22 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
ne of the most common rein-
forcement functions of problem
behavior is escape from instruc-
tional stimuli. Escape, or the social-neg-
ative reinforcement function, has been
shown to be at least as prevalent as and
sometimes more prevalent than attention
(i.e., social-positive reinforcement) and
automatic reinforcement functions. For
example, in an analysis of the functions
of self-injurious behavior (SIB) of 152
individuals with developmental disabili-
ties, Iwata, Pace, Dorsey, et al. (1994)
demonstrated that 35% of the individu-
als displayed SIB maintained by escape
from instruction, compared to 23%
and 26% of individuals whose SIB was
maintained by attention and automatic
reinforcement, respectively. Similarly,
Asmus et al. (2004) demonstrated that
social-negative reinforcement was the
most common maintaining variable
for problem behavior either solely or
in combination with social positive
reinforcement (i.e., multiple control)
for 138 individuals with and without
developmental disabilities. Finally, Love,
Carr, and LeBlanc (2009) found that
escape was the second most common
function of problem behavior, identified
for 50% of 32 children with autism
spectrum disorders.
Individuals with disabilities are
frequently exposed to learning situa-
tions that target important habilitative
skills such as pre-academics, activities
of daily living, communication, social
behavior, among others. Unfortunately,
a number of aspects of the instructional
environment might become aversive and
establish escape from them as a negative
reinforcer. For example, task difficulty,
rate of instruction delivery, and particu-
lar prompting strategies could all have
aversive properties for some learners.
If problem behavior occurs in response
to the aversive situation, a common
and understandable reaction of many
instructors might be to allow the client
time away from the task to “calm down.”
Frequent instruction, impaired reper-
toires associated with disabilities, and
natural reactions to problem behavior
from caregivers likely combine to make
escape functions quite common.
Practicing behavior analysts who
work with individuals with disabilities in
any type of instructional setting should
be prepared to treat escape-maintained
problem behavior. If a functional
assessment indicates that problem be-
havior is maintained by escape from in-
structional activities, there are a number
of treatments that might be employed as
part of a behavioral intervention plan.
The current standard for reductive treat-
ments is to base them on the results of a
functional assessment. These “function-
based” treatments directly address some
aspect of the behavior’s maintaining
contingency (e.g., establishing operation,
reinforcer) by, for example, eliminating
the contingency through extinction,
weakening the establishing operation by
making a task less aversive, or teaching
the individual a .
This study evaluated the use of classroom-based functional and adjunctive assessments to select interventions for two adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Functional assessments involved systematically manipulating environmental variables in the classroom to determine their relationship to problem behaviors. Adjunctive assessments explored how modifying curriculum-related factors like task length could impact behavior, without directly examining behavioral function. Interventions developed from the assessment results significantly reduced problem behaviors and were viewed as effective and feasible by teachers and students. The assessments provided individualized strategies to address the heterogeneity of ADHD-ODD symptoms when previous treatments had not succeeded.
ANGER CONTROL FOR PEOPLE WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES A CRITICAL REVIEWLisa Cain
This document reviews 16 studies that used cognitive-based anger control packages to treat anger in people with learning disabilities. While some studies found reductions in anger, the experimental evidence is weak. Relaxation and self-monitoring, which were components in many packages, have been shown to effectively reduce anger and challenging behaviors when used alone. However, it is unclear which specific components of anger control packages are effective for people with learning disabilities.
Theoretical Basis-Occupational therapy and strokeYousefBabish2
Includes the basic knowledge for the occupational therapist to implement a very structured intervention, and also includes a brief description of the most effective approaches, interventions, and frame of references. Furthermore, the document shows many aspects of the intervention and the stroke effects has on functionality and the human being itself.
Embry & Biglan "Evidence Based Kernels" Review paper 2008Dennis Embry
This is the major paper about evidence-based kernels by Dennis D. Embry and Anthony Biglan published in 2008..
Abstract This paper describes evidence-based kernels, fundamental units of behavioral influence that appear to underlie effective prevention and treatment for children, adults, and families. A kernel is a behavior–influence procedure shown through experimental analysis to affect a specific behavior and that is indivisible in the sense that removing any of its components would render it inert. Existing evidence shows that a variety of kernels can influence behavior in context, and some evidence suggests that frequent use or sufficient use of some kernels may produce longer lasting behavioral shifts. The analysis of kernels could contribute to an empirically based theory of behavioral influence, augment existing prevention or treatment efforts, facilitate the dissemination of effective prevention and treatment practices, clarify the active ingredients in existing interventions, and contribute to efficiently developing interventions that are more effective. Kernels involve one or more of the following mechanisms of behavior influence: reinforcement, altering antecedents, changing verbal relational responding, or changing physi- ological states directly. The paper describes 52 of these kernels, and details practical, theoretical, and research implications, including calling for a national database of kernels that influence human behavior.
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually .docxstilliegeorgiana
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually as they are not related to each other)
Part1: 2 pages aoa style, reference page required.
The “Average Man”? Daniels (1952)
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/010203.pdf
Beyond Average Hough (2020)
https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/08/beyond-average
Directions:
Please respond to the following prompts. Be sure to copy and paste the prompts into your report and place your response directly below the prompt to which you are responding.
Use of complete sentences (minimally 5 - 8 sentences in response to each prompt) , APA format when referencing either article, good layout and formatting, and use of a 12 pt font are expected.
Question Prompts:
1) Considering what you've read in these article, what do you think of when you hear the term 'individualized (or personalized) learning'? What do you believe individualized learning should like for students in an online classroom?
2) Use Google Scholar to find ONE online accessible resources on the topic of individualized learning in an online classroom. Cite your resource using APA format. After reading your resource, summarize in detail at least 2 key take-aways from your resource.
Part2:
See attached pdf reading for A section and youtube video for B secontion answer the below in one page (short answers) no reference page needed for part 2 (discussion style)
A-
(Mertler, 2007) defines data-driven instructional decision making (or D-DIDM) as a “process by which educators examine [data] in order to identify student strengths and deficiencies” .
1) What are Mertler's thoughts regarding the history of instructional decision making? Do you agree? Why or why not?
2) Mertler refers to the 'art of teaching'. After reading his thoughts, what do you interpret this phrase to mean? How might student learning in an online classroom be impacted by the 'art of teaching'?
3) Review what Mertler implies distinctions between the art of teaching responsibilities of researchers and those of practitioners (instructors). If you were advising an online education practitioner based on Mertler's writings, how would you describe what ONE of their responsibilities might look like? Please ensure that your response applies specifically to the role of a facilitator of online instruction.
B-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kHm6YiboHA
1) Discuss your perspective on ONE comparable and/or contrasted position taken by the two lecturers. Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
2) List ONE characteristic that you believe the 'average online student' may possess? What could potentially be done within an online classroom to support a student possessing this characteristic? How might your suggestion support better learning outcomes for the student? Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
Part3
Why is it import ...
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually .docxcherry686017
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually as they are not related to each other)
Part1: 2 pages aoa style, reference page required.
The “Average Man”? Daniels (1952)
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/010203.pdf
Beyond Average Hough (2020)
https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/08/beyond-average
Directions:
Please respond to the following prompts. Be sure to copy and paste the prompts into your report and place your response directly below the prompt to which you are responding.
Use of complete sentences (minimally 5 - 8 sentences in response to each prompt) , APA format when referencing either article, good layout and formatting, and use of a 12 pt font are expected.
Question Prompts:
1) Considering what you've read in these article, what do you think of when you hear the term 'individualized (or personalized) learning'? What do you believe individualized learning should like for students in an online classroom?
2) Use Google Scholar to find ONE online accessible resources on the topic of individualized learning in an online classroom. Cite your resource using APA format. After reading your resource, summarize in detail at least 2 key take-aways from your resource.
Part2:
See attached pdf reading for A section and youtube video for B secontion answer the below in one page (short answers) no reference page needed for part 2 (discussion style)
A-
(Mertler, 2007) defines data-driven instructional decision making (or D-DIDM) as a “process by which educators examine [data] in order to identify student strengths and deficiencies” .
1) What are Mertler's thoughts regarding the history of instructional decision making? Do you agree? Why or why not?
2) Mertler refers to the 'art of teaching'. After reading his thoughts, what do you interpret this phrase to mean? How might student learning in an online classroom be impacted by the 'art of teaching'?
3) Review what Mertler implies distinctions between the art of teaching responsibilities of researchers and those of practitioners (instructors). If you were advising an online education practitioner based on Mertler's writings, how would you describe what ONE of their responsibilities might look like? Please ensure that your response applies specifically to the role of a facilitator of online instruction.
B-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kHm6YiboHA
1) Discuss your perspective on ONE comparable and/or contrasted position taken by the two lecturers. Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
2) List ONE characteristic that you believe the 'average online student' may possess? What could potentially be done within an online classroom to support a student possessing this characteristic? How might your suggestion support better learning outcomes for the student? Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
Part3
Why is it import.
Escape-to-Attention as a Potential Variable forMaintaining P.docxrusselldayna
Escape-to-Attention as a Potential Variable for
Maintaining Problem Behavior in the School Setting
Jana M. Sarno and Heather E. Sterling
The University of Southern Mississippi
Michael M. Mueller
Southern Behavioral Group
Brad Dufrene, Daniel H. Tingstrom, and D. Joe Olmi
The University of Southern Mississippi
Abstract. Mueller, Sterling-Turner, and Moore (2005) reported a novel escape-
to-attention (ETA) functional analysis condition in a school setting with one child.
The current study replicates Mueller et al.’s functional analysis procedures with
three elementary school-age boys referred for problem behavior. Functional
analysis verified the participant’s problem behavior was maintained by escape
from academic demands. Follow-up functional analyses in which target behaviors
in escape versus ETA conditions were compared resulted in higher levels of target
behavior in the ETA condition for 2 of the 3 participants. The current study also
extended previous research by including a treatment analysis. Treatments de-
signed to address escape and attention functions were more effective at reducing
the target behaviors than treatments designed to target escape alone for all 3
participants. Results and implications for future research are discussed.
Incorporating experimental analyses
into a functional behavioral assessment is an
effective and time-efficient approach for the
assessment and treatment of problem behavior
(Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003; Mueller,
Sterling-Turner, & Moore, 2005; Mueller,
Nkosi, & Hine, in press). The functional anal-
ysis methodology developed by Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) is an
analogue evaluation of problem behavior in
which purported reinforcers are withheld and
then delivered contingent upon target behav-
ior. In their original work, Iwata and col-
leagues measured levels of target behaviors
during experimental conditions (i.e., attention,
escape, alone) and compared the data to levels
of target behavior in a control condition in
which the reinforcers were available noncon-
tingently. Iwata et al.’s methodology has been
used extensively to identify the behavioral
function of self-injurious behavior in clinical
settings and has been used with a variety of
behaviors and in other nonclinical settings.
Although use of functional analysis proce-
This article was taken, in part, from the first author’s thesis.
Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Heather E. Sterling, The University of
Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406; E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright 2011 by the National Association of School Psychologists, ISSN 0279-6015
School Psychology Review,
2011, Volume 40, No. 1, pp. 57–71
57
dures is reported less commonly in school
settings (Hanley et al., 2003), studies have
been reported with examples of disruptive
school-based behaviors reinforced by peer at-
tention (e.g., Broussard & Northup, 1997),
teacher attention, (e.g., G.
This study evaluated the use of classroom-based functional and adjunctive assessments to select interventions for two adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Functional assessments involved systematically manipulating environmental variables in the classroom to determine their relationship to problem behaviors. Adjunctive assessments explored how modifying curriculum-related factors like task length could impact behavior, without directly examining behavioral function. Interventions developed from the assessment results significantly reduced problem behaviors and were viewed as effective and feasible by teachers and students. The assessments provided individualized strategies to address the heterogeneity of ADHD-ODD symptoms when previous treatments had not succeeded.
