708
T
here is a wealth of literature highlighting the
negative physical (eg, type II diabetes, car-
diovascular problems) and psychosocial (eg,
depression, low self-worth) consequences of ado-
lescent obesity.1-3 However, less attention has been
given to the role adolescent weight status plays in
future health-risk behaviors, such as problematic
substance use. With adolescent overweight and
obesity rates remaining high (33.6% overweight,
18.4% obese 12-19 years),4 and substance use
more prevalent in young adulthood than any other
developmental period,5 identification of adolescent
weight status as a predictor of future problematic
substance use behavior is likely to have a signifi-
cant impact on research and clinical work aimed to
reduce multiple health risks in the transition from
adolescence to adulthood.
Adolescence is a crucial period for prevention ef-
forts aimed to reduce problematic substance use in
young adulthood. According to the National Survey
of Drug Use and Health,5 young adults have the
highest rates of current tobacco use (39.5% overall
including 33.5% cigarette use) and illicit drug use
(21.4%), with 19.0% using marijuana in the past
month. Binge drinking has been reported for 39.8%
and heavy alcohol use for 12.1% of 18- to 25-year-
olds. In the past 30 years, many epidemiological
longitudinal studies have identified several key
risk factors for problematic substance use, includ-
ing regular cigarette smoking, binge drinking, and
marijuana use, in adolescence and young adult-
hood. Temperament,6 behavioral disinhibition,7 ex-
ternalizing behaviors,8 poor parental monitoring,9
lack of parental support,10 negative peer interac-
tions,11 and affiliation with deviant peers12 have
been well-established as critical factors involved in
the development of problematic substance use.13-15
Considering the array of risk factors in adolescence
contributing to future problematic substance use,
it is likely that other health-risk conditions, such
as overweight or obesity status, are linked to prob-
lematic substance use behavior.
Little is currently known about the relationship
between adolescent weight status and future prob-
lematic substance use; however, use of an adoles-
cent developmental framework is likely to increase
our understanding of why this relationship may be
a significant one to address. One explanation may
be that a shared underlying factor like impulsivity
may explain co-occurring obesity and problematic
substance use. As children learn to self-regulate
behaviors, those who have difficulties with self-
control are more likely to over-consume energy-
dense food contributing to obesity risk16,17 and en-
gage in antisocial behaviors leading to substance
abuse and dependence.18,19 Although a shared
underlying factor explanation is plausible, under-
standing adolescent behavior without considering
the social context is incomplete.
H. Isabella Lanza, Research Associate and Chri.
Running head DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION1DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION.docxjeanettehully
Running head: DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION 1
DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION 6
Drug Abuse and Addiction
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
Public Safety Issue: Drug Abuse and Addiction
Public safety issue refers to any problem which threatens the wellbeing of people and prosperity of communities. A solution to such challenges is crucial in order to ensure that safety of people is protected and safeguarded. The issue of drug abuse and concern among school going teenagers has become a major problem in United States. According to a survey conducted by Monitoring the Future (MTF), on average, 29 percent of the school kids between grades 8, 10, and 12 were found to be using drugs. This has raised a major concern that requires the government to work closely with relevant public safety organizations in order to contain this issue.
Research Topic: The Importance of Introducing Drug Abuse Unit in The Curriculum of the American Education System
Overview
According to findings of Monitoring the Future survey released in 2018, there is a significant increase in number of school going youths engaging in drug abuse activities. Marijuana, opioid abuse, alcohol, synthetic drugs, tobacco, and nicotine are among the top drugs and substances abused by teenagers and school going kids. These statistics are alarming since they present one of the major challenge to the wellbeing and prosperity of the future generation. Many anti-drug abuse and addiction organizations such as National Institutes on Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) have been working relentlessly to curb this rising level of drug abuse and addiction among teenagers. Despite all the efforts by these organizations, their programs have failed to achieve any substantial success as far the fight against drug abuse and addiction among teenagers is concerned. This research is aimed at exploring the relevant literature from books, peer-reviewed journals, publications, and other academic effort in the effort to present the dire need to integrate drug abuse into the curriculum of the American education system. The findings of the research will be a boost to the government and other public safety organizations in the fight against drug abuse and addiction among teenagers and school going youths.
Annotated Bibliography
Duncan, D. T., Palamar, J. J., & Williams, J. H. (2014). Perceived neighborhood illicit drug selling, peer illicit drug disapproval and illicit drug use among US high school seniors. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 9(1), 35.
The paper explores the problem of marijuana use among the students in U.S. high schools. Notably, more than 45.5 percent of the respondents revealed that they have used marijuana once on their lifetime while the other 36.4 percent revealing that they have used marijuana in the last one year. Additionally, another 22.7 percent of the respondents noting that they have been consta ...
environment to result in alcohol addiction. More studies should al.docxSALU18
environment to result in alcohol addiction. More studies should also enlighten the extent to which genes participate to alcohol issues, both in youngsters and adults (Foster, et al., 2013).
Socioeconomic Model:
Researchers have keen interest to find the link between behavioral health conditions in adulthood and childhood socioeconomic status (SES). Some studies revealed that the youngsters with low SES are susceptible towards substance use in young age. Huang and Goodman studied the first wave cross-sectional; he found that having low SES was linked with greater alcoholic consumption. Goodman found that lower income or the financial crisis and low educational status of the parents led to individual complexes and thus more significant depression.
Reinherz along with his fellows, from the year 1977-2000 observed 360 suspects and concluded that low SES of family and large family were linked with substance abuse and alcoholism issues at the early age of life (Masten, et al., 2014). Hamilton and his fellows, Ontario Student Drug Use Survey, found that youngsters (12-19) having educated parents were less prone or susceptible to get involve in risky or dangerous drinking or drug abuse.
Although we have confirmation those boys with high SES may also be liable for having the substance addiction. Alcohol use is sensitive to price, according to research consumption declines as the price rises. For youngsters with raised SES, with sound financial status show that the cost of substance abuse is lower than that of the boys with low SES. Bellis and his fellows found that kids who spend more money drink more, heavy drinking in public as well while the ones with low SES drink less (Miller, et al., 2010).
Binge drinking is associated with driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) and homicidal or accidental deaths of college going students. The fact that illegal drugs are considered illegal in the USA, the substance abuse causes youngsters to get themselves involve in criminal justice. Thus, the substance abuse can cause extraordinary adverse effects for boys.
The rationale of the study is to determine that the adolescents with high SES, having a financial status and educated parents, are susceptible to get involve in alcohol consumption and illegal drug abuse, using the nationally-representative sample of college students in the USA. Bellis and his fellows collected cross-sectional data on alcohol consumption in the UK and Martin along with his colleagues who examined pervasiveness of alcohol consumption among college students in the USA (Levy, et al., 2011). As a lot of literature is being written on adults with low SES, the results of this research can guide the parents and teachers to recognize the students who are at risk for substance abuse in future.
The result of this study how that high SES, a linked with high parental educational status and the healthy financial situation is associated with high rates of substance ab ...
Causal Argument Essay
Qualitative Research Summary
Social Learning Theory
Teenage Alcohol Abuse Essay
Essay On Causal Argument
Jeremy Rifkin Enemies Of Promise
Confirmation Bias Essay
Causal Essay
Running head DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION1DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION.docxjeanettehully
Running head: DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION 1
DRUG ABUSE AND ADDICTION 6
Drug Abuse and Addiction
XXXXXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX
Public Safety Issue: Drug Abuse and Addiction
Public safety issue refers to any problem which threatens the wellbeing of people and prosperity of communities. A solution to such challenges is crucial in order to ensure that safety of people is protected and safeguarded. The issue of drug abuse and concern among school going teenagers has become a major problem in United States. According to a survey conducted by Monitoring the Future (MTF), on average, 29 percent of the school kids between grades 8, 10, and 12 were found to be using drugs. This has raised a major concern that requires the government to work closely with relevant public safety organizations in order to contain this issue.
Research Topic: The Importance of Introducing Drug Abuse Unit in The Curriculum of the American Education System
Overview
According to findings of Monitoring the Future survey released in 2018, there is a significant increase in number of school going youths engaging in drug abuse activities. Marijuana, opioid abuse, alcohol, synthetic drugs, tobacco, and nicotine are among the top drugs and substances abused by teenagers and school going kids. These statistics are alarming since they present one of the major challenge to the wellbeing and prosperity of the future generation. Many anti-drug abuse and addiction organizations such as National Institutes on Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), and National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) have been working relentlessly to curb this rising level of drug abuse and addiction among teenagers. Despite all the efforts by these organizations, their programs have failed to achieve any substantial success as far the fight against drug abuse and addiction among teenagers is concerned. This research is aimed at exploring the relevant literature from books, peer-reviewed journals, publications, and other academic effort in the effort to present the dire need to integrate drug abuse into the curriculum of the American education system. The findings of the research will be a boost to the government and other public safety organizations in the fight against drug abuse and addiction among teenagers and school going youths.
Annotated Bibliography
Duncan, D. T., Palamar, J. J., & Williams, J. H. (2014). Perceived neighborhood illicit drug selling, peer illicit drug disapproval and illicit drug use among US high school seniors. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 9(1), 35.
The paper explores the problem of marijuana use among the students in U.S. high schools. Notably, more than 45.5 percent of the respondents revealed that they have used marijuana once on their lifetime while the other 36.4 percent revealing that they have used marijuana in the last one year. Additionally, another 22.7 percent of the respondents noting that they have been consta ...
environment to result in alcohol addiction. More studies should al.docxSALU18
environment to result in alcohol addiction. More studies should also enlighten the extent to which genes participate to alcohol issues, both in youngsters and adults (Foster, et al., 2013).
Socioeconomic Model:
Researchers have keen interest to find the link between behavioral health conditions in adulthood and childhood socioeconomic status (SES). Some studies revealed that the youngsters with low SES are susceptible towards substance use in young age. Huang and Goodman studied the first wave cross-sectional; he found that having low SES was linked with greater alcoholic consumption. Goodman found that lower income or the financial crisis and low educational status of the parents led to individual complexes and thus more significant depression.
Reinherz along with his fellows, from the year 1977-2000 observed 360 suspects and concluded that low SES of family and large family were linked with substance abuse and alcoholism issues at the early age of life (Masten, et al., 2014). Hamilton and his fellows, Ontario Student Drug Use Survey, found that youngsters (12-19) having educated parents were less prone or susceptible to get involve in risky or dangerous drinking or drug abuse.
Although we have confirmation those boys with high SES may also be liable for having the substance addiction. Alcohol use is sensitive to price, according to research consumption declines as the price rises. For youngsters with raised SES, with sound financial status show that the cost of substance abuse is lower than that of the boys with low SES. Bellis and his fellows found that kids who spend more money drink more, heavy drinking in public as well while the ones with low SES drink less (Miller, et al., 2010).
Binge drinking is associated with driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) and homicidal or accidental deaths of college going students. The fact that illegal drugs are considered illegal in the USA, the substance abuse causes youngsters to get themselves involve in criminal justice. Thus, the substance abuse can cause extraordinary adverse effects for boys.
The rationale of the study is to determine that the adolescents with high SES, having a financial status and educated parents, are susceptible to get involve in alcohol consumption and illegal drug abuse, using the nationally-representative sample of college students in the USA. Bellis and his fellows collected cross-sectional data on alcohol consumption in the UK and Martin along with his colleagues who examined pervasiveness of alcohol consumption among college students in the USA (Levy, et al., 2011). As a lot of literature is being written on adults with low SES, the results of this research can guide the parents and teachers to recognize the students who are at risk for substance abuse in future.
The result of this study how that high SES, a linked with high parental educational status and the healthy financial situation is associated with high rates of substance ab ...
