members of The Carlton Studio, A complete book of Monograms &
Ciphers, Maylowers Books Inc, New York, 1978, [no pagination]
3 Heller, Steven, Monogramonics, Print magazine, 2013, http://www.printmag.com/daily-heller/
monogramonics-vintage-monograms/, Retrieved on 25/07/2015
Figure 23. Herb Lubalin’s logo for Ike Vern
Associates, in the form of a monogram (VA).
By mirroring one of the letters Lubalin cre-
ates a perfectly balance monogram that reads
the same from all points of view.
Lubalin, Herb, Ike Vern Associates logo, designed
by Lubalin, Smith, Carnase Inc., http://instidy.
com/lubalincenter, Retrieved 31/08/2015

87
6. Conclusion
Monograms have been in use since the invention of writing, and they
have proved to be extremely versatile symbols, maybe more than we would
have believed they were. They have adopted many diferent forms and styles
of graphic expression, and have been used in all kinds of contexts over the
centuries, serving a wide variety of purposes.
Despite the great diversity found in this ield, designers of monograms
seem to follow some general rules and considerations. These can be taken
into account, as a guide or reference, when approaching the design of this
kind of device.
This study helped us to realize that, contrary to what we may have
thought, monograms are still greatly in use today as a means of communi-
cation. The reason why people tend to think that monograms are symbols
form an ancient era, might have to do with the fact that the term monogram
has been superseded by a less precise term: logo.
The Crusades were an important incident in the development of mon-
ograms as they changed society through commerce, which is naturally
echoed in the role of monograms. Thus, the use of these signs shifted from
coats of arms to trade marks, where they played an important role in the
growing market, starting to become a marketing tool. This, together with
the introduction of better printing techniques and materials such as manu-
factured paper, provided the perfect conditions for an improvement in the
design and production of these symbols.
In terms of graphic styles, monograms greatly increased in variety with
the invention of lithography, which liberated the artist from the constraints
that were imposed by the tools up until that point. This resulted in an ex-
plosion of creativity and experimentation. The introduction of colour was
important for this ield as means of diferentiation of letters, which im-
proved readability. Although we have been able to make some conclusions
about the relation between technique and form, we have realized that this is
a complex topic that would require a wider and deeper study where cultural
factors and contemporary production methods should also be considered.
We believe that the reason that monograms are relevant and necessary in
any period of time lies in their strong connection with both typography/let-
ters and graphic design, two of the most important activities of visual com-
munication. Thus they can be powerful eye-catchers, able to turn speech
and emotional values into pictorial information that can be easily remem-
bered, connecting brands with products or just letting ‘normal’ people use
them as a fancy mark of ownership on a personal object.
The years of research on combinations of letters that happened within
the ield of monograms have had an inluence on contemporary design that
goes beyond the logo, inding its way into diferent media such as posters,
editorials and typeface design. The work of Herb Lubalin is an example
among many others.

89
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A Study Of The Development Of Monograms From Ancient Greek Coins To Contemporary Logos.

A Study Of The Development Of Monograms From Ancient Greek Coins To Contemporary Logos.

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