ANGER CONTROL FOR PEOPLE WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES A CRITICAL REVIEWLisa Cain
This document reviews 16 studies that used cognitive-based anger control packages to treat anger in people with learning disabilities. While some studies found reductions in anger, the experimental evidence is weak. Relaxation and self-monitoring, which were components in many packages, have been shown to effectively reduce anger and challenging behaviors when used alone. However, it is unclear which specific components of anger control packages are effective for people with learning disabilities.
Theoretical Basis-Occupational therapy and strokeYousefBabish2
Includes the basic knowledge for the occupational therapist to implement a very structured intervention, and also includes a brief description of the most effective approaches, interventions, and frame of references. Furthermore, the document shows many aspects of the intervention and the stroke effects has on functionality and the human being itself.
Embry & Biglan "Evidence Based Kernels" Review paper 2008Dennis Embry
This is the major paper about evidence-based kernels by Dennis D. Embry and Anthony Biglan published in 2008..
Abstract This paper describes evidence-based kernels, fundamental units of behavioral influence that appear to underlie effective prevention and treatment for children, adults, and families. A kernel is a behavior–influence procedure shown through experimental analysis to affect a specific behavior and that is indivisible in the sense that removing any of its components would render it inert. Existing evidence shows that a variety of kernels can influence behavior in context, and some evidence suggests that frequent use or sufficient use of some kernels may produce longer lasting behavioral shifts. The analysis of kernels could contribute to an empirically based theory of behavioral influence, augment existing prevention or treatment efforts, facilitate the dissemination of effective prevention and treatment practices, clarify the active ingredients in existing interventions, and contribute to efficiently developing interventions that are more effective. Kernels involve one or more of the following mechanisms of behavior influence: reinforcement, altering antecedents, changing verbal relational responding, or changing physi- ological states directly. The paper describes 52 of these kernels, and details practical, theoretical, and research implications, including calling for a national database of kernels that influence human behavior.
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually .docxstilliegeorgiana
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually as they are not related to each other)
Part1: 2 pages aoa style, reference page required.
The “Average Man”? Daniels (1952)
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/010203.pdf
Beyond Average Hough (2020)
https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/08/beyond-average
Directions:
Please respond to the following prompts. Be sure to copy and paste the prompts into your report and place your response directly below the prompt to which you are responding.
Use of complete sentences (minimally 5 - 8 sentences in response to each prompt) , APA format when referencing either article, good layout and formatting, and use of a 12 pt font are expected.
Question Prompts:
1) Considering what you've read in these article, what do you think of when you hear the term 'individualized (or personalized) learning'? What do you believe individualized learning should like for students in an online classroom?
2) Use Google Scholar to find ONE online accessible resources on the topic of individualized learning in an online classroom. Cite your resource using APA format. After reading your resource, summarize in detail at least 2 key take-aways from your resource.
Part2:
See attached pdf reading for A section and youtube video for B secontion answer the below in one page (short answers) no reference page needed for part 2 (discussion style)
A-
(Mertler, 2007) defines data-driven instructional decision making (or D-DIDM) as a “process by which educators examine [data] in order to identify student strengths and deficiencies” .
1) What are Mertler's thoughts regarding the history of instructional decision making? Do you agree? Why or why not?
2) Mertler refers to the 'art of teaching'. After reading his thoughts, what do you interpret this phrase to mean? How might student learning in an online classroom be impacted by the 'art of teaching'?
3) Review what Mertler implies distinctions between the art of teaching responsibilities of researchers and those of practitioners (instructors). If you were advising an online education practitioner based on Mertler's writings, how would you describe what ONE of their responsibilities might look like? Please ensure that your response applies specifically to the role of a facilitator of online instruction.
B-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kHm6YiboHA
1) Discuss your perspective on ONE comparable and/or contrasted position taken by the two lecturers. Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
2) List ONE characteristic that you believe the 'average online student' may possess? What could potentially be done within an online classroom to support a student possessing this characteristic? How might your suggestion support better learning outcomes for the student? Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
Part3
Why is it import ...
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually .docxcherry686017
Please do each part on separate attachement (do them individually as they are not related to each other)
Part1: 2 pages aoa style, reference page required.
The “Average Man”? Daniels (1952)
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/010203.pdf
Beyond Average Hough (2020)
https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/08/beyond-average
Directions:
Please respond to the following prompts. Be sure to copy and paste the prompts into your report and place your response directly below the prompt to which you are responding.
Use of complete sentences (minimally 5 - 8 sentences in response to each prompt) , APA format when referencing either article, good layout and formatting, and use of a 12 pt font are expected.
Question Prompts:
1) Considering what you've read in these article, what do you think of when you hear the term 'individualized (or personalized) learning'? What do you believe individualized learning should like for students in an online classroom?
2) Use Google Scholar to find ONE online accessible resources on the topic of individualized learning in an online classroom. Cite your resource using APA format. After reading your resource, summarize in detail at least 2 key take-aways from your resource.
Part2:
See attached pdf reading for A section and youtube video for B secontion answer the below in one page (short answers) no reference page needed for part 2 (discussion style)
A-
(Mertler, 2007) defines data-driven instructional decision making (or D-DIDM) as a “process by which educators examine [data] in order to identify student strengths and deficiencies” .
1) What are Mertler's thoughts regarding the history of instructional decision making? Do you agree? Why or why not?
2) Mertler refers to the 'art of teaching'. After reading his thoughts, what do you interpret this phrase to mean? How might student learning in an online classroom be impacted by the 'art of teaching'?
3) Review what Mertler implies distinctions between the art of teaching responsibilities of researchers and those of practitioners (instructors). If you were advising an online education practitioner based on Mertler's writings, how would you describe what ONE of their responsibilities might look like? Please ensure that your response applies specifically to the role of a facilitator of online instruction.
B-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-kHm6YiboHA
1) Discuss your perspective on ONE comparable and/or contrasted position taken by the two lecturers. Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
2) List ONE characteristic that you believe the 'average online student' may possess? What could potentially be done within an online classroom to support a student possessing this characteristic? How might your suggestion support better learning outcomes for the student? Try to provide perspectives that have not been previously shared by other student posters to this forum.
Part3
Why is it import.
Escape-to-Attention as a Potential Variable forMaintaining P.docxrusselldayna
Escape-to-Attention as a Potential Variable for
Maintaining Problem Behavior in the School Setting
Jana M. Sarno and Heather E. Sterling
The University of Southern Mississippi
Michael M. Mueller
Southern Behavioral Group
Brad Dufrene, Daniel H. Tingstrom, and D. Joe Olmi
The University of Southern Mississippi
Abstract. Mueller, Sterling-Turner, and Moore (2005) reported a novel escape-
to-attention (ETA) functional analysis condition in a school setting with one child.
The current study replicates Mueller et al.’s functional analysis procedures with
three elementary school-age boys referred for problem behavior. Functional
analysis verified the participant’s problem behavior was maintained by escape
from academic demands. Follow-up functional analyses in which target behaviors
in escape versus ETA conditions were compared resulted in higher levels of target
behavior in the ETA condition for 2 of the 3 participants. The current study also
extended previous research by including a treatment analysis. Treatments de-
signed to address escape and attention functions were more effective at reducing
the target behaviors than treatments designed to target escape alone for all 3
participants. Results and implications for future research are discussed.
Incorporating experimental analyses
into a functional behavioral assessment is an
effective and time-efficient approach for the
assessment and treatment of problem behavior
(Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003; Mueller,
Sterling-Turner, & Moore, 2005; Mueller,
Nkosi, & Hine, in press). The functional anal-
ysis methodology developed by Iwata, Dorsey,
Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982) is an
analogue evaluation of problem behavior in
which purported reinforcers are withheld and
then delivered contingent upon target behav-
ior. In their original work, Iwata and col-
leagues measured levels of target behaviors
during experimental conditions (i.e., attention,
escape, alone) and compared the data to levels
of target behavior in a control condition in
which the reinforcers were available noncon-
tingently. Iwata et al.’s methodology has been
used extensively to identify the behavioral
function of self-injurious behavior in clinical
settings and has been used with a variety of
behaviors and in other nonclinical settings.
Although use of functional analysis proce-
This article was taken, in part, from the first author’s thesis.
Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Heather E. Sterling, The University of
Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, #5025, Hattiesburg, MS 39406; E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright 2011 by the National Association of School Psychologists, ISSN 0279-6015
School Psychology Review,
2011, Volume 40, No. 1, pp. 57–71
57
dures is reported less commonly in school
settings (Hanley et al., 2003), studies have
been reported with examples of disruptive
school-based behaviors reinforced by peer at-
tention (e.g., Broussard & Northup, 1997),
teacher attention, (e.g., G.
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a technique used to change behaviors through reinforcement and modification of environmental factors. Studies have shown ABA to be effective in improving skills and reducing problematic behaviors for individuals with autism when applied early on. However, some argue ABA follows a "cookbook" approach and does not account for each child's individual needs and experience of autism. Effective ABA requires training parents to understand their child's behaviors and needs to develop personalized intervention plans rather than relying on statistics.
This document provides a literature review on action learning in the health care sector. It discusses several key points:
1) It reviews foundational literature on action learning and prominent models. It finds definitions and models vary but focus on learning through solving real-world problems.
2) It examines similarities and differences between action learning and other learning concepts, finding a focus on pragmatic problem-solving distinguishes action learning.
3) Inquiry and reflection are identified as important processes that connect learning to action in action learning. Questioning and reflection help participants learn from experiences.
4) The paper evaluates studies on balance between action and learning in action learning programs using criteria from Cho and Egan. Most studies on health
A Comparison Of The Mystery Motivator And The Get Em On Task Interventions F...Addison Coleman
This study compared the effectiveness of two positive behavior support interventions, Mystery Motivator and Get 'Em On Task, in decreasing off-task behaviors in fifth grade classrooms. Both interventions were implemented using an alternating treatments design. Results showed that both interventions effectively decreased off-task behavior at the class-wide level compared to baseline. The Mystery Motivator intervention used weekly behavior charts and unknown rewards to motivate on-task behavior as a group contingency. The Get 'Em On Task intervention used a computer program to signal and reward individual students for on-task behavior.
EFFICACY OF AND PREFERENCE FOR REINFORCEMENT ANDRESPONSE COSEvonCanales257
EFFICACY OF AND PREFERENCE FOR REINFORCEMENT AND
RESPONSE COST IN TOKEN ECONOMIES
ERICA S. JOWETT HIRST
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
CLAUDIA L. DOZIER
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
AND
STEVEN W. PAYNE
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK
Researchers have shown that both differential reinforcement and response cost within token
economies are similarly effective for changing the behavior of individuals in a group context
(e.g., Donaldson, DeLeon, Fisher, & Kahng, 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974). In addition, these
researchers have empirically evaluated preference for these procedures. However, few previous
studies have evaluated the individual effects of these procedures both in group contexts and in
the absence of peers. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining
the individual effects and preferences of differential reinforcement and response cost under both
group and individualized conditions. Results demonstrated that the procedures were equally
effective for increasing on-task behavior during group and individual instruction for most chil-
dren, and preference varied across participants. In addition, results were consistent across partici-
pants who experienced the procedures in group and individualized settings.
Key words: differential reinforcement, independent group contingency, preference, response
cost, token economy
The token economy is a common behavioral
intervention that has been demonstrated to be
effective for increasing appropriate behavior
and decreasing inappropriate behavior for many
populations across different settings (Doll,
McLaughlin, & Barretto, 2013; Hackenberg,
2009; Kazdin, 1977). Token economies involve
delivery, removal, or both delivery and removal
of conditioned reinforcers (e.g., tokens and
points) that can be exchanged for back-up rein-
forcers (e.g., prizes, treats, and leisure activ-
ities). When tokens are delivered contingent on
appropriate behavior or for the absence of inap-
propriate behavior, these procedures are termed
differential reinforcement of alternative behavior
(DRA) or differential reinforcement of other
behavior (DRO), respectively. When tokens are
removed contingent on inappropriate behavior
or for the absence of appropriate behavior, this
procedure is termed response cost (RC).