Causal Argument Essay
Qualitative Research Summary
Social Learning Theory
Teenage Alcohol Abuse Essay
Essay On Causal Argument
Jeremy Rifkin Enemies Of Promise
Confirmation Bias Essay
Causal Essay
Latent Class Analysis of Adolescent Health Behaviorsasclepiuspdfs
Background: Behavior is one of the most important components in health. While the impacts of adolescent risky activities have been studied extensively, less attention has been paid to health. This study examines the patterning of health behaviors among adolescents age of 10–19 years. Methods: Latent class analysis identified homogeneous, mutually exclusive “classes” (patterns) of eight, leading health behaviors - sleep, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, physicians’ visits, meal autonomy, wearing braces, general health assessment, and having a permanent tattoo. Results: Resulting classes include (1) healthy, (2) moderately healthy, and (3) unhealthy. The characteristic behaviors and tendencies of each class differed by gender. Conclsion: This study attempts to classify adolescents by their own health behavior without including parental attributes. While adolescents do not typically prescribe to predictable behaviors and actions, the emphasis on healthy behaviors by some suggests an individual awareness of behavioral impacts and importance of healthy lifestyle choices
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol.docxAASTHA76
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol lading to illegal behavior that is common in the college going students. Attachment theory stands on the concept that human beings have a natural desire and innate requirement of being appreciated and accepted by others. Survey then led to the confirmatory analysis which enforced two-factor of attachment theory, comprising parental affection or attachment and peer attachment, both these types of accessories represent trust, non-estrangement, and communication, Which means that all the adults or youngsters are emotionally attached to their parents or the people of their group (Foster, Vaughan, Foster, & Califano Jr, 2013).
The results manifested the hypotheses that sheltered peer attachment positively concluded behavioral control and values towards alcohol, but protected maternal affection inversely completed behavioral control and values towards alcohol. Alcohol norms, behavioral control and attitudes individually elaborate alcohol objective, which showed an elevation in this behavior within a month. All these findings reinforce recommendations for agenda created to shorten the risk levels of underage drinking using the idea of Attachment theory and Theory of planned behavior TPB.
I. Social Learning Theory:
This research is associated with the methods of getting alcohol in underage, use of substance, underage drinking and this kind of other deviations, this study consider the application of social learning theory. Youngsters under adulthood age are getting alcohol illegally. Past researches show that young alcohol abusers use other persons for this purpose, and these other individuals include any stranger who is adult enough to drink legally (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2010).
This procedure of getting alcohol is called black marketing. It has been observed that black market organization was made while taking alcohol illegally in association with the other black market organization, other black market anomaly or global anomaly. For study purpose, use of black market sources defined as the utilization of an unknown person trying to obtain illegal substance like alcohol, drugs, etc. thus sources was labeled black market, if the individual participating was an unknown. The materials under consideration in this study include alcohol and marijuana. The study sample was comprised of undergraduate’s students from the organizational pool from a southeastern university.
The questionnaire was filled through the online survey and analyzed statistically by multivariate statistical techniques (Foster, et al., 2013).Youth alcohol consumption includes a lot of research work. This study covers almost all the aspects from divergence related to underage drinking to the hazardous results it causes on health. A huge part of the sample population is the college students. Binge drinking, underage drinking, and general drinking are considered by average or dominant America ...
Identify and summarize determinants of a public health problemMalikPinckney86
Identify and summarize determinants of a public health problem:
individual/ biological, interpersonal/
Intrapersonal Factors: involve an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about a health condition.
Lifestyle Causal Beliefs about Obesity
when categorized as ‘some'/‘a lot', 94% of participants held not exercising causal beliefs, 95% held overeating causal beliefs, 90% held eating certain types of food causal beliefs, 70% held chemicals in food causal beliefs, and 41% held smoking causal beliefs about obesity, compared to the 69% who held genetic causal beliefs about obesity. There were few associations between lifestyle causal beliefs about obesity and any of the sociodemographic or health-related characteristics assessed.
Genetic Causal Beliefs about Obesity-Related Diseases
Overall, 82% of participants held genetic causal beliefs about type 2 diabetes (fig. 2), 79% about heart disease (fig. 3) and 75% about cancer (fig. 4), when categorized as ‘some/a lot.' table 3 shows that there were very few associations with participant sociodemographic or health-related characteristics.(all threse from https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/343793)
This study is based on the Ecological Systems Theory and Family and Community Systems perspectives, which emphasize the need to consider the effects of individual, family, community, and societal factors on health and social outcomes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1988; Campbell, Hesketh, & Davison, 2010; Elder et al., 2007; Fulkerson et al., 2015; Novilla, Barnes, De La Cruz, Williams, & Rogers, 2006; Valente, 2012).
This study contributes to the literature in several ways and emphasizes that peers and families are important sources of influence when it comes to healthy eating and choices of activities in young adolescents. Specifically, adolescents who reported a stronger connection with their family also engaged more frequently in physical activity than adolescents who reported lower familism. The benefits of targeting the family as part of lifestyle interventions are well established (Epstein, Paluch, Roemmich, & Beecher, 2007; Skelton, Buehler, Irby, & Grzywacz, 2012; St Jeor, Perumean-Chaney, Sigman-Grant, Williams, & Foreyt, 2002). The rationale underlying family-centered approaches is that modification of the youth’s environment is necessary to change and maintain children’s healthy habits. As a primary source of socialization, parents not only influence youths’ healthy lifestyle in providing access to resources and in modeling and reinforcing healthy habits, but they also provide the basis for the development of healthy peer relationships. Conceivably, stronger family connections may operate directly on young adolescents’ physical activity, but also indirectly in establishing the foundations for healthy peer relationships, which in turn promote healthier diet and a less sedentary lifestyle.
Furthermore, adolescents who reported higher PSF had a healthier diet and spent less time engagi ...
Fitness/Substance Abuse
Do Alcohol Consumers Exercise More? Findings
From a National Survey
Michael T. French, PhD; Ioana Popovici, PhD; Johanna Catherine Maclean, MA
Abstract
Purpose. Investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity
because understanding whether there are common determinants of health behaviors is critical in
designing programs to change risky activities.
Design. Cross-sectional analysis.
Setting. United States.
Subjects. A sample of adults representative of the U.S. population (N 5 230,856) from the
2005 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.
Measures. Several measures of drinking and exercise were analyzed. Specifications included
numerous health, health behavior, socioeconomic, and demographic control variables.
Results. For women, current drinkers exercise 7.2 more minutes per week than abstainers.
Ten extra drinks per month are associated with 2.2 extra minutes per week of physical activity.
When compared with current abstainers, light, moderate, and heavy drinkers exercise 5.7,
10.1, and 19.9 more minutes per week. Drinking is associated with a 10.1 percentage point
increase in the probability of exercising vigorously. Ten extra drinks per month are associated
with a 2.0 percentage point increase in the probability of engaging in vigorous physical activity.
Light, moderate, and heavy drinking are associated with 9.0, 14.3, and 13.7 percentage point
increases in the probability of exercising vigorously. The estimation results for men are similar to
those for women.
Conclusions. Our results strongly suggest that alcohol consumption and physical activity are
positively correlated. The association persists at heavy drinking levels. (Am J Health Promot
2009;24[1]:2–10.)
Key Words: Health Behavior, Lifestyle, Alcohol, Exercise, Health
Consciousness, Sensation Seeking, Prevention Research. Manuscript format:
research, Research purpose: modeling/relationship testing, Study design:
nonexperimental, Outcome measure: physical activity, behavioral, Setting: state/
national, Health focus: fitness/physical activity, Strategy: skill building/behavior
change, Target population age: adult, Target population circumstances:
education/income level and race/ethnicity
PURPOSE
The epidemiologic literature has
firmly established that certain lifestyle
health-related choices are associated
with an elevated risk of morbidity and
mortality.1–3 Excessive alcohol con-
sumption, physical inactivity, smoking,
and unhealthy dietary practices ac-
count for a large proportion of pre-
ventable chronic diseases and deaths in
the United States. However, the precise
association between these behaviors is
still the subject of longstanding debate.
There are reasons to believe that
health behaviors may not be indepen-
dent of each other. One view purports
that individuals’ motivation to prevent
disease or improve health could cause
the clustering of health behaviors.4 In
other words, health consciousness
could l.
This paper was written in my Advanced Child Development course. The assignment was to first, identify a popular media source addressing a current issue facing adolescents in the U.S.. The article I chose can be found here : https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/23/well/live/teen-vaping.html
Then, we were required to write a paper that explains the issue, critiques what the author got right or wrong about it, and apply our knowledge of developmental concepts and theories learned throughout the course to the issue at hand.
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about John A.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about "John Adams" as well as any event in U.S. history that is relevant to your major area of study or of interest to you. You will write about John Adams from the perspective of another historical personality who lived at the same time as the person or event you are going to describe.
For your historical personality, try to select someone from an under-represented population (examples of possible perspectives include that of Anne Hutchinson, Pocahontas, or Sojourner Truth). This analysis is to make you think about how events/people’s actions were interpreted at the time.
Key Points::
Remember that you will be writing from the perspective of a historical person about another person or an event from a period of U.S. history up to Reconstruction. From your historical person’s perspective, provide a thorough summary of the person or event you’ve chosen to write about, including the incidents that took place and any key individuals involved or affected.
Address the general importance of the person or event in the context of U.S. history.
Now, explain specifically how the person or event changed “your” daily life—“you” being the historical persona you have adopted.
Think long-term: How will the person or the event you are describing make a long-term impact in the lives of people who are in the under-represented group to which your historical person/perspective belongs?
Paper Requirements:
Your paper must be four to six pages, not including the required references and title pages.
Use at least five sources, not including the textbook. Include a scholarly journal article. Include at least one
primary
source from those identified in the syllabus.
Definition of a Primary Source
: A primary source is any source, document or artifact that was created at the time of the event. It was usually created by someone who witnessed the event, lived during or even shortly afterwards, or somehow would have first-hand knowledge of that event. A secondary source, by contrast, is written by a historian or someone writing about the event after it happened.
Have an introduction and strong thesis statement. Make use of support and examples supporting your thesis
Finish with a forceful conclusion reiterating your main idea.
Format your paper according to the
CSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA Requirements
(Links to an external site.)
.
.
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and anal.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and analyze a TV program that ran between 1955 and 1965.
To successfully complete this essay, you will need to answer the following questions:
What is the background of this show? Explain what years it was on TV, describe the channel it aired on, the main characters, setting, etc..
What social issues and historical events were taking place at the time the show was being broadcast?
Did these issues affect the television show in any way?
Did the television show make an impact on popular culture?
Your thesis for the essay should attempt to answer this question:
Explain the cultural relevance of the show, given the information gathered from the show's background, and cultural history. How can television act as a reflection of the social, political, and cultural current events?
.
More Related Content
Similar to 708There is a wealth of literature highlighting the ne.docx
Latent Class Analysis of Adolescent Health Behaviorsasclepiuspdfs
Background: Behavior is one of the most important components in health. While the impacts of adolescent risky activities have been studied extensively, less attention has been paid to health. This study examines the patterning of health behaviors among adolescents age of 10–19 years. Methods: Latent class analysis identified homogeneous, mutually exclusive “classes” (patterns) of eight, leading health behaviors - sleep, alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, physicians’ visits, meal autonomy, wearing braces, general health assessment, and having a permanent tattoo. Results: Resulting classes include (1) healthy, (2) moderately healthy, and (3) unhealthy. The characteristic behaviors and tendencies of each class differed by gender. Conclsion: This study attempts to classify adolescents by their own health behavior without including parental attributes. While adolescents do not typically prescribe to predictable behaviors and actions, the emphasis on healthy behaviors by some suggests an individual awareness of behavioral impacts and importance of healthy lifestyle choices
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol.docxAASTHA76
Both these ideas were based on the underage consumption of alcohol lading to illegal behavior that is common in the college going students. Attachment theory stands on the concept that human beings have a natural desire and innate requirement of being appreciated and accepted by others. Survey then led to the confirmatory analysis which enforced two-factor of attachment theory, comprising parental affection or attachment and peer attachment, both these types of accessories represent trust, non-estrangement, and communication, Which means that all the adults or youngsters are emotionally attached to their parents or the people of their group (Foster, Vaughan, Foster, & Califano Jr, 2013).
The results manifested the hypotheses that sheltered peer attachment positively concluded behavioral control and values towards alcohol, but protected maternal affection inversely completed behavioral control and values towards alcohol. Alcohol norms, behavioral control and attitudes individually elaborate alcohol objective, which showed an elevation in this behavior within a month. All these findings reinforce recommendations for agenda created to shorten the risk levels of underage drinking using the idea of Attachment theory and Theory of planned behavior TPB.