An advantage of token economies is that
they can be implemented with a group of indi-
viduals as a general behavior-management strat-
egy during small-group instruction or as a
classwide intervention. Classwide behavior-
management strategies such as token economies
should be considered to address minor disrup-
tive behavior, to increase motivation for learn-
ing, or as a complement to an individualized
intervention. However, general behavior-
management strategies may not be effective in
isolation for some individuals who engage in
severe problem behavior or have more intense
Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Claudia L. Dozier, Department of Applied
Behavioral Science, U ...
This study examined teachers' responses to problem behavior from children with autism following behavioral training. The study found that teachers were more likely to provide escape from demands or reprimands following problem behavior, despite their training. Analysis of the interactions found that problem behavior was typically higher before, rather than after, the teacher responses of escape or reprimands. This suggests the teacher responses may have been negatively reinforced by reductions in the problem behavior. The results replicate previous research and indicate that problem behavior can shape counterproductive adult responses, undermining treatment integrity.
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and CostIn a one to two .docxchristalgrieg
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and Cost
In a one to two page paper identify the impact that technology has on quality, access, and cost of healthcare.
Be sure to cite your references.
This is Chapter 6 from the book:
Johnson, C.M., Mawhinney, T. C., & Redmon, W.K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance: Behavior analysis and management.New York, NY: Sage The Hawthorn Press, Inc
In-text citation:
(Johnson, Mawhinney & Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 6
Training and Development in Organizations: A Review of the Organizational Behavior Management Literature
There are several excellent literature reviews and other discussions on personnel training in organizations in the industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology literature (Campbell, 1971; Eden, 1987; Goldstein, 1980, 1991; Latham, 1988, 1989; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). These works have had an impact on the field of training and have contributed to the development and quality of training research. With few exceptions, however, these reviews have ignored organizational behavior management (OBM) training research. The present chapter attempts to fill that gap and extend earlier treatments of OBM training (Reid, Parsons, and Green, 1989; Ross, 1982). The chapter begins with a review of the OBM training literature followed by a critique and suggestions for future research.
Space constraints preclude treatment of the entire training literature from a behavior analytic perspective. Thus, I focus primarily on research investigating the process of instruction and skill acquisition of people employed in organizations. Research investigating transfer of training strategies is not emphasized because several excellent papers on generalization and maintenance already exist in the I/O (Baldwin and Ford, 1988), education (Royer, 1979), and behavior analysis (Stokes and Baer, 1977; Stokes and Osnes, 1989) literatures. Research where training was peripheral to other organizational interventions (e.g., Fox and Sulzer-Azaroff, 1989; Komaki, Blood, and Holder, 1980; Rowe, 1981; Streff, Kalsher, and Geller, 1993) is also excluded. Finally, research focusing primarily on trainee reactions to programs is not discussed (Reid and Parsons, 1995, 1996).
The author would like to express appreciation to Thomas S. Critchfield, Richard K. Fleming, and the editors for their comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION
Some suggest that training does not play as important a role in behavior change as consequences. In a discussion of organizational change, Murphy and Remnyi (1979) state that antecedent stimulus control techniques are not likely to yield long-term changes in behavior unless consequent stimuli are controlled. Similarly, Geller (1990) notes that workshops and training programs cannot maintain safe behavior or reduce work injuries because natural contingencies are not in place to support safe behavior. He stresses the importance of using operant condition ...
Classical and operant conditioning are two types of learning processes studied in psychology. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, while operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors. Applied behavior analysis uses principles of operant conditioning to modify behaviors by increasing desirable ones and decreasing undesirable ones. Observational learning and social cognitive approaches also influence behaviors by modeling and social support. Self-regulated learning involves students planning tasks, monitoring performance, and reflecting on outcomes in a cyclical process to improve skills. Providing distance learning modules for tertiary students in the Philippines with opportunities for teacher guidance could support self-regulated learning.
Assessing therapeutic problem solving skills empirical analysis of a measuri...Lisa Cain
This document describes a study that assessed therapeutic problem-solving skills in caregivers of mentally retarded individuals before and after training. The researchers developed four scales to measure initiative, systematics, specificity, and analytical reasoning. Caregivers were interviewed before and after training, and their interviews were scored on the four scales by two independent raters. Analysis of variance was used to examine the dimensionality of the therapeutic problem-solving skills scales. Results showed that the general problem-solving skill component accounted for most of the variance, indicating the four scales largely reflect the same underlying concept. Individual differences in change from pre- to post-training were also observed.
Experimental design involves purposefully introducing changes or treatments to observe their effects. The document discusses key aspects of experimental design, including:
1. Selecting subjects and assigning them to treatment or control groups to measure the effect of changes.
2. Considering factors like the type and amount of information desired, questions the design will and won't answer, and costs when selecting a design.
3. Key terminology like treatment, control, variables, randomness, and validity that are important to experimental design.
This presentation addresses functional behavior assessment and antecedent interventions. It discusses why students engage in problem behaviors using the four-term contingency model and how behavior assessment procedures like interviews, observations, and functional analyses can be used to understand functions and inform interventions. The presentation provides a case study of a student named Bobby who calls out for attention. Assessment data showed this behavior was maintained by positive attention. Antecedent strategies are recommended to prevent problem behaviors by modifying classroom environments and tasks.
This document provides an overview of psychological research. It defines research as a careful, systematic study to establish facts or principles. Psychology is defined as the study of mental processes and behavior. There are three main types of psychological research: correlational research, descriptive research, and experimental research. Researchers use tools like questionnaires, interviews, observation, and checklists. The purpose of research is to describe behavior, understand why events occur, and apply knowledge to problems.
Descriptive assessments are useful for identifying environmental events occurring before and after problem behavior but are not reliable or valid for determining the functional relationship. Functional analyses that systematically manipulate environmental conditions are needed to accurately identify the variables maintaining problem behavior so that effective treatments can be developed. A least restrictive assessment hierarchy is not necessarily best, as indirect assessments have poor reliability and descriptive assessments have high rates of false positives and negatives. Open-ended interviews followed by functional analysis is generally the best approach.
This document discusses occupational therapy diagnostic reasoning, which involves assessing patients' occupational problems and creating a clinical image through hypothesis generation and evaluation. The occupational therapy diagnosis summarizes a patient's occupational deficits and should describe the problem, potential cause, relevant cues, and contributing factors. Several factors influence the initial clinical image and focus of the assessment, including the domain of occupational therapy, practice setting, and the individual therapist's experience.
This document discusses occupational therapy diagnostic reasoning, which involves assessing patients' occupational problems and creating a clinical image through hypothesis generation and evaluation. The diagnostic reasoning process leads to an occupational therapy diagnosis, which describes patients' occupational deficits and potential causes. The diagnosis serves as the basis for intervention planning. The diagnostic process involves framing the clinical problem, actively problem-solving to define the issue, and refining the clinical image. Various factors like the practice setting and individual therapist can influence this diagnostic reasoning.
Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are shaped through interaction with the environment. Key behaviorist theorists include Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner. According to behaviorism, learning occurs through conditioning that results from responses to stimuli and reinforcement or punishment. The teacher takes an active role in conditioning students to perform desired behaviors through reinforcement and consequences, while the student learns through their responses and the outcomes they experience. Common types of learning explained by behaviorism are classical and operant conditioning.
The document discusses three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
1. The cognitive domain involves mental skills and knowledge. It has six categories relating to remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating information.
2. The affective domain involves growth in feelings and attitudes. It has five categories progressing from awareness to internalizing values and character development.
3. The psychomotor domain involves physical skills and movements. It has seven categories relating to perception, readiness, early skill development, intermediate proficiency, and expert performance of motor activities.
Content Instructions For this assignment choose one of the th.docxdickonsondorris
Content Instructions:
For this assignment choose one of the three listed disabilities: learning disability; emotional/behavioral disorder; autism spectrum disorder. You will only target
one
disability for this task. Here is a model to follow:
Universal Learning Characteristics
example
.
In your graphic organizer,
Step 1: Define, in one sentence, the disability you selected.
Step 2: Universal Behavior Characteristics
Describe at least five universal behavior characteristics for this population of students.
Identify common (behavior) characteristics associated with the chosen disability.
Explain at least five behavior strategies to support the universal behavior.
Identify at least five evidence-based behavior interventions that align with the characteristics mentioned above.
List at least three resources you accessed to identify universal behavior characteristics.
Use credible and scholarly literature when supporting your research-based behavior strategies/interventions.
Step 3: Universal Learning Characteristics
Describe at least five universal learning characteristics for the population of students you have chosen.
Identify common learning characteristics associated with the chosen disability.
Explain at least five instructional strategies, accommodations, or modifications to support the universal learning characteristics of the population of student’s you have chosen.
Identify at least five evidence-based interventions that align with the learning characteristics mentioned above.
List at least three resources you accessed to identify universal learning characteristics and instructional strategies, accommodations or modifications.
Use credible and scholarly literature when supporting your research-based learning strategies/interventions.
.
The document summarizes Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains, which identifies three main domains of educational activities: Cognitive (mental skills/knowledge), Affective (growth in feelings/attitudes), and Psychomotor (manual/physical skills). It provides details on the hierarchical subdivisions within each domain, ranging from basic/simple behaviors and skills to more complex ones. The cognitive domain includes categories like knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The affective domain includes receiving phenomena, responding, valuing, organization, and internalizing values. The psychomotor domain includes categories like perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.
This document discusses and defines different types of research designs, including experimental, non-experimental, and quasi-experimental designs. It also defines key concepts in experimental research like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, treatments, and extraneous variables. Additionally, it describes different study designs based on contact with participants, such as cross-sectional, before-and-after, and longitudinal designs.
1IntroductionThe objective of this study plan is to evaluate.docxrobert345678
1
Introduction
The objective of this study plan is to evaluate the viability of our solution in relation to previously conducted test cases for companies operating in industries analogous to those of our own. In this section, we will concentrate on the manner in which these use cases measure the performance characteristics of various technical and behavioral qualities connected with an investment in technology made on behalf of a business. The viewpoints and data sources of stakeholders will be incorporated into our measuring system. This measurement framework will be utilized by us in order to assess and analyze the overall performance of our product. After the solution has been implemented, we will conduct post-implementation evaluations to determine how the solution affected the organization. The management of change will play a significant role in our overall research agenda. The plan will adhere to a certain format in providing the findings of the data analysis.
Measurement framework
In order to present an all-encompassing picture of performance, the measuring framework must to take into account the many stakeholder viewpoints as well as the various data sources. Perspectives from stakeholders may come from a variety of sources, such as the user community, project managers, or senior leadership. Customer feedback, system logs, and performance statistics are three examples of potential data sources (Thabane, 2009).
The purpose of the measurement framework is to supply stakeholders with viewpoints and data sources that may be utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of an investment in technology. The framework consists of four dimensions: behavioral characteristics, organizational aspects, user factors, and technological qualities (McShane, 2018). To evaluate how well the technology investment is working out, there is a separate set of performance indicators linked with each of the dimensions of the evaluation.
Indicators such as system uptime, reaction time, and throughput are examples of technical qualities. Indicators that make up behavioral qualities include things like user happiness, adoption rates, and the costs of training. Indicators like as return on investment (ROI) and total cost of ownership are included in the category of organizational variables (TCO). The metrics that make up user factors include things like user happiness, adoption rates, and training expenses (McShane, 2018).