I. Social Learning Theory:
This research is associated with the methods of getting alcohol in underage, use of substance, underage drinking and this kind of other deviations, this study consider the application of social learning theory. Youngsters under adulthood age are getting alcohol illegally. Past researches show that young alcohol abusers use other persons for this purpose, and these other individuals include any stranger who is adult enough to drink legally (Miller, Levy, Spicer, & Taylor, 2010).
This procedure of getting alcohol is called black marketing. It has been observed that black market organization was made while taking alcohol illegally in association with the other black market organization, other black market anomaly or global anomaly. For study purpose, use of black market sources defined as the utilization of an unknown person trying to obtain illegal substance like alcohol, drugs, etc. thus sources was labeled black market, if the individual participating was an unknown. The materials under consideration in this study include alcohol and marijuana. The study sample was comprised of undergraduate’s students from the organizational pool from a southeastern university.
The questionnaire was filled through the online survey and analyzed statistically by multivariate statistical techniques (Foster, et al., 2013).Youth alcohol consumption includes a lot of research work. This study covers almost all the aspects from divergence related to underage drinking to the hazardous results it causes on health. A huge part of the sample population is the college students. Binge drinking, underage drinking, and general drinking are considered by average or dominant America ...
Identify and summarize determinants of a public health problemMalikPinckney86
Identify and summarize determinants of a public health problem:
individual/ biological, interpersonal/
Intrapersonal Factors: involve an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about a health condition.
Lifestyle Causal Beliefs about Obesity
when categorized as ‘some'/‘a lot', 94% of participants held not exercising causal beliefs, 95% held overeating causal beliefs, 90% held eating certain types of food causal beliefs, 70% held chemicals in food causal beliefs, and 41% held smoking causal beliefs about obesity, compared to the 69% who held genetic causal beliefs about obesity. There were few associations between lifestyle causal beliefs about obesity and any of the sociodemographic or health-related characteristics assessed.
Genetic Causal Beliefs about Obesity-Related Diseases
Overall, 82% of participants held genetic causal beliefs about type 2 diabetes (fig. 2), 79% about heart disease (fig. 3) and 75% about cancer (fig. 4), when categorized as ‘some/a lot.' table 3 shows that there were very few associations with participant sociodemographic or health-related characteristics.(all threse from https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/343793)
This study is based on the Ecological Systems Theory and Family and Community Systems perspectives, which emphasize the need to consider the effects of individual, family, community, and societal factors on health and social outcomes (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1988; Campbell, Hesketh, & Davison, 2010; Elder et al., 2007; Fulkerson et al., 2015; Novilla, Barnes, De La Cruz, Williams, & Rogers, 2006; Valente, 2012).
This study contributes to the literature in several ways and emphasizes that peers and families are important sources of influence when it comes to healthy eating and choices of activities in young adolescents. Specifically, adolescents who reported a stronger connection with their family also engaged more frequently in physical activity than adolescents who reported lower familism. The benefits of targeting the family as part of lifestyle interventions are well established (Epstein, Paluch, Roemmich, & Beecher, 2007; Skelton, Buehler, Irby, & Grzywacz, 2012; St Jeor, Perumean-Chaney, Sigman-Grant, Williams, & Foreyt, 2002). The rationale underlying family-centered approaches is that modification of the youth’s environment is necessary to change and maintain children’s healthy habits. As a primary source of socialization, parents not only influence youths’ healthy lifestyle in providing access to resources and in modeling and reinforcing healthy habits, but they also provide the basis for the development of healthy peer relationships. Conceivably, stronger family connections may operate directly on young adolescents’ physical activity, but also indirectly in establishing the foundations for healthy peer relationships, which in turn promote healthier diet and a less sedentary lifestyle.
Furthermore, adolescents who reported higher PSF had a healthier diet and spent less time engagi ...
Fitness/Substance Abuse
Do Alcohol Consumers Exercise More? Findings
From a National Survey
Michael T. French, PhD; Ioana Popovici, PhD; Johanna Catherine Maclean, MA
Abstract
Purpose. Investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and physical activity
because understanding whether there are common determinants of health behaviors is critical in
designing programs to change risky activities.
Design. Cross-sectional analysis.
Setting. United States.
Subjects. A sample of adults representative of the U.S. population (N 5 230,856) from the
2005 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System.
Measures. Several measures of drinking and exercise were analyzed. Specifications included
numerous health, health behavior, socioeconomic, and demographic control variables.
Results. For women, current drinkers exercise 7.2 more minutes per week than abstainers.
Ten extra drinks per month are associated with 2.2 extra minutes per week of physical activity.
When compared with current abstainers, light, moderate, and heavy drinkers exercise 5.7,
10.1, and 19.9 more minutes per week. Drinking is associated with a 10.1 percentage point
increase in the probability of exercising vigorously. Ten extra drinks per month are associated
with a 2.0 percentage point increase in the probability of engaging in vigorous physical activity.
Light, moderate, and heavy drinking are associated with 9.0, 14.3, and 13.7 percentage point
increases in the probability of exercising vigorously. The estimation results for men are similar to
those for women.
Conclusions. Our results strongly suggest that alcohol consumption and physical activity are
positively correlated. The association persists at heavy drinking levels. (Am J Health Promot
2009;24[1]:2–10.)
Key Words: Health Behavior, Lifestyle, Alcohol, Exercise, Health
Consciousness, Sensation Seeking, Prevention Research. Manuscript format:
research, Research purpose: modeling/relationship testing, Study design:
nonexperimental, Outcome measure: physical activity, behavioral, Setting: state/
national, Health focus: fitness/physical activity, Strategy: skill building/behavior
change, Target population age: adult, Target population circumstances:
education/income level and race/ethnicity
PURPOSE
The epidemiologic literature has
firmly established that certain lifestyle
health-related choices are associated
with an elevated risk of morbidity and
mortality.1–3 Excessive alcohol con-
sumption, physical inactivity, smoking,
and unhealthy dietary practices ac-
count for a large proportion of pre-
ventable chronic diseases and deaths in
the United States. However, the precise
association between these behaviors is
still the subject of longstanding debate.
There are reasons to believe that
health behaviors may not be indepen-
dent of each other. One view purports
that individuals’ motivation to prevent
disease or improve health could cause
the clustering of health behaviors.4 In
other words, health consciousness
could l.
This paper was written in my Advanced Child Development course. The assignment was to first, identify a popular media source addressing a current issue facing adolescents in the U.S.. The article I chose can be found here : https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/23/well/live/teen-vaping.html
Then, we were required to write a paper that explains the issue, critiques what the author got right or wrong about it, and apply our knowledge of developmental concepts and theories learned throughout the course to the issue at hand.
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about John A.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Portfolio Project, you will write a paper about "John Adams" as well as any event in U.S. history that is relevant to your major area of study or of interest to you. You will write about John Adams from the perspective of another historical personality who lived at the same time as the person or event you are going to describe.
For your historical personality, try to select someone from an under-represented population (examples of possible perspectives include that of Anne Hutchinson, Pocahontas, or Sojourner Truth). This analysis is to make you think about how events/people’s actions were interpreted at the time.
Key Points::
Remember that you will be writing from the perspective of a historical person about another person or an event from a period of U.S. history up to Reconstruction. From your historical person’s perspective, provide a thorough summary of the person or event you’ve chosen to write about, including the incidents that took place and any key individuals involved or affected.
Address the general importance of the person or event in the context of U.S. history.
Now, explain specifically how the person or event changed “your” daily life—“you” being the historical persona you have adopted.
Think long-term: How will the person or the event you are describing make a long-term impact in the lives of people who are in the under-represented group to which your historical person/perspective belongs?
Paper Requirements:
Your paper must be four to six pages, not including the required references and title pages.
Use at least five sources, not including the textbook. Include a scholarly journal article. Include at least one
primary
source from those identified in the syllabus.
Definition of a Primary Source
: A primary source is any source, document or artifact that was created at the time of the event. It was usually created by someone who witnessed the event, lived during or even shortly afterwards, or somehow would have first-hand knowledge of that event. A secondary source, by contrast, is written by a historian or someone writing about the event after it happened.
Have an introduction and strong thesis statement. Make use of support and examples supporting your thesis
Finish with a forceful conclusion reiterating your main idea.
Format your paper according to the
CSU-Global Guide to Writing and APA Requirements
(Links to an external site.)
.
.
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and anal.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this portfolio assignment, you are required to research and analyze a TV program that ran between 1955 and 1965.
To successfully complete this essay, you will need to answer the following questions:
What is the background of this show? Explain what years it was on TV, describe the channel it aired on, the main characters, setting, etc..
What social issues and historical events were taking place at the time the show was being broadcast?
Did these issues affect the television show in any way?
Did the television show make an impact on popular culture?
Your thesis for the essay should attempt to answer this question:
Explain the cultural relevance of the show, given the information gathered from the show's background, and cultural history. How can television act as a reflection of the social, political, and cultural current events?
.
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the impacts of the causes of the 2008 Great Recession and the current world crisis with the CoVID-19 virus*
How did the regulations you've studied over the past few chapters and in the Financial Crisis Chapter (Chapter 12) prepare banks and other financial institutions to better weather the effects of the stay-at-home orders and other impacts of the pandemic? Are there other regulations that could be placed on the banking industry that would make sense and help them through these trying times?
*Note: I am not trying to downplay or minimize in any way the "human" impact or any other non-economic impacts of the virus; this paper is just focusing on one component of the costs, among the many different impacts (perhaps much more important impacts)
4 pages 4 resources
.
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the impa.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this paper, discuss the similarities and differences of the impacts of the causes of the 2008 Great Recession and the current world crisis with the CoVID-19 virus*
How did the regulations you've studied over the past few chapters and in the Financial Crisis Chapter (Chapter 12) prepare banks and other financial institutions to better weather the effects of the stay-at-home orders and other impacts of the pandemic? Are there other regulations that could be placed on the banking industry that would make sense and help them through these trying times?
*Note: I am not trying to downplay or minimize in any way the "human" impact or any other non-economic impacts of the virus; this paper is just focusing on one component of the costs, among the many different impacts (perhaps much more important impacts)
.
For this paper choose two mythological narratives that we have exami.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this paper choose two mythological narratives that we have examined so far in this course, or that you are otherwise personally familiar with. The two myths that you choose should have one or more elements in common, possibly including (but not limited to):
Overarching story (e.g., creation, flood) or story elements (e.g., descent into the underworld, establishment of divine rulership, rapture of mortals by gods, divine disguise)
Narrative structure (e.g., repetitive patterns, discursion)
Themes (e.g., love, jealousy, mortality, revenge, mutability/transformation, limits of human power/knowledge)
Characters (e.g., tricksters)
Cultural functions (e.g., reinforcement of societal norms, explanation of origins of society, explanation of natural phenomena, incorporation in ritual practices, entertainment)
Compare and contrast the two myths you choose, taking into consideration the various elements noted above and any others you deem relevant. (In making comparisons, you do not necessarily need to apply the specifically "comparativist" approach discussed in the course as one historical strand of mythological analysis.)
While you are welcome to reference external sources, this is not a research paper and the use of secondary sources is not required or expected. If you choose to examine a myth not discussed in the course, however, please indicate the source from which you have taken this.
.
For this module, there is only one option. You are to begin to deve.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this module, there is only one option. You are to begin to develop your diversity consciousness by
identifying a current event in the news pertaining to social inequality in terms social class, gender, or racial ethnicity.
You are to
provide the link to this news article and analyze
the report including in your discussion the following:
What social inequality is being demonstrated in this current even? Describe it
What relationship is going on between the “majority” and “minority group.” Define who is the majority and who is the minority. Describe why you have identified the group as minority and majority.
Who is being marginalized in this event? How? Why do you believe they are being marginalized?
Is any group being “blamed” in this event? Is this “blame” at the individual level or the societal level – or both?
Who has the power in this situation? What is that power?
Who has the privilege in this situation? What is that privilege?
What suggestions do you have that would assist in addressing this social inequality?
What did you learn? (How did this develop your diversity consciousness?)
need to cite using apa and needs to be at least 250 words
.