The measuring framework draws its information from a variety of data sources, including organizational data, user data, performance data, and financial data. The return on investment (ROI) and total cost of ownership (TCO) of the technological investment may both be calculated using financial data (Jalal, 2017). The uptime, reaction time, and throughput of the system may all be evaluated based on the performance statistics. Data from users may be analyzed to determine factors such as user happiness, adoption rates, and the costs of training (Thabane,.
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This document provides a literature review on action learning in the health care sector. It discusses several key points:
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This study compared the effectiveness of two positive behavior support interventions, Mystery Motivator and Get 'Em On Task, in decreasing off-task behaviors in fifth grade classrooms. Both interventions were implemented using an alternating treatments design. Results showed that both interventions effectively decreased off-task behavior at the class-wide level compared to baseline. The Mystery Motivator intervention used weekly behavior charts and unknown rewards to motivate on-task behavior as a group contingency. The Get 'Em On Task intervention used a computer program to signal and reward individual students for on-task behavior.
EFFICACY OF AND PREFERENCE FOR REINFORCEMENT ANDRESPONSE COSEvonCanales257
EFFICACY OF AND PREFERENCE FOR REINFORCEMENT AND
RESPONSE COST IN TOKEN ECONOMIES
ERICA S. JOWETT HIRST
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY
CLAUDIA L. DOZIER
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
AND
STEVEN W. PAYNE
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK
Researchers have shown that both differential reinforcement and response cost within token
economies are similarly effective for changing the behavior of individuals in a group context
(e.g., Donaldson, DeLeon, Fisher, & Kahng, 2014; Iwata & Bailey, 1974). In addition, these
researchers have empirically evaluated preference for these procedures. However, few previous
studies have evaluated the individual effects of these procedures both in group contexts and in
the absence of peers. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining
the individual effects and preferences of differential reinforcement and response cost under both
group and individualized conditions. Results demonstrated that the procedures were equally
effective for increasing on-task behavior during group and individual instruction for most chil-
dren, and preference varied across participants. In addition, results were consistent across partici-
pants who experienced the procedures in group and individualized settings.
Key words: differential reinforcement, independent group contingency, preference, response
cost, token economy
The token economy is a common behavioral
intervention that has been demonstrated to be
effective for increasing appropriate behavior
and decreasing inappropriate behavior for many
populations across different settings (Doll,
McLaughlin, & Barretto, 2013; Hackenberg,
2009; Kazdin, 1977). Token economies involve
delivery, removal, or both delivery and removal
of conditioned reinforcers (e.g., tokens and
points) that can be exchanged for back-up rein-
forcers (e.g., prizes, treats, and leisure activ-
ities). When tokens are delivered contingent on
appropriate behavior or for the absence of inap-
propriate behavior, these procedures are termed
differential reinforcement of alternative behavior
(DRA) or differential reinforcement of other
behavior (DRO), respectively. When tokens are
removed contingent on inappropriate behavior
or for the absence of appropriate behavior, this
procedure is termed response cost (RC).
An advantage of token economies is that
they can be implemented with a group of indi-
viduals as a general behavior-management strat-
egy during small-group instruction or as a
classwide intervention. Classwide behavior-
management strategies such as token economies
should be considered to address minor disrup-
tive behavior, to increase motivation for learn-
ing, or as a complement to an individualized
intervention. However, general behavior-
management strategies may not be effective in
isolation for some individuals who engage in
severe problem behavior or have more intense
Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Claudia L. Dozier, Department of Applied
Behavioral Science, U ...
This study examined teachers' responses to problem behavior from children with autism following behavioral training. The study found that teachers were more likely to provide escape from demands or reprimands following problem behavior, despite their training. Analysis of the interactions found that problem behavior was typically higher before, rather than after, the teacher responses of escape or reprimands. This suggests the teacher responses may have been negatively reinforced by reductions in the problem behavior. The results replicate previous research and indicate that problem behavior can shape counterproductive adult responses, undermining treatment integrity.
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and CostIn a one to two .docxchristalgrieg
This is from class AH111Quality, Access and Cost
In a one to two page paper identify the impact that technology has on quality, access, and cost of healthcare.
Be sure to cite your references.
This is Chapter 6 from the book:
Johnson, C.M., Mawhinney, T. C., & Redmon, W.K. (2001). Handbook of organizational performance: Behavior analysis and management.New York, NY: Sage The Hawthorn Press, Inc
In-text citation:
(Johnson, Mawhinney & Redmon, 2001)
Chapter 6
Training and Development in Organizations: A Review of the Organizational Behavior Management Literature
There are several excellent literature reviews and other discussions on personnel training in organizations in the industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology literature (Campbell, 1971; Eden, 1987; Goldstein, 1980, 1991; Latham, 1988, 1989; Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992; Wexley, 1984). These works have had an impact on the field of training and have contributed to the development and quality of training research. With few exceptions, however, these reviews have ignored organizational behavior management (OBM) training research. The present chapter attempts to fill that gap and extend earlier treatments of OBM training (Reid, Parsons, and Green, 1989; Ross, 1982). The chapter begins with a review of the OBM training literature followed by a critique and suggestions for future research.
Space constraints preclude treatment of the entire training literature from a behavior analytic perspective. Thus, I focus primarily on research investigating the process of instruction and skill acquisition of people employed in organizations. Research investigating transfer of training strategies is not emphasized because several excellent papers on generalization and maintenance already exist in the I/O (Baldwin and Ford, 1988), education (Royer, 1979), and behavior analysis (Stokes and Baer, 1977; Stokes and Osnes, 1989) literatures. Research where training was peripheral to other organizational interventions (e.g., Fox and Sulzer-Azaroff, 1989; Komaki, Blood, and Holder, 1980; Rowe, 1981; Streff, Kalsher, and Geller, 1993) is also excluded. Finally, research focusing primarily on trainee reactions to programs is not discussed (Reid and Parsons, 1995, 1996).
The author would like to express appreciation to Thomas S. Critchfield, Richard K. Fleming, and the editors for their comments on an earlier version of this chapter.
THE IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION
Some suggest that training does not play as important a role in behavior change as consequences. In a discussion of organizational change, Murphy and Remnyi (1979) state that antecedent stimulus control techniques are not likely to yield long-term changes in behavior unless consequent stimuli are controlled. Similarly, Geller (1990) notes that workshops and training programs cannot maintain safe behavior or reduce work injuries because natural contingencies are not in place to support safe behavior. He stresses the importance of using operant condition ...
Classical and operant conditioning are two types of learning processes studied in psychology. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, while operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors. Applied behavior analysis uses principles of operant conditioning to modify behaviors by increasing desirable ones and decreasing undesirable ones. Observational learning and social cognitive approaches also influence behaviors by modeling and social support. Self-regulated learning involves students planning tasks, monitoring performance, and reflecting on outcomes in a cyclical process to improve skills. Providing distance learning modules for tertiary students in the Philippines with opportunities for teacher guidance could support self-regulated learning.
Assessing therapeutic problem solving skills empirical analysis of a measuri...Lisa Cain
This document describes a study that assessed therapeutic problem-solving skills in caregivers of mentally retarded individuals before and after training. The researchers developed four scales to measure initiative, systematics, specificity, and analytical reasoning. Caregivers were interviewed before and after training, and their interviews were scored on the four scales by two independent raters. Analysis of variance was used to examine the dimensionality of the therapeutic problem-solving skills scales. Results showed that the general problem-solving skill component accounted for most of the variance, indicating the four scales largely reflect the same underlying concept. Individual differences in change from pre- to post-training were also observed.
Experimental design involves purposefully introducing changes or treatments to observe their effects. The document discusses key aspects of experimental design, including:
1. Selecting subjects and assigning them to treatment or control groups to measure the effect of changes.
2. Considering factors like the type and amount of information desired, questions the design will and won't answer, and costs when selecting a design.
3. Key terminology like treatment, control, variables, randomness, and validity that are important to experimental design.
This presentation addresses functional behavior assessment and antecedent interventions. It discusses why students engage in problem behaviors using the four-term contingency model and how behavior assessment procedures like interviews, observations, and functional analyses can be used to understand functions and inform interventions. The presentation provides a case study of a student named Bobby who calls out for attention. Assessment data showed this behavior was maintained by positive attention. Antecedent strategies are recommended to prevent problem behaviors by modifying classroom environments and tasks.
This document provides an overview of psychological research. It defines research as a careful, systematic study to establish facts or principles. Psychology is defined as the study of mental processes and behavior. There are three main types of psychological research: correlational research, descriptive research, and experimental research. Researchers use tools like questionnaires, interviews, observation, and checklists. The purpose of research is to describe behavior, understand why events occur, and apply knowledge to problems.
Descriptive assessments are useful for identifying environmental events occurring before and after problem behavior but are not reliable or valid for determining the functional relationship. Functional analyses that systematically manipulate environmental conditions are needed to accurately identify the variables maintaining problem behavior so that effective treatments can be developed. A least restrictive assessment hierarchy is not necessarily best, as indirect assessments have poor reliability and descriptive assessments have high rates of false positives and negatives. Open-ended interviews followed by functional analysis is generally the best approach.
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This document discusses occupational therapy diagnostic reasoning, which involves assessing patients' occupational problems and creating a clinical image through hypothesis generation and evaluation. The diagnostic reasoning process leads to an occupational therapy diagnosis, which describes patients' occupational deficits and potential causes. The diagnosis serves as the basis for intervention planning. The diagnostic process involves framing the clinical problem, actively problem-solving to define the issue, and refining the clinical image. Various factors like the practice setting and individual therapist can influence this diagnostic reasoning.
Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are shaped through interaction with the environment. Key behaviorist theorists include Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner. According to behaviorism, learning occurs through conditioning that results from responses to stimuli and reinforcement or punishment. The teacher takes an active role in conditioning students to perform desired behaviors through reinforcement and consequences, while the student learns through their responses and the outcomes they experience. Common types of learning explained by behaviorism are classical and operant conditioning.
The document discusses three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.
1. The cognitive domain involves mental skills and knowledge. It has six categories relating to remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating information.
2. The affective domain involves growth in feelings and attitudes. It has five categories progressing from awareness to internalizing values and character development.
3. The psychomotor domain involves physical skills and movements. It has seven categories relating to perception, readiness, early skill development, intermediate proficiency, and expert performance of motor activities.
Content Instructions For this assignment choose one of the th.docxdickonsondorris
Content Instructions:
For this assignment choose one of the three listed disabilities: learning disability; emotional/behavioral disorder; autism spectrum disorder. You will only target
one
disability for this task. Here is a model to follow:
Universal Learning Characteristics
example
.
In your graphic organizer,
Step 1: Define, in one sentence, the disability you selected.
Step 2: Universal Behavior Characteristics
Describe at least five universal behavior characteristics for this population of students.
Identify common (behavior) characteristics associated with the chosen disability.
Explain at least five behavior strategies to support the universal behavior.
Identify at least five evidence-based behavior interventions that align with the characteristics mentioned above.
List at least three resources you accessed to identify universal behavior characteristics.
Use credible and scholarly literature when supporting your research-based behavior strategies/interventions.
Step 3: Universal Learning Characteristics
Describe at least five universal learning characteristics for the population of students you have chosen.
Identify common learning characteristics associated with the chosen disability.
Explain at least five instructional strategies, accommodations, or modifications to support the universal learning characteristics of the population of student’s you have chosen.
Identify at least five evidence-based interventions that align with the learning characteristics mentioned above.
List at least three resources you accessed to identify universal learning characteristics and instructional strategies, accommodations or modifications.
Use credible and scholarly literature when supporting your research-based learning strategies/interventions.
.