For this Major Assignment 2, you will finalize your analysis in .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Major Assignment 2, you will finalize your analysis in your Part 3, Results section, and finalize your presentation of results from the different data sources. Also, for this week, you will complete the Part 4, Trustworthiness and Summary section to finalize the last part of this Major Assignment 2.
To prepare for this Assignment:
· Review the social change articles found in this week’s Learning Resources.
Part 4: Trustworthiness and Summary
D. Trustworthiness—summarize across the different data sources and respond to the following:
o What themes are in common?
o What sources have different themes?
o Explain the trustworthiness of your findings, in terms of:
§ Credibility
§ Transferability
§ Dependability strategies
§ Confirmability
Summary
· Based on the results of your analyses, how would you answer the question: “What is the meaning of social change for Walden graduate students?”
· Self-Reflection—Has your own understanding of you as a positive social change agent changed? Explain your reasoning.
· Based on your review of the three articles on social change, which one is aligned with your interests regarding social change and why?
By Day 7
Submit
Parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 of your Major Assignment 2.
.
For this Final Visual Analysis Project, you will choose one website .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Final Visual Analysis Project, you will choose one website that you visit frequently (it must be a professional business website, not your own personal website). Feel free to use websites such as Nike, Apple, Northwestern Mutual, etc. or a website that applies to your career choices.
Once you choose your website, you will begin to consider the effects the visual elements have on the viewers and
create a thesis statement and outline using the response elements 1-5 below.
For the Thesis & Outline TEMPLATE document click
here
.
APA title page, reference page, and formatting.
Use at least four academic/scholarly sources.
Use properly cited quotes and paraphrases when necessary.
Complete, polished, and error-free cohesive sentences.
Contains an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Sensory Response –
When analyzing the viewer’s sensory response to a particular visual, it is important to consider the visual elements that attract the eyes. Close your eyes when considering a visual. When you open your eyes, what are the first visual elements that you see? When analyzing a viewer’s Sensory Response, you may consider analyzing at least two of the following effects:
Colors
Lines
Shapes
Balance
Contrast
Perceptual Response –
When analyzing a viewer’s perception of visuals, it is important to consider the audience. Consider who is or is not attracted to this type of visual communication. When analyzing a viewer’s Perceptual Response, consider at least two of the following effects:
Target audience specifics (age, profession, gender, financial status, etc.)
Cultural familiarity elements (ethnicity, religious preference, social groups, etc)
Cognitive visuals (viewer’s memories, experiences, values, beliefs, etc.)
Technical Response –
When analyzing a viewer’s response to certain visuals, we need to consider the technical visual aspects that may affect perception. Describe how visuals affect the interpretation of the intended media communication message. Address specific technological elements that impact perception. When analyzing the Technical Response, consider the Laws of Perceptual Organization (similarity, proximity, continuity, common fate, etc), and at least two of the following types of visuals:
Drop-down menus
Hover-over highlighting
Animations
Quality of visuals
Emotional Response
– When analyzing a viewer’s Emotional Response, it is important to consider the targeted audience preferences and emotional intelligence. Discuss what the viewer might want to see and what type of visual presentation will set the tone for that response. When analyzing the Emotional Response, consider the effects of at least two of the following types of visuals:
Mood setting colors
Mood setting lighting
Persuasive images
Positioning of search or purchase buttons
Social media icons and share options
Ethical Response -
When analyzing a viewer’s Ethical Response, it is important to consider the ta.
For this essay, you will select one of the sources you have found th.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this essay, you will select one of the sources you have found through your preliminary research about your research topic (see Assignment 1.1). Which source you choose is up to you; however, it should be substantial enough that you will be able to talk about it at length, and intricate enough that it will keep you (and your reader) interested. For more info see attached document
.
For this discussion, you will address the following prompts. Keep in.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, you will address the following prompts. Keep in mind that the article or video you’ve chosen should not be about critical thinking, but should be about someone making a statement, claim, or argument related to Povetry & Income equality. One source should demonstrate good critical thinking skills and the other source should demonstrate the lack or absence of critical thinking skills. Personal examples should not be used.
1. Explain at least five elements of critical thinking that you found in the reading material.
2.Search the Internet, media, and find an example in which good critical thinking skills are being demonstrated by the author or speaker. Summarize the content and explain why you think it demonstrates good critical thinking skills.
3.Search the Internet, media, or and find an example in which the author or speaker lacks good critical thinking skills. Summarize the content and explain why you think it demonstrates the absence of good, critical thinking skills.
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length, which should include a thorough response to each question.
Due midnight Thursday April 22,2020
.
For this discussion, research a recent science news event that h.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, research a recent science news event that has occurred in the last six months. The event should come from a well-known news source, such as ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox, NPR, PBS, BBC, National Geographic, The New York Times, and so on. Post a link to the news story, and in your initial post:
* Summarize your news story and its contributions to the science or STEM fields
* If your news event is overtly related to globalization, explain how this event contributes to global studies. If your news event does not directly relate to globalization, how could the science behind your event be applied to global studies?
.
For this Discussion, review the case Learning Resources and the .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Discussion, review the case Learning Resources and the case study excerpt presented. Reflect on the case study excerpt and consider the therapy approaches you might take to assess, diagnose, and treat the patient’s health needs.
Case: An elderly widow who just lost her spouse.
Subjective: A patient presents to your primary care office today with chief complaint of insomnia. Patient is 75 YO with PMH of DM, HTN, and MDD. Her husband of 41 years passed away 10 months ago. Since then, she states her depression has gotten worse as well as her sleep habits. The patient has no previous history of depression prior to her husband’s death. She is awake, alert, and oriented x3. Patient normally sees PCP once or twice a year. Patient denies any suicidal ideations. Patient arrived at the office today by private vehicle. Patient currently takes the following medications:
•
Metformin 500mg BID
•
Januvia 100mg daily
•
Losartan 100mg daily
•
HCTZ 25mg daily
•
Sertraline 100mg daily
Current weight: 88 kg
Current height: 64 inches
Temp: 98.6 degrees F
BP: 132/86
By Day 3 of Week 7
Post
a response to each of the following:
• List three questions you might ask the patient if she were in your office. Provide a rationale for why you might ask these questions.
• Identify people in the patient’s life you would need to speak to or get feedback from to further assess the patient’s situation. Include specific questions you might ask these people and why.
• Explain what, if any, physical exams, and diagnostic tests would be appropriate for the patient and how the results would be used.
• List a differential diagnosis for the patient. Identify the one that you think is most likely and explain why.
• List two pharmacologic agents and their dosing that would be appropriate for the patient’s antidepressant therapy based on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. From a mechanism of action perspective, provide a rationale for why you might choose one agent over the other.
• For the drug therapy you select, identify any contraindications to use or alterations in dosing that may need to be considered based on the client’s ethnicity. Discuss why the contraindication/alteration you identify exists. That is, what would be problematic with the use of this drug in individuals of other ethnicities?
• Include any “check points” (i.e., follow-up data at Week 4, 8, 12, etc.), and indicate any therapeutic changes that you might make based on possible outcomes that may happen given your treatment options chosen.
Respond to the these discussions. All questions need to be addressed.
Discussion 2 Me
Treatment of a Patient with Insomnia
The case presented this week, is that of a 75-year-old widow who just lost her spouse 10-months ago. Th patient presents with chief complaints of insomnia. Past medical history of DM, HTN, and MDD is reported. Since the passing of her husband, she states her depression has gotten worse .
For this Discussion, give an example of how an event in one part.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Discussion, give an example of how an event in one part of the world can cause a response elsewhere in the world:
Reviewing the aspects of your event, analyze the cause and effect of global influences through direct or indirect means.
What aspects of diversity are evident in your event?
How can understanding diversity benefit a society?
.
For this discussion, consider the role of the LPN and the RN in .docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, consider the role of the LPN and the RN in the nursing process.
How would the LPN and RN collaborate to develop the nursing plan of care to ensure the patient is achieving their goal?
What are the role expectations for the LPN and RN in the nursing process?
Pls include two references and intext citation.
.
For this discussion, after you have viewed the videos on this topi.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this discussion, after you have viewed the videos on this topic posted in this week's assignment, please answer the questions posted with this week's discussion.
After posting your individual answers to questions, you are required to respond to 2 students answers with meaningful/thoughtful input on their comments. Your responses must be minimum of a paragraph with at least 3 sentences. Your comments to 2 students
Video #1: History of Homosexuality on Film -- https://youtu.be/SeDhMKd83r4
Video #2: The Gay Culture, According to Television -- https://youtu.be/EbdxRZJfRp4
Video #3: Top 10 Groundbreaking Moments for LGBTQ Characters on TV -- https://youtu.be/yXJAzPJFjQ8
Video #4: I'm Gay, But I'm not ... -- https://criticalmediaproject.org/im-gay-but-im-not/
Video #5: Acting Gay - One Word Cut -- https://youtu.be/a4jfiqiIy0A
LGBTQ+ Questions:
· Name some common stereotypes associated with LGBTQ community?
· What role does media play in establishing & perpetuating these stereotypes?
· Name 2 LGBTQ characters, 1 one from current show/movie; 1 from 10-15 years ago
. Are there differences in the characters?
. Have things changed? Evolved? Improved?
· Are LGBTQ characters portrayed differently than straight characters?
· Why do stories involving LGBTQ characters revolve around their sexuality or sexual orientation?
Acting Gay - One Word: What is your one-word association with the saying "Acting Gay"? Why did you choose this word?
Jarrett Kelley
LGBTQ Discussion
COLLAPSE
Top of Form
1. Some common stereotypes that coincide with the LGBTQ community are promiscuous, non-religious, flamboyant, mentally ill, high sex drives, etc.
2. The media plays a role in establishing these stereotypes because the general public is always watching these shows, reading the news, and listening to stories about different cultures and groups and media that they may not see or interact with in their lives. Therefore, media is an outlet to show these things in a easy way to gain knowledge about people without meeting people face-to-face apart of these groups when sometimes the stereotypes shown can't represent everyone in those groups.
3. Currently, in Marvel's Runaways, that ended in December, there are two lesbian superheros that share a kiss at the end of a season. Karolina, one of the characters, wants to get away from her childhood of religious upbringing and wants to pursue her own life with her superpower of glowing colors. Nico is shown with a Gothic appearance and can be seen as aggressive but down to earth as well. The War at Home was a television show on Fox and a character named Kenny, who is sixteen years old, is kicked out of his house by his parents after finding out he is gay.
a. There are some differences in the characters as Karolina is more flamboyant and colorful, compared to Nico who is goth and likes to remain strictly to business. Kenny is quiet most of the time about his life, especially about his gay crush until his p.
For this discussion choose one of the case studies listed bel.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this "discussion" choose
one
of the case studies listed below and mention which case study number you picked. After completing your readings, you should be able to identify the psychological disorder associated to each. After choosing one case study, identify the diagnosis, symptoms in your words and treatment plan for that diagnosis. Provide
in-text citations and references in APA format
to indicate where you are getting information from regarding diagnosis and treatment options).
This is the Case Study I chose:
Martin is a 21 year-old business major at a large university. Over the past few weeks his family and friends have noticed increasingly bizarre behaviors. On many occasions they’ve overheard him whispering in an agitated voice, even though there is no one nearby. Lately, he has refused to answer or make calls on his cell phone, claiming that if he does it will activate a deadly chip that was implanted in his brain by evil aliens. His parents have tried to get him to go with them to a psychiatrist for an evaluation, but he refuses. He has accused them on several occasions of conspiring with the aliens to have him killed so they can remove his brain and put it inside one of their own. He has stopped attended classes altogether. He is now so far behind in his coursework that he will fail if something doesn’t change very soon. Although Martin occasionally has a few beers with his friends, he’s never been known to abuse alcohol or use drugs. He does, however, have an estranged aunt who has been in and out of psychiatric hospitals over the years due to erratic and bizarre behavior.
The Psychological disorder is: SCHIZOPHRENIA
I have attached the reading as well.
Please Consider the following:
APA Format
Only sources from the text
250 words or more
Please let me know if you need anything else.
.
For this assignment, you will use what youve learned about symbolic.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you will use what you've learned about symbolic interactionism to develop your own analysis.
Your assignment is to select a television program that you know contains social inequality or social class themes. In 3-5 pages make sure to provide the following:
Provide a brief introduction that includes the program's title, describes the type of program, and explains which social theme you are addressing
Describe and explain scenes that apply to the social theme.
Identify all observed body language, facial expressions, gestures, posture stances, modes of dress, nonverbal cues, symbols, and any other observed nonverbal forms of communication in the scenes.
Explain your interpretation of the meanings of the identified nonverbal communications and symbolism.
Summarize how these interpretations are important to the sociological understanding of your chosen social inequality or social class theme.
Suggest how your interpretation of the respective meanings might be generalized to society as a whole.
.
For this Assignment, you will research various perspectives of a mul.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this Assignment, you will research various perspectives of a multicultural education issue and develop an advocacy plan to effectively communicate and advocate for a culturally responsive solution. During the development of your advocacy plan, synthesize and reflect on the major learning points that are applicable to leading culturally responsive social change in your context.
To prepare for this Assignment, review the issues you identified in the Equity Audit assignment.
Review Chapters 1–5 (pp. 1–64) of “An Introduction to Advocacy: Training Guide.”
Develop and submit your advocacy plan. To complete this Assignment, use the document below:
.
For this assignment, you will be studying a story from the Gospe.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you will be studying a story from the Gospels. More specifically, you will be studying Jesus encounter with Mary and Martha in Luke 10:38-42. You will use the template below in order to complete a study of this passage. In your study, you will use the skills of Observation, Interpretation, Correlation, and Application that you have become familiar with through your reading in
Everyday Bible Study
.
.
For this assignment, you will discuss how you see the Design Princip.docxevonnehoggarth79783
For this assignment, you will discuss how you see the Design Principles used in a 2D print. You can select a 2D print from your home, workplace, or use the CSU Art Appreciation LibGuide to find a print in an online museum. Take a photograph of the print or save an image of the print, and include it in the worksheet.In Unit II, our assignment was to describe an artwork using the Visual Elements. We can think of the Design Principles as a way that the artist organized the Visual Elements. Instead of focusing on the small parts of the artwork (like line, shape, and mass) the Design Principles look at the whole artwork and how all the elements work together. Provide a detailed description of the design principles in your 2D print, using full and complete sentences. For Design Principles, make sure you describe how the artist used the ones in Chapter 5: unity and variety, balance, emphasis, repetition and rhythm, and scale and proportion. Questions to consider are included below:
Unity: what elements work together to make a harmonious whole?
Variety: What creates diversity?
Balance: Is it symmetrical or asymmetrical?
Emphasis: What is the focal point?
Repetition and rhythm: Is an element repeated?
Scale and proportion: Are the objects in proportion to each other?
Be sure to describe exactly where in the artwork you see each Principle. You'll want to describe each artwork using the terms we learned in this unit's reading. Remember to write in complete sentences and use proper grammar.
.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
708There is a wealth of literature highlighting the ne.docx
1. 708
T
here is a wealth of literature highlighting the
negative physical (eg, type II diabetes, car-
diovascular problems) and psychosocial (eg,
depression, low self-worth) consequences of ado-
lescent obesity.1-3 However, less attention has been
given to the role adolescent weight status plays in
future health-risk behaviors, such as problematic
substance use. With adolescent overweight and
obesity rates remaining high (33.6% overweight,
18.4% obese 12-19 years),4 and substance use
more prevalent in young adulthood than any other
developmental period,5 identification of adolescent
weight status as a predictor of future problematic
substance use behavior is likely to have a signifi-
cant impact on research and clinical work aimed to
reduce multiple health risks in the transition from
adolescence to adulthood.
Adolescence is a crucial period for prevention ef-
forts aimed to reduce problematic substance use in
young adulthood. According to the National Survey
of Drug Use and Health,5 young adults have the
highest rates of current tobacco use (39.5% overall
including 33.5% cigarette use) and illicit drug use
(21.4%), with 19.0% using marijuana in the past
month. Binge drinking has been reported for 39.8%
and heavy alcohol use for 12.1% of 18- to 25-year-
2. olds. In the past 30 years, many epidemiological
longitudinal studies have identified several key
risk factors for problematic substance use, includ-
ing regular cigarette smoking, binge drinking, and
marijuana use, in adolescence and young adult-
hood. Temperament,6 behavioral disinhibition,7 ex-
ternalizing behaviors,8 poor parental monitoring,9
lack of parental support,10 negative peer interac-
tions,11 and affiliation with deviant peers12 have
been well-established as critical factors involved in
the development of problematic substance use.13-15
Considering the array of risk factors in adolescence
contributing to future problematic substance use,
it is likely that other health-risk conditions, such
as overweight or obesity status, are linked to prob-
lematic substance use behavior.
Little is currently known about the relationship
between adolescent weight status and future prob-
lematic substance use; however, use of an adoles-
cent developmental framework is likely to increase
our understanding of why this relationship may be
a significant one to address. One explanation may
be that a shared underlying factor like impulsivity
may explain co-occurring obesity and problematic
substance use. As children learn to self-regulate
behaviors, those who have difficulties with self-
control are more likely to over-consume energy-
dense food contributing to obesity risk16,17 and en-
gage in antisocial behaviors leading to substance
abuse and dependence.18,19 Although a shared
underlying factor explanation is plausible, under-
standing adolescent behavior without considering
the social context is incomplete.
H. Isabella Lanza, Research Associate and Christine E. Grel-
3. la, Professor-in-Residence, Semel Institute for Neuroscience
and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles.
Paul J. Chung, Associate Professor, Department of Pediatrics,
University of California, Los Angeles.
Correspondence Dr Lanza: [email protected]
Does Adolescent Weight Status Predict
Problematic Substance Use Patterns?
H. Isabella Lanza, PhD; Christine E. Grella, PhD; Paul J.
Chung, MD
Objectives: To identify underlying pat-
terns of cigarette smoking, alcohol use,
and marijuana use in young adulthood,
and ascertain whether adolescent over-
weight or obesity status predicts prob-
lematic substance use patterns. Methods:
The study included 15,119 participants
from the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health (Add Health) at Wave
1 (11-19 years) and Wave 3 (18-26 years).
Latent class analysis was conducted. Re-
sults: Participants were classified into a
Low Substance Use (35%), Regular Smok-
ers (12%), High-risk Alcohol use (33%),
or High Substance Use (20%) class. Over-
weight/obese adolescents had a greater
likelihood of belonging to the Regular
Smokers class. Conclusions: Overweight/
obese adolescents are at higher risk of en-
gaging in regular cigarette smoking with-
out problematic alcohol or marijuana use.
Key words: adolescence, alcohol, ciga-
rette smoking, marijuana, obesity, young
4. adulthood
Am J Health Behav. 2014;38(5):708-716
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.38.5.8
Lanza et al
Am J Health Behav.™ 2014;38(5):708-716 709 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.38.5.8
Critical to the discussion on risk-taking behav-
iors is the knowledge that social standing among
peers is a prominent goal for most adolescents.
Taking into consideration the important of self-
regulation for risk-taking outcomes, Steinberg’s
social neuroscience perspective on adolescent
risk-taking20 posits that increases in risk-taking
are a result of heightened sensitivity to the social
context and its rewards (ie, peer acceptance), as
well as slower-developing self-regulatory processes
linked to rational decision-making. Both failure to
be accepted by peers and desire for higher social
status may increase vulnerability to risk behav-
iors, such as substance use. Earlier work by Tajfel
and Turner21,22 highlights why overweight and
obese adolescents may be more likely to experience
a negative peer context, which increases vulner-
ability to later risk-taking. As adolescents derive
their self-concept from the social group(s) to which
they belong, social status is often achieved by be-
having in ways that are normative for the group.
Adolescents who do not fit the group norm, such
as those who are different in physical appearance
(eg, obese adolescents), are less likely to be ac-
5. cepted by peers.23,24 Overweight and obese adoles-
cents are indeed at higher risk for peer alienation
and victimization than normal-weight peers.25-27
Those deviating from the group norm may try to
overcome their poor social status by engaging in
behaviors (eg, substance use) that will increase
status among certain social groups, like deviant
peers.28 They also may engage in risky behaviors,
like substance use, as a way to cope with the nega-
tive feelings stemming from poor social status.29,30
It appears that overweight and obese adolescents
may be experiencing a social context and lack of
self-regulation that increases their risk of engag-
ing in problematic substance use as they transi-
tion into adulthood. Prior cross-sectional stud-
ies have provided tentative evidence that higher
weight status in adolescence is related to problem-
atic cigarette smoking and alcohol use. A positive
relationship between cigarette smoking and body
mass index (BMI) has been reported among ear-
ly adolescent Danish boys.31 In a study of Portu-
guese adolescents, obese girls and boys were more
likely to report daily alcohol consumption and fre-
quent drunkenness compared to non-obese ado-
lescents.32 A study of Taiwanese adolescents also
found that girls and boys with higher BMI were
more likely than counterparts to report regular al-
cohol use and cigarette smoking, but not other il-
licit drugs.33 Furthermore, findings using a large
sample of US adolescents reported that obese girls,
but not boys, were more likely to use alcohol and
smoke cigarettes, but not marijuana.34
Findings from longitudinal studies examining
adolescent weight status and substance use are
6. more inconclusive and have mainly focused on to-
bacco use. A study of early adolescents in the US
indicated that obese girls were less likely to initiate
tobacco use 2 years later compared to non-obese
girls.35 On the other hand, another US study and a
Swedish study found that smoking initiation was
more likely among obese girls compared to non-
obese girls.36,37 No significant relationships were
found among boys. A recent study using 2 samples
of US adolescents indicated that BMI did not pre-
dict alcohol or other substance use 2 years later.38
Similarly, an epidemiological study of rural US
adolescents did not find a significant association
between obesity trajectory and substance use.39
The inconsistent results from these longitudinal
studies call attention to the need for additional
prospective and more comprehensive research.
The current study sought to clarify past find-
ings on adolescent weight status and risk of prob-
lematic substance use by utilizing a large sample
of US adolescents to identify whether overweight
or obesity status in adolescence is a predictor of
unique patterns of problematic substance use in
young adulthood. To achieve this end, a person-
centered approach, latent class analysis (LCA),
was utilized to identify unique patterns of prob-
lematic substance use by considering responses to
multiple items on cigarette smoking, alcohol use,
and marijuana use simultaneously. Prediction of
adolescent weight status to problematic substance
use patterns was then assessed.
METHODS
Participants
7. The current study used data from The Nation-
al Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add
Health), consisting of a nationally representative
sample of adolescents in grades 7-12 in the US
during the 1994-95 school year. Participants were
enrolled in 80 high schools and 52 middle schools.
During the initial wave of the study, 20,745 ado-
lescents in grades 7-12 (11-19 years of age) par-
ticipated in both a school survey and in-home in-
terview between April and December 1995. Written
informed consent was obtained from both parent
and adolescent. Participants were eligible to par-
ticipate in the second wave of data collection about
one year later (April-August 1996). A third wave
of in-home interviews occurred from July 2001 to
April 2002, which included 15,197 young adults
aged 18-26 years. Information was collected on
mental and physical health, health-risk behav-
iors, and contextual factors related to family, peer,
school, and neighborhood.
The analytic sample for the current study includ-
ed 15,119 of the 15,197 participants interviewed at
Wave 3 (young adulthood) during 2001-02; we ex-
cluded 78 persons for whom no substance use data
were available. Of these 15,119 young adults, 53%
were women; 54% White, 21% Black, 15% Latino;
7% Asian; 3% other. The average age of participants
at Wave 1 was 16.10 years ± 1.72 and at Wave 3 was
22.47 years ± 1.76. Wave 1 (adolescent) BMI% was
available for 97% of the analytic sample, with 25%
meeting overweight (14%) or obesity (11%) status.
In terms of socio-economic variables, 93% of partic-
8. Does Adolescent Weight Status Predict Problematic Substance
Use Patterns?
710
ipants in the sample reported mother education at
Wave 1. Of available data, 20% of mothers received
less than a high school education; 34% were high
school graduates; 19% completed some college;
and 28% completed college or beyond. Also, 75% of
parents of participants in the analytic sample com-
pleted an in-home interview at Wave 1, including
annual household income. Of available data, 29%
reported less than $25,000, 33% between $25,000
and $49,999; 23% between $50,000 and $74,999;
and 8% between $75,000 and $99,999.