The document summarizes Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains, which identifies three main domains of educational activities: Cognitive (mental skills/knowledge), Affective (growth in feelings/attitudes), and Psychomotor (manual/physical skills). It provides details on the hierarchical subdivisions within each domain, ranging from basic/simple behaviors and skills to more complex ones. The cognitive domain includes categories like knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The affective domain includes receiving phenomena, responding, valuing, organization, and internalizing values. The psychomotor domain includes categories like perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.
This document discusses and defines different types of research designs, including experimental, non-experimental, and quasi-experimental designs. It also defines key concepts in experimental research like independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, treatments, and extraneous variables. Additionally, it describes different study designs based on contact with participants, such as cross-sectional, before-and-after, and longitudinal designs.
Similar to 22 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODELne of the most common rein-f.docx (20)
1IntroductionThe objective of this study plan is to evaluate.docxrobert345678
1
Introduction
The objective of this study plan is to evaluate the viability of our solution in relation to previously conducted test cases for companies operating in industries analogous to those of our own. In this section, we will concentrate on the manner in which these use cases measure the performance characteristics of various technical and behavioral qualities connected with an investment in technology made on behalf of a business. The viewpoints and data sources of stakeholders will be incorporated into our measuring system. This measurement framework will be utilized by us in order to assess and analyze the overall performance of our product. After the solution has been implemented, we will conduct post-implementation evaluations to determine how the solution affected the organization. The management of change will play a significant role in our overall research agenda. The plan will adhere to a certain format in providing the findings of the data analysis.
Measurement framework
In order to present an all-encompassing picture of performance, the measuring framework must to take into account the many stakeholder viewpoints as well as the various data sources. Perspectives from stakeholders may come from a variety of sources, such as the user community, project managers, or senior leadership. Customer feedback, system logs, and performance statistics are three examples of potential data sources (Thabane, 2009).
The purpose of the measurement framework is to supply stakeholders with viewpoints and data sources that may be utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of an investment in technology. The framework consists of four dimensions: behavioral characteristics, organizational aspects, user factors, and technological qualities (McShane, 2018). To evaluate how well the technology investment is working out, there is a separate set of performance indicators linked with each of the dimensions of the evaluation.
Indicators such as system uptime, reaction time, and throughput are examples of technical qualities. Indicators that make up behavioral qualities include things like user happiness, adoption rates, and the costs of training. Indicators like as return on investment (ROI) and total cost of ownership are included in the category of organizational variables (TCO). The metrics that make up user factors include things like user happiness, adoption rates, and training expenses (McShane, 2018).
The measuring framework draws its information from a variety of data sources, including organizational data, user data, performance data, and financial data. The return on investment (ROI) and total cost of ownership (TCO) of the technological investment may both be calculated using financial data (Jalal, 2017). The uptime, reaction time, and throughput of the system may all be evaluated based on the performance statistics. Data from users may be analyzed to determine factors such as user happiness, adoption rates, and the costs of training (Thabane,.
1Project One Executive SummaryCole Staats.docxrobert345678
1
Project One: Executive Summary
Cole Staats
Southern New Hampshire University
BUS 225: Critical Business Skills for Success
Jennyfer Puentes
November 14, 2022
Project One: Executive SummaryProblem
With the restricted economic activity expected because of the COVID-19 outbreak, and the rise in inflation the revenue for the automobile engine and parts manufacturing industry has been adjusted to decline by 10.9% by the end of 2022 (Pantalon, 2022). Based on the current challenges the automotive industry faces, we must diversify our engine manufacturing and its operations to expand our revenue. In this presentation, I will be using qualitative and quantitative data to explain why I think our company should rapidly explore the ever-evolving and growing popularity of the electric car industry and develop electric motors. I will show the qualitative data which will focus on the industry reports of engine manufacturing inside the automotive industry. The quantitative data that I will provide will estimate the projections for future operations and provide fact-checked historical data on the automotive industry. Automotive Manufacturing Industry
After conducting extensive research into the current automotive industry status, where I focused on the performance and expectations for the industry's future, the 2021 measured revenue of the US car and automobile manufacturing was $75 billion. This is compared to previous years, such as 2020 $69 billion, and in 2019 and 2018 $92 billion (MarketLine 2021). Although we saw a rise from 2020 to 2021 in revenue the automobile manufacturing industry revenue will continue to not keep pace with previous years. As the domestic demand for new vehicles trends higher, three automotive hubs are expected to gain greater traction over the next few years. With that said the US automotive industry is heavily established in the Great Lakes region. This region represents just over 36% of the automobile manufacturers in the US. Some of the most successful automobile making are located here which include the Ford Motor Company, General Motors, and Fiat Chrysler. All these manufacturers are in Michigan which makes up 15% of all automobile manufacturing revenue in the US. With that said there are 2 more regions where automobile manufacturers operate that make up 50% of all us manufacturers' locations. The Regions are the West Region, making up 25.4% of the industry locations, and the Southeast Region, making up 24.6% of the industry locations. After conducting research, the consumer's current mindset is shifting towards a “greener” option for the automobile. This option would have a smaller carbon footprint, providing an increase in producing vehicles that are more environmentally friendly. As a result of this new stance on a “greener” option by the consumer the hybrid and the electric car are gaining popularity and are expected to multiply over the next five years (MarketLine 2018). “In 2025 the North American hybri.
1
Management Of Care
Chamberlain University
NR452: Capstone
Professor Alison Colvin.
Date: November 23, 2022.
Management of Care
Management of care involves organizing, prioritizing, maintaining strict patient confidentiality, providing patient with efficient care, education to patient and families, risk stratification, coordination of care transition and medication management. Patient care management is provided to client by nurses and other health care professionals “Management of the critically injured patient is optimized by a coordinated team effort in an organized trauma system that allow for rapid assessment and initiation of life- preserving therapies. (Cantrell, E., & Doucet, J. 2018). Effective patient care management can impact patient heath more positively, when all healthcare professionals work together to provide quality care in promoting patient centered care. Adequate patient care can prevent readmission or admission, also can reduce distress, total cost of care, improve self-management, disease control and patient overall health.
Patient care is important to patient because its ensure that patient receive the needed possible care they deserve when in the hospital and out of the hospital, patient will feel their demand is understood and listened to if they health needs are met and understood by professionals that know how to manage their health care needs, health care management team member work together to ensure patient safety through effective communication and collaboration, advocating for patient by connecting patient to community and social services resources that will promote their health care needs can be beneficial to patient, environmental and home risk assessment, and effective facilitation of communication between members of the healthcare team.
Nurses play a role in managing a patient health, roles such as: Critical thinking skills, in this case the nurse can recognize any shift in patient health status which plays a significant role in decision making and patient centered care. Time management: delegation, prioritization such as knowing what to do first, what is important, and knowing what task is more important for the patient at a particular time. Patient education is also one of the many role’s nurses do to educate patient on what to expect during a procedure, or during recovery, also teachings on complications or adverse effects of a medication. Clinical reasoning and judgement which will promote quality of health through patient centered care that addresses patient specific health care needs. Holman, H. C., Williams, “et al”. (2019).
References
Cantrell, E., & Doucet, J. (2018). Initial Management of Life-Threatening Trauma.
DeckerMed Critical Care of the Surgical Patient.
https://doi.org/10.2310/7ccsp.2129
Holman, H. C., Williams, D., Johnson, J., Sommer, S., Ball, B. S., Lemon, T.,
& Assessment Technologies Institute. (2019). Nursing leadership
an.
1NOTE This is a template to help you format Project Part .docxrobert345678
This document provides a template for a student to complete a statistical analysis project involving descriptive statistics, hypothesis testing, and regression analysis. The template outlines the content and statistical analyses to be performed on two variables - sales and calls - including descriptive statistics, hypothesis tests, correlation, regression equation, and estimates. The student is instructed to input their results, analyses, and conclusions into the template for their assignment submission.
15Problem Orientation and Psychologica.docxrobert345678
1
5
Problem Orientation and Psychological Distress Among Adolescents: Do Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies Mediate Their Relationship?
Student's name; students' names
Department affiliation; university affiliation
Course name; course number
Instructors’ name
Assignment due date
Part One
The development of essential attitudes and abilities that help determine a person's susceptibility to psychological discomfort occurs throughout adolescence's formative years. This particular research aimed to investigate the relationship between problem-solving-oriented and cognitive-behavioral techniques for emotion regulation and levels of psychological discomfort (Speyer etal.,2021).
Notably, the issue of violence among adolescents is increasingly recognized as a severe problem in terms of public health. However, little research has investigated the importance of techniques to control cognitive emotion in teenagers, despite the increased interest in psychographic risk factors for violent conduct. The primary focus of this study will be to investigate the frequency of violent behaviors shown by adolescents and to determine the nature of the connection that exists between specific coping mechanisms for regulating cognition and emotion and various manifestations of aggressive behavior. Using confidential, self-reporting questionnaires, the research will conduct a cross-sectional survey of 3,315 students in grades 7 to 10 to investigate methods by which young adolescents may manage their cognitive processes, emotions, and actions connected to violence. The participants will be notified about the survey, but their personal information will not be public under any circumstances since this would violate ethical standards.
The influence of a father on his children might also vary depending on the gender and age of the kid. For boys, parental psychological distress is related to higher internalizing and externalizing issues throughout early adolescence. This finding lends credence to the notion that this stage of development may be especially significant in father-son exchanges. On the other hand, there is a correlation between maternal and paternal psychological discomfort in early infancy and increased levels of internalizing and externalizing difficulties in females (Speyer et al.,2021). Growing up with a father who struggles with mental illness may make girls more reserved, reducing the possibility that they would acquire issues that are manifested outside their bodies. This is one of the possible explanations.
Part Two
The whole of this project shall be guided by the research questions below: (what is the prevalence of adolescent violent behaviors? what is the relationship between specific strategies to regulate cognitive emotion and forms of violent behavior?)
To help operationalize the variables, a logistic regression model will be used to determine the nature of the connection between specific violent actions .
122422, 850 AMHow to successfully achieve business integrat.docxrobert345678
12/24/22, 8:50 AMHow to successfully achieve business integration - Chakray
Page 1 of 8https://www.chakray.com/how-to-successfully-achieve-business-integration/
How to successfully achieve
business integration
The whole process of integrated
business computing is a big step for
any company. From the moment it
decides to group all systems and
applications, the company must devote
much effort in creating a more
productive environment in accordance
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12/24/22, 8:50 AMHow to successfully achieve business integration - Chakray
Page 2 of 8https://www.chakray.com/how-to-successfully-achieve-business-integration/
to the environment in which it is
located. Business integration is a
necessity. From many points of view
and experiences, the different strategies
have brought success to many
companies that were therefore
encouraged to carry out the entire
integration process. The benefits speak
for themselves: lower expenses for
systems, automation of processes, less
time spent in work, better control of
information.
-You can’t miss the 7 benefits of
Enterprise Application Integration!-
This is due to the fact that integrated
business computing works better. The
company’s IT works as a stage for the
renewal of its functions. Its capacity for
updating and deleting errors, as well as
cloud adaptation or hybrid operation,
allows it to generate unparalleled
results.
Companies with integrated business
computing are not only more
productive, but they also stand above
their competitors thanks to the great
work capacity they can assume. It
doesn’t matter if the systems they have
are complex, the management is simple
and allows work policies to be fulfilled
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1PAGE 5West Chester Private School Case StudyGrand .docxrobert345678
1
PAGE
5
West Chester Private School Case Study
Grand Canyon University
MGT-420: Organizational Behavior and Management
December 11th, 2022
West Chester Private School
Your introduction should be typed here. It should be at least four sentences and include a thesis statement that introduces all the key points of the paper. Please note that you should follow all APA writing rules within your essay. This means avoid first and second person, do not use contractions, and use citations throughout your paper. The final sentence in your introduction must be a strong thesis statement that introduces every key topic that will be introduced in the paper. Remember that a thesis should be one sentence. Here is an example: In the pages to follow, West Chester Private School (WCPS) will be discussed in the context of open systems, organizational culture, the decision to close and the closure process, the impact of technology and innovation on stakeholders, administration closure options, the plans for future direction of WCPS, along with the four functions of management.