Measures
Individual characteristics. Adolescents were
asked to report their sex (1 = female, 0 = male)
and race/ethnicity at Wave 1. Ethnicity variables
for African-American, Asian, Latino, and white
were dummy coded (eg, 1 = African-American, 0
= non-African-American). Adolescents also re-
ported on residential mother’s education status at
Wave 1 (1 = less than a high school education; 2
= high school grad; 3 = completed some college; 4
= completed college or beyond), which was used
as a proxy for SES, given that household income
was only available for 75% of participants who had
completed parent interviews at Wave 1.
Weight status. At Wave 1 (11-19 years old), ado-
lescents self-reported their height and weight. Self-
9. reported height and weight data have been found to
be reliable for 96% of adolescents in the Add Health
sample.40 Height and weight were used to calculate
age- and sex-specific BMI [weight(lbs)/[height(in)2]
x 703] percentiles using the Centers for Disease
Prevention (CDC) 2000 growth charts.41 Obesity
was defined as having a BMI percentile at or above
the 95th percentile, and overweight defined as hav-
ing a BMI percentile at or above the 85th percentile
and below the 95th percentile. Adolescents either
meeting overweight or obesity status were com-
bined to create an overweight/obesity indicator (1 =
overweight or obese, 0 = non-overweight or obese).
Substance use. At Wave 3 (18-26 years), young
adults responses to multiple questions on cigarette
smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use were in-
cluded in analyses. Five items related to cigarette
smoking were selected, which included whether par-
ticipants had ever: (1) tried cigarette smoking, even
just 1 or 2 puffs (0 = no, 1 = yes); (2) smoked an en-
tire cigarette (0 = no, 1 = yes); (3) smoked cigarettes
regularly, that is, at least 1 cigarette every day for 30
days (0 = no, 1 = yes); and (4) smoked at all in the
past 30 days (0 = no, 1 = yes). They were also asked
(5) how many cigarettes smoked per day in past 30
days, which was recoded into a categorical item (0 =
none, 1 = 1, 2 = 2-9, 3 = 10-20, 4 = 20+ cigarettes).
Six items on alcohol use were included in analy-
ses. Participants were asked: (1) whether they had
drank more than 2 or 3 times since June 1995
(Wave 1) (0 = no, 1 = yes); (2) days consumed al-
cohol in the past year (0 = none, 1 = couple times
a year, 2 = couple times a month, 3 = 1-2 times a
week, 4 = 3-7 times a week); (3) days consumed
10. 5 or more drinks in past 12 months (0 = none, 1
= couple times a year, 2 = once a month or less,
3 = couple times a month/week, 4 = 3-7 times a
week); (4) days consumed 5 or more drinks in the
last 2 weeks (0 = none, 1 = once, 2 = 2-9, 3 = 10+
times); (5) whether they had been drunk in the
past year (0 = none, 1 = couple times a year, 2 =
once a month or less, 3 = couple times a month/
week, 4 = 3-7 times a week); and (6) whether they
had driven while drinking since June 1995 (Wave
1) (0 = no, 1 = yes).
Three items related to marijuana use were also
selected for analyses. Participants were asked: (1)
whether they had used marijuana since June 1995
(Wave 1) (0 = no, 1 = yes); (2) whether they had used
marijuana in the past year (0 = no, 1 = yes); and (3)
number of times marijuana consumed in the past
30 days, which was recoded into a categorical item
(0 = none, 1 = once, 2 = 2-9, 3 = 10+ times).
Planned Analyses
Latent class analysis (LCA) is used to identify
underlying patterns among observed categorical
indicators (eg, substance use behaviors) and clas-
sify individuals who respond similarly into latent
classes.42-44 LCA is an iterative process using full
information maximum likelihood estimation. Us-
ing Mplus version 7,45 model-building steps were
taken to select the best-fitting class model of sub-
stance use in young adulthood and then ascertain
whether adolescent weight status and other in-
dividual characteristics predicted membership in
particular substance use classes.
11. Statistical indices, parameter estimates, and
practical implications are used to determine the
best-fitting model.43,44,46 The unconditional model is
first specified (ie, 1-class model), which is then used
as a comparison for an increasing number of class-
es until the models specified no longer converge or
have useful application. Statistical indices, like the
Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC)47 and the Lo-
Mendell-Rubin likelihood ratio test (LMR LRT),48 as
well as interpretability of classes are key in deter-
mining model selection. Item-response probabilities
refer to the likelihood that an individual in a given
latent class will endorse a particular item response.
They are used to confirm that individuals in each
latent class have similar response patterns to the
observed indicators and that class response pat-
terns are distinct from each other. After selecting
the best-fitting model, covariates are added to the
model. Logistic regression coefficients are estimated
by setting the beta parameter to 0 for the reference
class; thus, providing an estimation of log-odds that
indicate an endorsement of a covariate for a certain
class relative to the reference class.
Ethnicity, sex, and a proxy for socioeconomic
status (maternal education) were included in the
covariates analysis in addition to weight status,
as each is strongly tied to disparities in obesity
prevalence and substance use risk. Among adoles-
cents, African Americans and Latinos have higher
Lanza et al
12. Am J Health Behav.™ 2014;38(5):708-716 711 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.38.5.8
overweight and obesity prevalence than Whites,
and boys are more likely to be overweight or obese
compared to girls.4 In young adulthood, men are
more likely to use marijuana, cigarette smoking is
more prevalent among Whites than African Ameri-
cans, and Whites and Latinos report more binge
drinking than African Americans.5 Generally, SES
indicators like parental education and household
income have shown that lower SES is associated
with higher weight status,49 although associations
with substance use are mixed.5
RESULTS
Descriptive Data
Table 1 compares the average rate of overweight/
obese adolescents’ substance use in young adult-
hood to non-overweight/obese adolescents. Across
all cigarette smoking indicators, overweight/obese
adolescents had higher rates compared to non-
overweight/obese adolescents. In contrast, over-
weight/obese adolescents had lower rates of high-
risk alcohol use compared to non-overweight/
obese adolescence. No significant differences were
found between groups for marijuana use.
Latent Class Analysis
Model selection. LCA was conducted to identify
latent classes of cigarette smoking, alcohol use,
and marijuana use in young adulthood. Table 2
presents the statistical fit indices for 5 classes (the
6-class model did not converge). Model selection is
13. generally based on a scree-like test, in which bet-
ter fitting models are represented where the indices
begin to level off.50 Although the 5-class model had
the lowest values in fit criteria, indices began to
level off significantly after the 3-class model; con-
sequently, the 3-, 4-, and 5-class models were fur-
ther explored before selecting a best-fitting model.
Examination of parameter estimates identified the
4-class model as best-fitting the data in terms of
classifying the underlying heterogeneity of ciga-
rette, alcohol, and marijuana use in the sample.
Class probabilities, homogeneity of item-response
within classes, and distinct item-response patterns
across classes were assessed to determine which
model was most interpretable.43,46 The 3-class mod-
el was able to identify a low and a high substance
use class, but the third class lacked homogeneity.
Two classes in the 5-class model lacked homogene-
ity and there was a lack of distinctiveness between
2 classes. Figure 1 illustrates the item-response
probabilities of each class of the 4-class model.
Classes appear homogenous and distinct, and
class sizes were found to be substantial as well.
Identified classes. Considering item-response
probabilities for each class (Figure 1), classes were
identified based on endorsement of substance use
behaviors. A little over one-third of the participants
(34.7%) reported very low substance use behavior
(Class 1; Low Substance Use). Of these, close to
80% stated that they had never smoked an en-
tire cigarette, over 95% stated they had not been
drunk or binged on alcohol, and almost 90% had
never tried marijuana.
14. Participants in the Regular Smokers class (Class
2; 12.4%) showed high endorsement of cigarette
use, with 96% reporting having been a regular
smoker at some point (at least 1 cigarette a day for
Table 1
Cigarette, Alcohol, and Marijuana Use in Young Adulthood:
Overweight/Obese vs. Non-overweight/Obese Adolescents
Overweight/Obese Non-overweight/Obese
Cigarette %
Tried cigarette
Smoked entire cigarette***
Smoked regularly***
Smoked past 30 days***
No. cigarettes per day (more than 1)***
74
61
41
35
32
73
59
38
32
29
Alcohol %
Drank since W1**
Alcohol in past year (multiple times per month or week)***
Binge drink in past year (multiple times per month or week) *
Binge drink in past 2 weeks*
Drunk past year (multiple times per month or week***
Drunk driving***
15. 76
40
20
31
16
21
78
46
22
33
19
24
Marijuana %
Marijuana since W1
Marijuana past year
No. of times used marijuana in past year(more than once)
44
31
18
45
32
17
*** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05
Does Adolescent Weight Status Predict Problematic Substance
Use Patterns?
712
16. past 30 days) and all reporting smoking in the past
30 days. Over one-third (38%) smoked 2-9 ciga-
rettes and just over half (52%) smoked 10 or more
cigarettes on days smoked in the past 30 days.
Similar to the Low Substance Use class, problem-
atic alcohol use was very low. Also, although 40%
had tried marijuana since the start of the study,
only one-fourth had used marijuana in the past
year.
The High-risk Alcohol Use class (Class 3; 32.6%)
was characterized by problematic alcohol use but
less risky cigarette and marijuana use. Approxi-
mately 70% stated they had used alcohol multi-
ple times a month or week in the past year, about
80% indicated they had engaged in binge drinking
or been drunk in the past year, and 50% stated
they have binged in the last 2 weeks. Also, 35%
reported drunk driving. In regards to cigarette and
marijuana use, few had ever been regular smokers
(16%), and almost none had smoked in the past 30
days. Although 39% reported using marijuana in
the past year, less than one-fourth reported using
more than once in the last year.
Last, the High Substance Use class (Class 4;
Table 2
Latent Class Model Fit Indices (N = 15,119)
Classes
Log
Likelihood
42. Class 2
Regular Smokers
12.4%
Class 3
High-risk Alcohol Use
32.6%
Class 4
High Substance Use
20.2%
Lanza et al
Am J Health Behav.™ 2014;38(5):708-716 713 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.38.5.8
20.2%) represents participants with the highest
levels of problematic substance use. Almost all
(99%) reported to be regular smokers who smoked
in the last 30 days, with over half smoking 10+
cigarettes on days smoked. Over 85% reported
drinking multiple times per month or week in the
past year, and the majority reported binge drinking
and being drunk in the past year (93%) and binge
drinking in the past 2 weeks (74%). Over half (55%)
stated they had driven drunk. Two-thirds (69%) re-
43. ported marijuana use in the last year, with 45%
using more than once in that period.
Predictors of class membership. Covariates
were added to the LCA model to determine wheth-
er adolescent weight status predicted particular
substance use classes. A covariate model includ-
ing weight status (overweight or obese), sex, race/
ethnicity (African American, Asian, Latino, White),
and maternal education was estimated simultane-
ously using latent multinomial logistic regression
(Table 3). Using the Low Substance Use class as
a reference class, adolescents meeting overweight
or obesity status had a greater likelihood of being
classified into the Regular Smokers class (β =.37,
OR = 1.45, p < .001) than the Low Substance Use
class. Similarly, overweight or obese adolescents
were more likely to belong to the Regular Smokers
class than the High Substance Use (β =.35, OR =
1.42, p < .001) and the High-risk Alcohol Use (β
=.43, OR = 1.54, p < .001) classes.
As for other individual characteristics (see Table
3 for statistical values), women were less likely to be
classified into any problematic substance use class
compared to the Low Substance Use class. African
Americans, Asians, and Latinos were less likely to
be classified into the High Substance Use or Regu-
lar Smokers classes than the Low Substance Use
class, and African Americans and Asians also were
less likely to belong to the High-risk Alcohol Use
class compared to the Low Substance Use class.
On the other hand, Whites were more likely to be-
long to the High-risk Alcohol Use class compared
to the Low Substance Use class. Adolescents re-
44. siding with mothers with higher education status
were more likely to be classified into the High Sub-
stance Use and High-risk Alcohol Use classes than
the Low Substance Use Class, but were less likely
to belong to the Regular Smokers class than the
Low Substance Use class. The covariate analysis
also was conducted with annual household in-
come, with results unchanged. Annual household
income was not included in the final model because
a significant proportion of the sample (25%) did not
have household income information, as this infor-
mation was collected with parent-report at Wave 1.