External Environment and Open Systems
There are certain ways in which organizations interact with their external environment (as open systems). These ways rely on the Systems Approach to Management Theory, which perceives an organization as an open system that consists of interdependent and interrelated parts interacting as sub-systems (Jackson, 2017). Generally, organizations rely on the exchange of resources and information with their environments. More so, they cannot hold complete control over their behavior and actions, which are significantly impacted by external forces. For example, an organization may be impacted by various environmental conditions such as government regulations, client demands, and raw material availability. As an open system, an organization can interact with the external environment in the context of inputs, transformations, and outputs. Inputs refer to both human and non-human resources like materials, energy, and information. Transformations refer to the conversion of inputs into outputs. For example, a school can transform a student into an educated individual. Finally, outputs refer to what an organization is giving to the environment.
Internal Environment and Organizational Culture
At the time of the closure, the effectiveness of West Chester Private School (WCPS) as an open system was inadequate. One important factor that impacts the effectiveness of an open system is feedback. Feedback refers to the information that an open system receives from the external environment, which can be used to maintain a system at optimal working conditions or a steady state (Jung & Vakharia, 2019). In the case of WCPS, feedback could be received from parents, teachers, and students. At the time of the closure, none of these stakeholders was consulted. Instead, WCPS made a unilateral decision to close down two campuses without considering the input of parents, te.
12Toxoplasmosis and Effects on Abortion, And Fetal A.docxrobert345678
12
Toxoplasmosis and Effects on Abortion, And Fetal Abnormalities
Toxoplasmosis and Effects on Abortion, And Fetal Abnormalities
Abstract
The placenta is an immune-privileged organ that may tolerate antigen exposure without eliciting a strong inflammatory response that could result in an abortion. After that, the pregnancy can progress normally. Th1 answers, characterized by interferon-, are essential for suppressing intracellular infections. Therefore, the maternal immune system finds a catch-22 when intracellular parasites invade the placenta. The pro-inflammatory response required to eradicate the virus carries the danger of causing an abortion. Toxoplasma is a potent parasite that causes lifetime infections and is a leading cause of abortions in people and animals. This paper speculates that the pregnancy outcome may be affected by the Toxoplasma strain and the effectors of the parasite, both of which can modify the signaling pathways of the host cell.
Introduction
Fetuses infected with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii can develop a disorder known as toxoplasmosis, sometimes called congenital toxoplasmosis. This disease is transmitted from mother to child in the womb. A miscarriage or a stillbirth might happen as a result. A child with this illness may also have significant and progressively deteriorating difficulties in their vision, hearing, motor skills, cognitive ability, and other areas of development. The parasite Toxoplasma gondii is blamed for many pregnancies ending in miscarriage (Arranz-Solís et al., 2021). Most abortions happen in the first trimester of pregnancy or during the early stages of acute sickness. This research aimed to determine if women who had an abortion were more likely to be infected with toxoplasmosis.
To make matters worse, the toxoplasmosis-causing Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that infects nearly every animal species with a thermoregulatory system. Transferring Toxoplasma from one host to another requires the development of tissue cysts that are infectious when ingested. This means the parasite is incentivized to ensure that the host organism lives during the infection. The parasite does this by stimulating an immune response powerful enough to limit parasite reproduction. Toxoplasma, on the other hand, uses a unique set of effectors to evade the immune response and ensure that the parasite population does not decrease to zero.
Results
Type II strains are the most common cause of infection in both animal and human hosts. However, all four clonal lineages of Toxoplasma may be found throughout Europe and North America. It has been established, however, that the bulk of the South American isolates identified is genetically distinct from the strains seen in North America and Europe. Certain sorts of isolates have been labeled as atypical strains. Birth abnormalities apart, type II strains are the most common in Europe and North America, where the great majority of .
122022, 824 PM Rubric Assessment - SOC1001-Introduction to .docxrobert345678
This document contains a rubric used to assess a student's draft and final submission of a sociology project. The rubric evaluates students on criteria such as including an introduction and conclusion, developing body paragraphs with support and examples, using proper grammar and APA style, and submitting a draft for feedback. Points are awarded on a scale from 0 to 40 for each criterion, with 0 being no submission and higher scores reflecting more developed, error-free work. The total possible score is 120 points.
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1 of 1 DOCUMENT
JAMES E. PETERSON, Plaintiff-Appellant, v. HAROLD KENNEDY, RICHARD
A. BERTHELSEN, and NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE PLAYERS
ASSOCIATION, Defendants-Appellees
No. 84-5788
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
771 F.2d 1244; 1985 U.S. App. LEXIS 23077; 120 L.R.R.M. 2520; 103 Lab. Cas.
(CCH) P11,677
February 6, 1985, Argued and Submitted - Los Angeles, California
September 16, 1985, Decided
PRIOR HISTORY: [**1] Appeal from the United States District Court for the Southern District of California, D.C.
NO. CV-80-1810-N, Honorable Leland C. Nielsen, District Judge, Presiding.
CASE SUMMARY:
PROCEDURAL POSTURE: Plaintiff professional football player appealed from judgments of the United States
District Court for the Southern District of California entered in favor of defendant union on plaintiff's claim for breach
of the duty of fair representation and in favor of defendant attorneys on plaintiff's legal malpractice claim.
OVERVIEW: Plaintiff football player filed suit against defendant union for breach of the duty of fair representation,
alleging that defendant attorneys, who were staff counsel for defendant union, erroneously advised him to file the wrong
type of grievance and failed to rectify the error when there was an opportunity to do so. Plaintiff also claimed that
defendant attorneys committed malpractice. The trial court entered judgment for defendants. On appeal, the court
affirmed. The court found that defendant union did not act in an arbitrary, discriminatory, or bad faith manner and held
that mere negligence or an error in judgment was insufficient to impose liability for breach of the duty of fair
representation. The court affirmed the directed verdict in favor of defendant first attorney because a union attorney may
not be held liable in malpractice to an individual union member for acts performed as the union's agent in the collective
bargaining process. The court affirmed the summary judgment entered in favor of defendant second attorney. The trial
court lacked personal jurisdiction over him because his only contact with the forum state were phone calls and letters.
OUTCOME: The court affirmed the judgment in favor of defendant union because it did not breach its duty of fair
representation. The court affirmed the directed verdict in favor of defendant first attorney because he was not liable in
malpractice to plaintiff football player for acts he performed as the union's agent. The court affi.
121122, 1204 AM Activities - IDS-403-H7189 Technology and S.docxrobert345678
12/11/22, 12:04 AM Activities - IDS-403-H7189 Technology and Society 22EW2 - Southern New Hampshire University
https://learn.snhu.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/nonModal/blank.d2l?d2l_body_type=1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cb=d2l_cntl_68566de1f6094c60a65417448e14cb1f_1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cbwin=68566de1f6094c60a6541744… 1/5
IDS 403 Module Six Activity Rubric
Activity: 6-2 Activity: Reflection: Society
Course: IDS-403-H7189 Technology and Society 22EW2
Name: Jayee Johnson
Criteria Proficient Needs Improvement Not Evident Criterion Score
Reliable Evidence
from Varied Sources
30 / 30
Criterion Feedback
30 points
Integrates reliable
evidence from varied
sources throughout
the paper to support
analysis
22.5 points
Shows progress
toward proficiency,
but with errors or
omissions; areas for
improvement may
include drawing from
a diverse pool of
perspectives, using
more varied sources
to support the
analysis, or
integrating evidence
and sources
throughout the paper
to support the
analysis
0 points
Does not attempt
criterion
12/11/22, 12:04 AM Activities - IDS-403-H7189 Technology and Society 22EW2 - Southern New Hampshire University
https://learn.snhu.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/nonModal/blank.d2l?d2l_body_type=1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cb=d2l_cntl_68566de1f6094c60a65417448e14cb1f_1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cbwin=68566de1f6094c60a6541744… 2/5
Criteria Proficient Needs Improvement Not Evident Criterion Score
You did a good job in integrating evidence and support from outside sources.
Different General
Education Lens
22.5 / 30
Criterion Feedback
You needed to identify an alternative lens through which to view your specific technology. How would your analysis
of your identified technologyʼs role in your event have been different if viewed through this lens?
30 points
Explains at least one
way in which the
analysis might have
been different if
another general
education lens was
used to analyze the
technologyʼs role in
the event
22.5 points
Shows progress
toward proficiency,
but with errors or
omissions; areas for
improvement may
include connecting a
different lens to
technologyʼs role in
the event or
providing more
support of that
connection
0 points
Does not attempt
criterion
12/11/22, 12:04 AM Activities - IDS-403-H7189 Technology and Society 22EW2 - Southern New Hampshire University
https://learn.snhu.edu/d2l/common/dialogs/nonModal/blank.d2l?d2l_body_type=1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cb=d2l_cntl_68566de1f6094c60a65417448e14cb1f_1&d2l_nonModalDialog_cbwin=68566de1f6094c60a6541744… 3/5
Criteria Proficient Needs Improvement Not Evident Criterion Score
Interactions
30 / 30
Criterion Feedback
I thought that you did a really good job here in considering how your analysis of technology might impact your
interactions with those from other cultures or backgrounds.
30 points
Explains how
analyzing the
technologyʼs role in
the event can help
interactions with
those of a different
viewpoint, culture, or
perspectiv.
1. When drug prices increase at a faster rate than inflation, the .docxrobert345678
1. When drug prices increase at a faster rate than inflation, the groups of people that bear the burden of this increase are taxpayers and Medicare beneficiaries. Taxpayers are paying higher taxes as a result of increased government spending, and Medicare beneficiaries cannot keep up with the price of their prescriptions. When it comes to the factors in making a decision about increasing drug prices, I believe Big Pharma companies should act in a socially responsible manner, meaning they should base their decisions not solely on profit, and not solely on healthcare. There should be a balance, and new policies would be beneficial to help maintain that balance.
2. Lower-level employees have the responsibility to provide accurate information to management so that they can make the most informed decision. Lower-level employees also have the responsibility to not purposefully make material mistakes or purposefully not correct a known mistake.
3. Increased government spending will increase taxes for taxpayers and decrease available spending for other worthy issues. Taxpayers will essentially pay more in taxes and therefore have less income available. With drug prices rising faster than inflation, this will cause a widening gap between annual income and costs. Also, private health insurance costs will increase premiums and out of pocket costs for members. The stakeholders most directly impacted are the senior citizens that are dependent on their medication and can’t afford it or any other out of pocket costs because of the already wide gap between their income and expenses. I believe the government itself can be seen as a stakeholder as well because as they continue to increase Medicare funding, their deficit increases, causing them to take action to allocate resources effectively.
4. If the increase in price of existing drugs is preventing those who need those drugs from obtaining them, then to me it is hard to justify the increase based on R&D. There will always be a trade-off between affordable drugs and how quickly we can get new drugs. The government must devise a policy that improves Big Pharma companies’ incentive for affordability
and innovation.
5. Explain what you think each of the following statements means in the context of moral development.
. How far are you willing to go to do the right thing?
1. Stage 6 of moral development is about universal “self-chosen” ethical principles. This stage is about following your conscience even if it violates the law. In thinking of moral development, as time passes, one’s level of ethical reasoning advances and some issues may spark moral outrage that force a response.
. How much are you willing to give up to do what you believe is right?
1. This statement relates to moral development and how sometimes doing the right thing can have negative consequences. For example, an employee may notice a purposeful mistake by a manager. Let’s assume the employee is certain they will receiv.
1. Which of the following sentences describe a child functioning a.docxrobert345678
This document contains a 5 question multiple choice assessment about child language development and metalinguistic abilities. It tests understanding of rhyming, sound identification, syllable segmentation and blending skills in children ages 2-6. These skills develop as children progress from pre-linguistic to metalinguistic levels of language understanding. The document also contains a literature review on factors that impact work-life balance and job satisfaction such as stress, behavioral traits, attachment styles and domain interference/facilitation. It proposes a study using surveys and journaling to identify issues for employees and design interventions to improve work-life balance and performance.
1. How did the case study impact your thoughts about your own fina.docxrobert345678
1. How did the case study impact your thoughts about your own finances?
2. What were your thoughts and observations as you created your own balance sheet?
3. How might the balance sheet help you in future financial planning?
4. How close to reality do you think your estimated personal cash flow statement will be if you track your actual income and expenses for a month?
1. It gave me the desire to track my finances more closely and objectively. I liked how we can determine our net worth through some simple calculations and our inflows and outflows per month. Generally, I rely on simple finance apps like
Mint to track my finances. Currently, I do not create monthly budgets, but I now believe such action could be helpful.
2. I know that I have more assets than I am counting in the excel sheet. Therefore, my net worth is potentially higher. I also have a variety of streaming platforms.
I would benefit from switching from one platform to another month by month to save money. Streaming platforms are not a significant expense. Currently, my most considerable expense is transportation. Since gas prices are falling, this will help increase my surplus.
3. Accounting is math: it either works or doesn’t. Each can be traced from its inception (a sale, an expense, a money transfer) to the line on the financial statement. Since I don’t have much experience with financials, I try to seek out a mentor who is a family member. A balance sheet will ensure that I am not spending foolishly and ensure I am making appropriate purchases within the limits I set for myself. Proper planning will ensure I maximize my net worth.
4. It is important to consider cash flow when planning for the future
. It is important to save money every month in order to be able to make better financial decisions in the future. I hope to use some investing approaches for beginners to purchase funds without getting into debt. Most people underestimate how much they truly spend in a month. Therefore, I am underestimating how much I spend as well. I eat out quite a bit with friends and family, so my restaurant bill for the holidays might be higher than anticipated.
Foreign Policy Association
China and America
Author(s): David M. Lampton
Source: Great Decisions , 2018, (2018), pp. 35-46
Published by: Foreign Policy Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26593695
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
Foreign Policy Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve.
1 The Biography of Langston Hughes .docxrobert345678
1
The Biography of Langston Hughes
Yanai Gonzalez
Ana G Mendez
November 17, 2022
The Biography of Langston Hughes
THE BIOGRAPHY OF LANGSTON HUGHES
2
On February 1, 1901, James Mercer Langston Hughes was born. He was born in
Joplin, Missouri, to James and Caroline Hughes, into a family of enslaved people and
enslavers (Leach, 2004). His father departed from the family, later divorcing their family,
forcing Langston's mother to move to Lawrence, Kansas, with his maternal grandmother. It
was from the latter that Langston learned about African American traditions, installing an
enormous sense of pride into the young man (Hughes et al., 2001). This greatly influenced his
writing, as evidenced by poems such as Mother to Son. He would then go on to join
Columbia University to study engineering, where he would write poetry for the Columbia
Daily Spectator. As a result of racial discrimination, he finally left the school and resided in
Harlem, where he was engulfed by the vibrant feeling of life (Leach, 2004).
Langston began cruising as a crewman aboard the S.S. Malone in 1923, after doing a
few odd jobs. He subsequently took his first white-collar job as Carter G. Woodson's assistant
at the Association for the Study of African American Life and History, a historian. He'd then
leave his work since it didn't enable him to write. He would later work as a busboy. He got
his big writing break when he met Vachel Lindsay, a famous poet of the time, with whom
Langston shared his poetry (Leach, 2004). Lindsay was heavily impressed and helped
Langston reach the big stage. Langston then went on to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree from
Lincoln University.
Langston began his literary career in 1921 by publishing The Crisis in the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People magazine (Leach, 2004). The poem
Mother to Son was in this book and would go on to get much acclaim. He would go on to
release The Weary Blues along with other novels, short stories, and poems (Hughes et al.,
2001). He participated heavily in the Harlem Renaissance. Langston would pass away on
May 22, 1967, from surgery complications while being treated for prostate cancer.
Mother To Son by Langston Hughes
THE BIOGRAPHY OF LANGSTON HUGHES
3
Well, son, I’ll tell you:
Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.
It’s had tacks in it,
And splinters,
And boards torn up,
And places with no carpet on the floor—
Bare.
But all the time
I’se been a-climbin’ on,
And reachin’ landin’s,
And turnin’ corners,
And sometimes goin’ in the dark
Where there ain’t been no light.
So boy, don’t you turn back.
Don’t you set down on the steps
’Cause you finds it’s kinder hard.
Don’t you fall now—
For I’se still goin’, honey,
I’se still climbin’,
And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.
References
THE BIOGRAPHY OF LANGSTON HUGHES
4
Hughes, L., Hubbard, .
1 Save Our Doughmocracy A Moophoric Voter Registratio.docxrobert345678
This document provides a proposal for an event called "Save Our Doughmocracy: A Moophoric Voter Registration & Ice Cream Social Event" hosted by Ben & Jerry's and the Democratic National Committee. The event aims to help people register to vote in Georgia through a fun experience of sampling a new Ben & Jerry's ice cream flavor and connecting with Democratic candidates. The proposal outlines the event goals, strategy, SWOT analysis, target audience, location, timeline, budget, and marketing plan. The key goals are to support voter registration and Ben & Jerry's social mission of advocating for democracy. The event's uniqueness of combining voter registration, politics, and ice cream into one experience gives it a competitive advantage over similar
1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF HAIL .docxrobert345678
1
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF HAIL
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
كلية الهندسة
College of Engineering
Research Proposal Template
Please structure your Research Proposal based on the headings provided below, use a clear and legible font
and observe the page/word limit.
Research Project Title:
Motor Vehicle Safety Defects and Recall System: An Empirical Study in Saudi Arabia
Student Details:
Student Name
Student ID
Email Address
Date of Submission
Research Project
Serial No.
Supervisor Name Supervisor Signature Start Date
Only for College Officials Use
College Approval
Master of Quality Engineering and Management
Research Proposal
2
Master of Quality Engineering and Management 2020-2021
كلية الهندسة
College of Engineering
1- Research Title
Provide a short descriptive title of your proposed research (max. 20 words)
Motor Vehicle Safety Defects and Recall System: An Empirical Study in Saudi Arabia
2- Research Summary
Summarize the aims, significance and expected outcomes of your proposed research (max. 250 words).
It is to set the mechanism for recalling vehicles with manufacturing defects that affect in
one way or another the safety of vehicles and their users, and this is done by linking a
unified system in which the defective vehicle data is added and called in the system to
the maintenance centers of the concerned vehicle agencies. Workmanship defects are
classified as: (1) Basic defects, which are considered to have a serious and direct impact
on the safety of the vehicle and its users, and the inspection process cannot be passed
until after the defect is fixed. (2) Warning defects, which are considered a defect in the
product, but the effect of the defect does not threaten the safety of the vehicle and its
users pass the examination process and the defect is added as a warning only.
This research proposal aims to find the most effective way to reach every defected
vehicle and the effective way to deal with the vehicle owner to do the necessary changes
especially if it's related to safety in a systematic way. The purpose of the project is to
develop a new business model that was never used everywhere in the world and Saudi
Arabia will take the lead to publish this model to the rest of the world. Ensuring that the
practice will be used is the most effective practise as enabling to force the defected car
owner to have their vehicles fixed and the defected was solved.
Master of Quality Engineering and Management
Research Proposal
3
Master of Quality Engineering and Management 2020-2021
كلية الهندسة
College of Engineering
3- Introduction
This section should provide a description of the basic facts and importance of the research area - What is the research
area, the motivation of research, and how important is it for the industry practice/knowledge advancement? (max. 200 .
1
Assessment Brief
Module Code
Module Name Managing Operations and the Supply Chain
Level
7
Module Leader Andrew Gough
Module Code
BSOM046
Assessment title:
AS1: The Future of Work
Weighting: 40%
Submission dates:
13 December 2022, please see NILE (Northampton Integrated
Learning Environment) under Assessment Information
Feedback and Grades
due:
12 January 2023
Please read the whole assessment brief before starting work on the Assessment Task.
The Assessment Task
You will conduct a review of the literature to identify the origins of the concept of the
Technological Unemployment and to chart its development up to the present day.
Following your review, you are to critically evaluate the impact of Technological
Unemployment on a company of your choice.
You will be expected to illustrate your discussion with examples from the trade press
and other authoritative sources.
The word count limit for this assessment is 1800 words (+/- 10%). In line with normal
practice, tables, figures, references and appendices are excluded from this word count.
Pawanrat Meepian
Pawanrat Meepian
2
Assessment Breakdown
1. Establish the scenario for your report by selecting an organisation of any type, sector and
size to focus your report on. Describe:
a) Which organisation is it? (type, sector and size)
b) What are the main products and/or services provided by the organisation?
c) Who are the main customers?
(10% of word count)
2. Prepare a literature review, charting the development of the concept of Technological
Unemployment from its inception until the present day.
Ensure that you include references to at least 10 peer-reviewed articles, including the 2017
paper by Frey and Osborne that has been supplied. You may also find relevant reviews in
the trade press and from other authoritative sources.
(45% of word count)
3. Apply Frey and Osborne’s findings (Appendix A) in the context of your chosen company.
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(45% of word count)
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22 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODELne of the most common rein-f.docx
1. 22 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
ne of the most common rein-
forcement functions of problem
behavior is escape from instruc-
tional stimuli. Escape, or the social-neg-
ative reinforcement function, has been
shown to be at least as prevalent as and
sometimes more prevalent than attention
(i.e., social-positive reinforcement) and
automatic reinforcement functions. For
example, in an analysis of the functions
of self-injurious behavior (SIB) of 152
individuals with developmental disabili-
ties, Iwata, Pace, Dorsey, et al. (1994)
demonstrated that 35% of the individu-
als displayed SIB maintained by escape
from instruction, compared to 23%
and 26% of individuals whose SIB was
maintained by attention and automatic
reinforcement, respectively. Similarly,
Asmus et al. (2004) demonstrated that
social-negative reinforcement was the
most common maintaining variable
for problem behavior either solely or
in combination with social positive
reinforcement (i.e., multiple control)
for 138 individuals with and without
developmental disabilities. Finally, Love,
Carr, and LeBlanc (2009) found that
escape was the second most common
2. function of problem behavior, identified
for 50% of 32 children with autism
spectrum disorders.
Individuals with disabilities are
frequently exposed to learning situa-
tions that target important habilitative
skills such as pre-academics, activities
of daily living, communication, social
behavior, among others. Unfortunately,
a number of aspects of the instructional
environment might become aversive and
establish escape from them as a negative
reinforcer. For example, task difficulty,
rate of instruction delivery, and particu-
lar prompting strategies could all have
aversive properties for some learners.
If problem behavior occurs in response
to the aversive situation, a common
and understandable reaction of many
instructors might be to allow the client
time away from the task to “calm down.”
Frequent instruction, impaired reper-
toires associated with disabilities, and
natural reactions to problem behavior
from caregivers likely combine to make
escape functions quite common.
Practicing behavior analysts who
work with individuals with disabilities in
any type of instructional setting should
be prepared to treat escape-maintained
problem behavior. If a functional
assessment indicates that problem be-
3. havior is maintained by escape from in-
structional activities, there are a number
of treatments that might be employed as
part of a behavioral intervention plan.