DISCUSSION
Sole consideration of average group differences
of substance use rates give an incomplete picture
of the potential risks overweight or obese adoles-
cents face in young adulthood. The average group
differences shown in Table 1 suggest that cigarette
smoking and alcohol use rates only vary slightly be-
tween overweight/obese and non-overweight/obese
groups. Statistical, but not clinically meaningful
differences, may contribute to a false assumption
that weight status is not an important predictor
of substance use. However, with the utilization of
Table 3
Estimated Odds Ratios (OR) of Class Membership in Relation to
Obesity,
Sex, Race/Ethnicity, and Education Indices ased on a
Multinomial Latent
Class Regression Model
Reference class: Low Substance Use (Class 1)
45. vs Regular Smokers
(Class 2)
vs High-risk Alcohol
Use (Class 3)
vs High Substance Use
(Class 4)
β(SE) OR(95%CI) β(SE) OR(95%CI) β(SE) OR(95%CI)
Overweight/ obese vs
non-overweight/obese .37(.07)*** 1.45(1.26-1.66) -.06(.05)
.95(.85-1.04) .02(.06) 1.02(.91-1.15)
Female vs Male -.20(.06)** .82(.73-.92) -.67(.05)*** .51(.46-
.56) -.95 (.06)*** .39(.34-.44)
African American vs.
non-AA -1.23(.18)*** .29(.21-.42) -1.03(.15)*** .36(.27-.48) -
1.75 (.17)*** .17(.12-.24)
Asian/Pacific Islander
vs non-API -.96(.20)** .38(.26-.57) -.58(.16)*** .56(.41-.77) -
.97(.18)*** .38(.27-.54)
Latino vs non-Latino -1.19(.18)*** .31(.21-.43) -.11(.16)
.90(.65-1.23) -1.08 (.17)*** .34(.24-.47)
White vs non-White -.16(.17) .86(.61-1.19) .29(.15)*
1.34(1.003-1.79) .24(.16) 1.27(.93-1.74)
Higher vs lower
mother education .-.16(.03)*** .85(.80-.90) .20(.02)***
1.22(1.17-1.27) .09(.02)*** 1.10(1.05-1.14)
*** p < .001; ** p < .01; * p < .05
Does Adolescent Weight Status Predict Problematic Substance
Use Patterns?
46. 714
a person-centered approach, not only were unique
patterns of substance use behavior in young adult-
hood identified, but a more comprehensive assess-
ment of adolescent weight status as a risk factor for
problematic substance use was achieved.
Ultimately, the key relationship between high-
er weight status and problematic substance use
points to regular cigarette smoking. Overweight
or obese adolescents had a greater likelihood of
belonging to the Regular Smokers class in young
adulthood than any other class. On the other
hand, overweight or obesity status in adolescence
did not predict greater likelihood of belonging to
the High-risk Alcohol Use of High Substance Use
classes; consequently, higher weight status does
not appear to be a risk factor for problematic al-
cohol or marijuana use. Also, given that over-
weight or obese adolescents did not have a lower
likelihood of belonging to the Low Substance Use
class vs problematic substance use classes, higher
weight status does not appear to lower the likeli-
hood of problematic substance use behavior.
Although the current study clearly indicates that
overweight or obese adolescents have a greater
likelihood of being a regular smoker in the absence
of problematic alcohol or marijuana use compared
to non-overweight/obese adolescents, past longi-
tudinal studies have reported mixed findings re-
garding the role of higher weight status on ciga-
rette smoking.35-38 Consideration of alcohol use
and marijuana use alongside cigarette smoking,
and assessment of cigarette smoking behaviors
47. other than smoking initiation, which was a focus of
previous studies, increases understanding of the
relationship between weight status and cigarette
smoking. One of the main questions arising from
the current findings pertains to why higher weight
status is related specifically to regular cigarette
smoking but not other forms of problematic sub-
stance use. Although there are many hypotheses
linking higher weight status to cigarette smoking,
to date, only a handful of studies present evidence
on the potential pathways by which higher weight
status in adolescence is linked to cigarette smok-
ing. For instance, overweight and obese individu-
als may initiate cigarette smoking because they
perceive it as an effective weight loss strategy.51,52
Also, perception of being overweight or obese and
focus on body size are related to smoking initia-
tion, particularly among adolescent girls.37,53 In
addition to social factors, biological ones also may
inform the relationship between higher weight sta-
tus and regular cigarette smoking. Food and drugs
are known to activate the same neurological path-
ways containing dopaminergic receptors linked
to reward sites in the brain54,55 that may explain
their co-occurrence. For instance, recent studies
examining the pathway from cigarette smoking to
obesity from adolescence to young adulthood sug-
gest that decreased cigarette smoking is associ-
ated with increased weight status.56,57 The negative
relationship between decreased smoking and in-
creased weight status suggest smoking and eating
have similar neurophysiological response systems,
as noted by other studies.58,59 For this reason, bi-
directional relationships between weight status
and cigarette smoking during the transition from
48. adolescent to young adulthood should be explored
more fully in future studies.
Other findings from the current study revealed
that ethnic and sex differences in substance use
membership were generally in line with previous
findings. Similar to prevalence rates reported in
the National Survey on Drug Use and Health,5 re-
sults showed that African-Americans, Asians, and
Latinos were at lower risk of problematic cigarette,
alcohol, and marijuana use, and males were at
higher risk of belonging to problematic substance
use classes. Future research should seek to as-
sess whether ethnicity and/or sex moderates the
relationship between higher weight status and sub-
stance use, as this is yet unclear. Given that ethnic
and sex disparities exist among substance use, as
well as obesity status,4 these differences may influ-
ence the degree to which risk behaviors are engaged
in by overweight or obese adolescents from specific
ethnic and/or sex groups. For instance, if the objec-
tive to engage in regular cigarette smoking for over-
weight or obese adolescents is to lose weight, this
relationship may be stronger among white females
than other groups, as they are most often subjected
to social stigma and other negative social conse-
quences resulting from higher weight status.60
Of course, several limitations need to be con-
sidered. First, the current study relied on self-
reported height and weight to measure BMI% for
adolescents. Although measured BMI data is fa-
vored over self-report, relatively minor differences
in reliability between self-reported and measured
BMI data have been reported in adolescence40,61
and numerous studies have successfully used
49. ADD Health self-reported BMI data.62-64 Second, it
is important to note that weight status was only
accounted for at one point in time during adoles-
cence. It is unknown whether adolescents meeting
overweight or obesity status at Wave 1 met over-
weight or obesity status across most or all years of
adolescence. Similarly, we expect that some ado-
lescents meeting overweight or obese status at dif-
ferent points in time during adolescence were not
accounted for in the analyses. BMI data are avail-
able one year after Wave 1 (Wave 2) and 60% of
participants meeting overweight or obesity status
in Wave 1 also met overweight or obesity status in
Wave 2. Third, the study was unable to examine
socio-contextual and neighborhood variables that
may inform how higher weight status contributes
to cigarette smoking risk, such as low peer status
or limited neighborhood resources for maintaining
healthy weight. Fourth, the variation of age in the
sample at each assessment point (eg, 18-26 years
at Wave 3 increases the difficulty in interpreting
findings as a result of developmental milestones,
such as transition to college when high-risk alco-
Lanza et al
Am J Health Behav.™ 2014;38(5):708-716 715 DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.38.5.8
hol use increases substantially.
Acknowledging these limitations, the current
study still has important implications for public
health efforts aimed to mitigate health-risk behav-
50. iors among young adults. Specifically, emphasis
should be placed on decreasing the risk of ciga-
rette smoking in overweight or obese adolescents.
Although more research is needed to identify the
processes by which adolescent weight status influ-
ences cigarette smoking risk, physicians and other
health professionals should address smoking risk
with overweight or obese adolescents and probe for
psychosocial or physiological stressors that may
initiate high-risk smoking activity. Adolescents are
exposed to many psychosocial stressors as they
transition into young adulthood (eg, college, em-
ployment, leaving home). Taking on the responsi-
bilities of their own health behaviors may be too
difficult for some adolescents already negotiating
with significant developmental changes. Over-
weight and obese adolescents may find themselves
dealing with these types of stressors; on top of this
they likely may be experiencing social exclusion
and victimization. The culmination of risks may
contribute to an overweight/obese adolescent’s de-
cision to engage in regular smoking behavior as
a weight management strategy and/or to decrease
anxiety. They may be especially willing to engage
in regular cigarette smoking if they believe smok-
ing has similar effects on their physiological state
as eating does (eg, feeling calm, pleasure). How-
ever, without knowing the health service needs of
overweight and obese adolescents, as well as other
socio-contextual factors that largely influence obe-
sity risk (physical activity resources, access to and
knowledge of healthy nutrition), intervention ef-
forts targeting smoking among overweight or obese
youth will not be as effective. Empirical studies
that can integrate multiple lines of research on
obesity and substance use risk are warranted to
51. answer questions about preventing and treating
health risks in this unique population.
Human Subjects Statement
The following study has been approved by the
University of California, Los Angeles Institutional
Review Board (#10-001106).
Conflict of Interest Statement
None of the authors have conflict of interests
pertaining to this study.
Acknowledgement
This study is supported by the National Institute
of Drug Abuse (R03DA033497 and T32DA007272).
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Lease Versus Purchase Paper Grading Guide
60. FIN/370 Version 8
1
Learning Team: Lease Versus Purchase Paper
Purpose of Assignment
Students compare the factors involved in leasing versus
purchasing capital assets.
Resources Required
Ch. 27 of Basic Finance
Grading Guide
Content
70 Percent
Met
Partially Met
Not Met
Comments:
Discuss the factors involved in making a lease versus purchase
decision.
Discuss the application of time value of money concepts used in
evaluating lease versus purchase decisions.
The paper is no more than 350 words in length.
61. Total Available
Total Earned
X
#/X
Writing Guidelines
30 Percent
Met
Partially Met
Not Met
Comments:
The paper—including tables and graphs, headings, title page,
and reference page—is consistent with APA formatting
guidelines and meets course-level requirements.
Intellectual property is recognized with in-text citations and a
reference page.
Paragraph and sentence transitions are present, logical, and
maintain the flow throughout the paper.
63. finance, commercial bank loans, trade credit, commercial paper,
secured loans, and factoring. Chapters 12 through 15 covered a
variety of long-term, fixed-income securities ranging from
straight bonds to convertible bonds and preferred stock.
Between these extremes are intermediate-term bonds and
leasing. Intermediate-term debt ranges from 5 to 10 years and is
obtained through commercial banks and insurance companies.
Term notes may also be sold to the general public.
Some firms own properties in order to lease the properties to
others. Washington Real Estate Trust owns office buildings,
industrial centers, apartments, and shopping centers in the
Washington, D.C., area and rents the space to stores such as
Williams-Sonoma, Laura Ashley, and Giant Food. These retail
establishments want the use of the asset but not ownership.
They prefer to lease the space instead of buying and operating
the buildings.
The term of a lease may range from a short period such as a
year or two to many years. Since leases create legal obligations
(the lease payments), they are an alternative to short-,
intermediate-, and long-term debt as a source of funds. This
chapter describes the terms of a lease and illustrates the basic
analysis of leasing versus borrowing and buying the asset. Since
leases are an alternative to debt financing, this section also
covers when lease obligations must be capitalized and placed on
the firm’s balance sheet as a debt obligation.
Intermediate-Term Debt
While accountants classify all liabilities as either short-term
(due in less than one year) or long-term (due in more than one
year), debt can also be classified as short-term, intermediate-
term, or long-term. Intermediate-term debt is outstanding for
more than a year (and hence appears as long-term debt on the
firm’s balance sheet), but it matures quicker than long-term
debt. While long-term bonds may mature 20, 25, or 30 years
after being issued, most intermediate-term debt will mature in 5
to 10 years.
Intermediate-term debt issued by corporations and sold to the
64. general public may be referred to as “notes” to differentiate it
from the bonds of the corporation, which are long-term debt.
For example, in July 2008, H. J. Heinz issued $500 million of
5.35 percent notes due in 2013 (5 years to maturity). Different
terminology may be used when intermediate-term debt is
obtained from a commercial bank or an insurance company.
Such debt is often referred to as a term loan.
Term loans are usually secured by equipment or real estate.
Commercial banks, which make term loans of 1 to 5 years’
duration, generally require that the loan be secured by
equipment. Insurance companies, which tend to make term loans
of from 5 to 15 years, generally use real estate as collateral for
the loan.
In addition to the collateral, term loans have restrictive
covenants that are negotiated between the debtor and the
creditor. Common restrictions include a minimum current ratio
such as 2.0:1, or a minimum amount of net working capital (that
is, the difference between current assets and current liabilities
must exceed some specified dollar amount). The creditors also
require periodic financial statements from the borrower and may
require prior approval before the debtor can issue additional
debt. While these restrictive covenants are common in term loan
agreements, they do not exhaust all the possibilities, as each
loan is individually negotiated. Conditions in the credit markets
and the relative strengths of the parties also affect the terms.
Term loans are generally retired in periodic payments and hence
are like mortgage loans. The repayment schedules call for the
payment of interest and the retirement of the principal. For
example, a firm buys equipment that costs $12,000 and has an
expected life of 5 years. The firm arranges a term loan with a
commercial bank. The following conditions apply:
1. a down payment of 20 percent of the cost of the equipment
2. five equal annual payments to pay the interest and retire the
loan
3. a 9 percent interest rate on the declining balance
4. the loan to be secured by the equipment
65. The first condition establishes the amount that the bank is
willing to loan. Notice that the bank does not lend the entire
amount; the borrower must put up $2,400 (0.20 × $12,000) and
the bank finances the balance, $9,600. Terms 2 and 3 establish
the rate of interest and the payment schedule. The fourth term
designates the equipment as collateral against the loan and gives
the bank the right to take the equipment and sell it should the
debtor default.
The repayment schedule is determined as follows. The borrower
must make equal payments so that the bank earns 9 percent
annually and the loan is retired in 5 years. This is another
illustration of the time value of money. The equation necessary
to solve this problem (that is, to determine the annual payments)
is
Calculator
Solution
Function Key
Data Input
PV =
–9,600
FV =
0
I =
9
N =
66. 5
PMT =
?
Function Key
Answer
PMT =
2468.09
This is an example of an annuity, so the problem collapses to:
PMT(PVAIF 9I, 5N) =
$9,600
PMT(3.890) =
$9,600
PMT =
$9,600/3.890 = $2,467.87.
Thus, $2,467.87 is the annual payment that retires this loan and
pays 9 percent of the declining balance.
The actual payment schedule and the division of the payment
into interest payment and principal reduction are given
in Exhibit 27.1. This table is essentially the same as the
mortgage loan amortization schedule illustrated in Exhibit
7.2 (page 124) in Chapter 7. In both examples, the amount of
the interest declines with each payment as the outstanding
balance on the loan is reduced. Conversely, the amount of the
principal repayment rises with each payment as the interest
payment is reduced.
67. Generally, the depreciation of the equipment and the resulting
cash flow cover the required loan payments. In this case, the
annual straight-line depreciation expense would be $2,400
($12,000/5). The cash flow generated by this $2,400 noncash
depreciation expense is approximately equal to the $2,467.87
payment required by the loan. (In many cases accelerated
depreciation is used so that the initial depreciation expense is
increased.) By matching the repayment schedule with the cash
flow, the firm enhances its capacity to service the debt.
Exhibit 27.1 Repayment Schedule for a $9,600 Term Loan at 9
Percent for Five Years
Year
Payment
Interest
Principal Retirement
Balance Owed on Loan
1
$2,467.87
$864.00
$1,603.87
$7,996.13
2
2,467.87
719.65
1,748.22
68. 6,247.91
3
2,467.87
562.31
1,905.56
4,342.35
4
2,467.87
390.81
2,077.06
2,265.29
5
2,467.87
203.87
2,264.00
1.29*
*The $1.29 results from rounding off in using the interest
tables. The $2,468.09 payment determined by the financial
calculator avoids this error.
Since each loan is individually negotiated between the borrower
and the lender, a variety of possible terms exist. One possibility
is for the lender to require equal principal repayments with
interest being computed on the remaining balance for each
period. The repayment schedule under these terms for the
$9,600 term loan is presented in Exhibit 27.2. In this case, the
69. principal is retired in five equal installments of $1,920
($9,600/5 = $1,920 in the second column). The amount of
interest (column 3) depends on the balance owed (column 4).
Thus, the payment in the second year is the sum of the principal
repayment ($1,920) plus the interest on the balance owed at the
end of the first year ($691.20), for a total payment of $2,611.20
(column 5).
Exhibit 27.2 Repayment Schedule for a $9,600 Term Loan at 9
Percent with Equal Principal Repayments
Year
Principal Repayment
Interest
Balance of Loan
Total Payment
1
$1,920
$864.00
$7,680
$2,784.00
2
1,920
691.20
5,760
2,611.20
3
70. 1,920
518.40
3,840
2,438.40
4
1,920
345.60
1,920
2,265.60
5
1,920
172.80
0
2,092.80
Other possible terms include no principal repayment until the
loan is due at the end of the fifth year. In this case, the firm
would annually remit the $864 interest payment, and at the end
of the fifth year make the last interest payment plus the
principal repayment ($864 + $9,600 = $10,464). The lender
could combine the two previous illustrations and annually
require a partial principal repayment (for example, $1,000
annually) with the balance of $4,600 ($9,600 – $5,000) paid at
the end of the term of the loan. Such a lump repayment at the
end of a loan is referred to as a balloon payment.
Although firms obtain intermediate-term credit from banks and
71. insurance companies, intermediate-term securities may be sold
to the general public. Notes sold to the general public are not
collateralized, while term loans usually are, and generally the
notes do not have a compulsory repayment schedule. Such notes
are really more similar to long-term bonds than to term loans.
However, these notes may have specific features that make them
attractive to investors. The intermediate term (for example, 7
years) may make these notes attractive to investors who do not
want to make investments for a longer term (such as 20 years).
In addition, intermediate-term notes frequently cannot be called
and refunded before maturity. Since the notes lack a call
feature, the investor knows that the firm cannot force the buyer
to give up the security should interest rates fall. Many long-
term bonds are called and refunded when long-term interest
rates fall, so this noncallability of intermediate-term notes
assures investors of their interest income (if no default) for the
term of the notes.
Leasing
Leasing is essentially renting, and the two terms are often
interchanged. Since lease contracts may cover any time period,
lease financing may be an alternative to short- or long-term
debt.
A lease contract is for the use of an asset such as plant or
equipment. Firms want the use of the asset. They use the capital
budgeting techniques (net present value and internal rate of
72. return) to determine which investments are profitable. After
deciding which investments to make, they must decide how to
finance the asset. Notice that it is the use of the asset that the
firm desires and not necessarily title to the asset. Leasing
permits the firm (lessee) to use the asset without acquiring title,
which is retained by the owner (the lessor). In return, the lessee
enters into a contract (thelease) to make specified payments for
the use of the asset.
Leases take one of two forms. An operating lease provides the
lessee with the use of the asset and may include a maintenance
contract. The cost of servicing the equipment is built into the
lease. The contract may be canceled after proper notice if the
lessee wants to change equipment. This type of lease is
primarily used for renting equipment, cars, and trucks. The
length of the lease is less than the expected life of the asset but
the lease may be renewed. Since the lease is not for the life of
the asset, the lessor anticipates either having the lease renewed
or selling the asset at the lease’s expiration.
A financial lease, which may also be referred to as
a capital lease, differs from an operating lease in several
significant ways. These contracts are not cancelable and do not
include a service clause. The duration of a financial lease is the
expected life of the asset. The lease payments cover the cost of
the asset and earn a set return for the lessor. Thus, a financial
lease is similar to debt financing. If the firm had issued bonds
73. to obtain the funds to acquire the asset, the payments to the
bondholders would cover the cost of the equipment plus their
return (the rate of interest). Of course, if debt had been used,
the firm would own the asset, while with leasing it does not
acquire title. This difference is important if at the end of the
asset’s life there is residual value that accrues to the asset’s
owner.
While there are two classes of leases, there are three types of
lease agreements. From the viewpoint of the lessee, the type of
lease agreement is immaterial; the firm still acquires the use of
the asset. The type of lease has an impact only on the lessor.
The first type of lease agreement is thedirect lease. The lessor
owns the asset and directly leases it to the lessee. Direct leases
are offered by manufacturers who build the asset, such as IBM,
as well as by finance companies and leasing companies that
acquire assets with the intent to lease them to prospective users.
The second type of lease is a sale and leaseback. Under this
type of agreement, the firm that owns the asset sells it to the
lessor and then leases it back. The selling firm receives cash
from the sale to the lessor that can be put to other uses but still
retains the use of the asset. The lessee, however, relinquishes
title to the asset and thus loses any residual value that the asset
might have. And, of course, the firm must now make the lease
payments.
The third type of lease is a leveraged lease. Since the lessor
74. owns the asset, that firm must have the funds to acquire it. In a
leveraged lease the lessor borrows part of the funds necessary to
acquire the asset. For example, a finance company may borrow
from a commercial bank so that it may acquire an asset that it in
turn leases to the ultimate users. If financial leverage is
favorable, the lessor will increase the return on its funds
invested in the asset.
Lease or Purchase
The question of whether it is better to buy or to lease depends
on several crucial variables. These include the firm’s tax
bracket, the terms of the lease, the asset’s anticipated residual
value, and the cost of obtaining funds to buy the asset. While
this introductory text cannot develop this topic, the following
example will provide some of the essential information
necessary to make the choice.
A firm decides to acquire equipment that costs $5,000. The
equipment has an expected life of five years, after which the
equipment will be sold for an expected salvage value of $500.
Depreciation will be straight-line. (The firm would use
accelerated depreciation if possible, and the depreciation
expense would start after six months have elapsed. These
normal conditions are ignored to simplify the illustration.)
Maintenance is expected to be $200 annually, and the firm’s tax
rate is 40 percent. The purchase is financed entirely with a
$5,000 loan that is retired through an annual $1,285 payment
75. covering interest and principal (that is, the payments are a
mortgage schedule). The annual cash outflows and inflows are
shown in Exhibit 27.3.
Initially, there is an immediate cash $5,000 outflow to pay for
the equipment but that is covered by the loan, so there is no
immediate cash outflow. At the end of the first year, there is a
$200 cash outflow for maintenance, $450 for interest, and $835
for principal repayment, for a total of $1,485. Notice that the
$1,000 depreciation is not a cash outflow because it is a
noncash expense.
Exhibit 27.3 Determination of Cash Outflows from Owning
The outflows are partially offset by the tax savings that result
from tax-deductible expenses. These expenses are the $200
maintenance, the $450 interest, and the $1,000 depreciation.
Notice the principal repayment is not tax deductible. The sum of
the tax deductible expense is $1,650, and since the tax rate is 40
percent, these expenses reduce income taxes by $660 so the net
cash outflow is $825 ($1,485 – 660). Notice that the net cash
outflow grows each year because the principal repayment
increases and it is not a tax-deductible expense.
At the end of the fifth year, the equipment is sold for $500. The
sale is a cash inflow, but if an asset is sold for more than its
book value, the cash inflow is reduced by the taxes generated by
the sale. (If the asset were sold for less than its book value, the
76. sale would reduce taxes.) In this illustration, the asset is
completely depreciated, so its book value is $0. All of the sale
is taxable income, so the firm nets only $300 after paying taxes
of $200 on the $500 sale.
Alternatively, the firm could lease the equipment from a lessor
who wants a 10 percent return. To determine the annual lease
payments, the lessor answers the following question: How much
must I charge each year so that my $5,000 invested in the
equipment yields 10 percent? (There is no reason to assume the
interest rate lessee pays to borrow is the same rate the lessor
wants to earn on the lease.) That is,
The interest factor is 3.791, so the equation becomes
PMT(3.791) =
$1,319
PMT = $5,000/3.791 =
$1,319.
For the lessor to earn 10 percent, the annual lease payment
should be $1,319.
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