The current standard for reductive treat-
ments is to base them on the results of a
functional assessment. These “function-
based” treatments directly address some
aspect of the behavior’s maintaining
contingency (e.g., establishing operation,
reinforcer) by, for example, eliminating
the contingency through extinction,
weakening the establishing operation by
making a task less aversive, or teaching
the individual a more appropriate way
to access the reinforcer (i.e., escape).
The remainder of this article will focus
exclusively on selecting treatments that
directly address a problem behavior’s
negative reinforcement function.
Selecting an intervention that is
likely to be successful for a given client
and therapeutic environment can be
challenging unless the behavior analyst
is well-versed in the characteristics of
each treatment and has a framework for
choosing between multiple appropriate
treatments. Thus, the first purpose of
this article is to describe six categories of
Function-Based Treatments for Escape-Maintained Problem
Behavior:
A Treatment-Selection Model for Practicing Behavior Analysts
Kaneen B . Geiger, M .S ., James E . Carr, Ph .D ., BCBA-D,
and Linda A . LeBlanc, Ph .D ., BCBA-D
4. Auburn University
Escape from instructional activities is a common maintaining
variable for
problem behavior and a number of effective treatments have
been devel-
oped for this function. Each of these treatments has
characteristics that
make them optimal for certain environments and clients, but
less optimal
for others. We summarize the most commonly researched
function-based
treatments for escape-maintained behavior, describe the
contexts for which
they are most appropriate, and provide a clinical model for
selecting treat-
ments based on client characteristics and the constraints of the
therapeutic
environment.
Keywords: Activity choice, clinical decision making, curricular
revision, de-
mand fading, differential reinforcement, escape, extinction,
function-based
treatment, noncontingent reinforcement
ABSTRACT
O
Behavior Analysis in Practice, 3(1), 22-32
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 22 4/18/10 11:04:11 PM
23TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
5. commonly researched, function-based treatments for escape-
maintained problem behavior: (a) activity choice, (b) curricular
and instructional revision, (c) demand fading, (d) differential
reinforcement, (e) extinction, and (f ) noncontingent escape
(see Table 1). This summary is followed by a clinical decision-
making model for selecting the most appropriate treatment
based on characteristics of the client and therapeutic environ-
ment and their match with the treatment’s specific advantages
and disadvantages. The focus of the model is escape-maintained
behavioral excesses (e.g., self-injury, aggression, property de-
struction) rather than noncompliance (e.g., non-responding,
verbal refusal), but we refer the interested reader to Houlihan,
Sloane, Jones, and Patton (1992) and Cipani (1998) for reviews
of treatments for noncompliance. In addition, punishment
procedures are not included in the present model and the prac-
titioner might view this model as a guide for exploring the full
range of function-based treatments before considering explicit
punishment procedures.
Function-Based Treatments for
Escape-Maintained Problem Behavior
Activity Choice
Activity choice involves providing the learner with an
opportunity to select either the order in which, or time at
which, tasks are completed (Dyer, Dunlap, & Winterling,
1990). Activity choice is considered a function-based interven-
tion because the individual can presumably avoid the aversive
aspects of one task by selecting another. For example, Dyer et
al. used activity choice to reduce escape-maintained disruptive
behavior (e.g., aggression, SIB, tantrums) of three children
with developmental disabilities. Each participant was provided
with a choice between 3 to 4 academic tasks (e.g., completing
6. a puzzle, labeling picture cards, sorting). When the first task
was complete, the participant chose from the remaining tasks,
and so on. For all three participants, activity choice produced
substantial reductions in disruptive behaviors.
Activity choice is an easily implemented intervention that
has been shown to increase compliance and reduce problem be-
havior without the loss of instructional time (Kern et al., 1998).
It also includes choice-making opportunities for the consumer,
which is often a habilitative goal with high social validity (Kern
et al., 1998). There are a number of variables the practitioner
must consider before selecting an activity choice intervention.
First, activity choice may require up-front preparation of
multiple sets of task materials from which the consumer can
choose. Second, it is critical to ensure that the curricular ac-
tivities are appropriate to the consumer’s existing skill
repertoire before presenting choices. Third, activity
choice is only effective with consumers with existing
choice-making skills who can tolerate instruction.
Finally, because giving a consumer a choice of activi-
ties is an antecedent intervention, there is no explicit
plan for how to respond to problem behavior, should
it occur. Therefore, combining activity choice with
a consequence-based procedure such as differential
reinforcement or extinction might further reduce
problem behavior. We refer the reader to the Kern et
al. (1998) literature review for additional information
on implementing activity-choice interventions.
Curricular and Instructional Revision
Curricular and instructional revision involves assessing
aspects of the curricular targets or instructional procedures
that might be aversive for the learner and making alterations
7. to attenuate or eliminate these features to abolish escape from
instruction as an effective reinforcer. To maintain consistency
with the research literature, curricular and instructional revision
will henceforth be referred to as curricular revision. Some of
the curricular variables that might establish escape from work
as a negative reinforcer are tasks that are too difficult or too
easy
in relation to the learner’s current repertoire (Dunlap, Kern-
Dunlap, Clarke, & Robbins, 1991; Ferro, Foster-Johnson, &
Dunlap, 1996; Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, & Falk, 1994;
Roberts, Marshall, Nelson, & Albers, 2001), are non-preferred
(Clarke et al., 1995), are novel (Mace, Browder, & Lin, 1987;
Smith, Iwata, Goh, & Shore, 1995), or do not produce skills
that are functional in the learner’s environment (Dunlap,
Foster-Johnson, Clarke, Kern, & Childs, 1995).
Dunlap et al. (1991) describe the use of curricular revi-
sion to reduce the problem behavior of a girl with mental
retardation. The authors assessed the effects of four curricular
variables on problem behavior: 1) fine- vs. gross-motor tasks,
2) short- vs. long-duration tasks, 3) arbitrary vs. functional
tasks, and 4) activity choice vs. no choice. The assessment
revealed that the participant exhibited higher rates of problem
behavior and lower rates of on-task behavior when presented
with fine-motor tasks, long-duration tasks, arbitrary tasks, and
no activity choice. Curricular (e.g., increased functional tasks)
and instructional revisions (e.g., short teaching durations) were
then implemented and produced increases in on-task behavior
and elimination of problem behavior.
Some of the instructional variables that might establish
escape from work as a negative reinforcer include lengthy
sessions (Dunlap et al., 1991; Kern et al., 1994; Smith et al.,
1995), massed trials (McCurdy, Skinner, Grantham, Watson,
& Hindman, 2001), certain prompting strategies (Munk &
8. One of the most common
reinforcement functions of
problem behavior is escape
from instructional stimuli
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 23 4/18/10 11:04:11 PM
24 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
Repp, 1994), high rates of trial presentation (Smith et al.), and
low rates of positive reinforcement (Smith & Iwata, 1997).
Several studies have addressed the final concern (low reinforce-
ment during instruction). For example, Lalli et al. (1999)
showed that delivering positive reinforcers for compliance
was more effective in reducing escape-maintained problem
behavior than delivering breaks contingent on compliance,
even when the problem behavior still produced escape from the
task. Similarly, Ingvarsson, Hanley, and Welter
(2009) showed that the delivery of contingent
and noncontingent positive reinforcers were
each effective in reducing escape-maintained
problem behavior. The fact that increased
positive reinforcement during tasks minimizes
escape-maintained problem behavior, even
when contingent escape is still available (as
in Lalli et al. and Ingvarsson et al.), suggests
that this procedure might work to abolish the
aversive properties of the tasks.
Curricular revision could result in improve-
ments in teaching procedures or curriculum
assessment that not only benefit the target consumer, but
could have beneficial effects on other consumers served in the
environment. Additionally, improvements in teaching strate-
9. gies and curricula create a more effective learning environment
which can produce more efficient and effective skill acquisition
while reducing and potentially preventing problem behavior.
Furthermore, it is a behavior analyst’s ethical responsibility
to promote effective learning environments rather than teach
individuals with disabilities to tolerate ineffective ones (Winett
& Winkler, 1972). However, curricular revision requires
someone with expertise to assess and change aspects of the cur-
riculum or instructional strategy. Additionally, the time and
effort required to assess and make changes can be of concern
if it is important to eliminate problem behavior immediately.
We refer the reader to a literature review by Dunlap and Kern
(1996) for additional information on curricular revision.
Demand Fading
Demand fading (instructional or stimulus fading) involves
the removal of all instructions, followed by their gradual
reintroduction (Pace, Iwata, Cowdery, Andree, & McIntyre,
1993). Such demand removal eliminates the aversive tasks,
which remain absent until they are systematically and gradually
faded back in. For example, Pace et al. faded the frequency of
tasks to decrease escape-maintained SIB of three individuals
with developmental disabilities. The initial elimination of all
tasks substantially reduced levels of SIB and they remained low
as tasks were gradually reintroduced. It is important to note
that demand fading works best when implemented with escape
extinction (i.e., withholding the negative reinforcer when
problem behavior reemerges during fading; Zarcone, Iwata,
Smith, Mazaleski, & Lerman, 1994).
Because the first step of demand fading is the elimination
of all instructions, there should be an immediate decrease in
problem behavior, which is a beneficial outcome for consumers
who exhibit severe problem behavior or who are too large to
10. physically prompt to comply with a task. In addition, because
instructions are gradually reintroduced over time, demand
fading might increase a consumer’s tolerance of instructional
activities. However, demand fading involves a loss of instruc-
tional time, which could be impractical due to the disruption
of classroom activities or inadequate staffing to supervise the
consumer while away from instruction. Also, fading in the
instructions is often logistically difficult and requires the su-
pervision of someone with expertise to oversee the process. We
refer the reader to the empirical article by Zarcone et al. (1994)
for additional information on demand fading.
Differential Reinforcement
Differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior.
Perhaps the most common procedural form of differential nega-
tive reinforcement of alternative behavior (DNRA) involves
providing escape from instruction contingent on an alternative
prosocial response (e.g., compliance) while placing problem
behavior on extinction (Vollmer & Iwata, 1992). Differential
negative reinforcement of alternative behavior can also be ar-
ranged by providing escape for an alternative response while
punishing the problem behavior or by providing more valu-
able breaks (e.g., longer duration) for the alternative response
and less valuable breaks for the problem behavior (Athens &
Vollmer, in press).
Vollmer, Roane, Ringdahl, and Marcus (1999) imple-
mented differential negative reinforcement of compliance
(with problem behavior placed on extinction) to reduce the
escape-maintained SIB and aggression of two children with
mental retardation. For both children, DNRA reduced problem
behavior and increased compliance. In addition, when DNRA
was implemented with lower integrity (i.e., problem behavior
occasionally produced escape), problem behavior remained
11. low and compliance remained high as long as compliance was
reinforced on a denser schedule of reinforcement than problem
behavior.
Differential negative reinforcement of alternative behavior
decreases problem behavior while actively targeting more adap-
tive skills and providing continued access to the functional
reinforcer, escape. Further, there is evidence that DNRA can
It is a behavior analyst’s ethical responsibility
to promote effective learning environments
rather than teach individuals with
disabilities to tolerate ineffective ones
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 24 4/18/10 11:04:11 PM
25TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
still be effective at reduced procedural integrity (Vollmer et al.,
1999). However, DNRA requires the delivery of breaks im-
mediately after the alternative response criterion is met, which
might be disruptive to classroom activities or be impractical
if there is inadequate staffing to supervise the consumer dur-
ing the break. In addition, DNRA requires the supervision
of someone with expertise to supervise schedule thinning for
the alternative behavior. We refer the reader to the literature
review by Vollmer and Iwata (1992) for additional information
on DNRA.
Functional communication training. Functional communi-
cation training (FCT) is a form of DNRA that involves provid-
12. ing escape from instruction contingent on a communicative re-
sponse (e.g., vocal, sign) as the specific prosocial behavior
while
problem behavior is placed on extinction (Durand & Merges,
2001) or is punished (Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, & Maglieri,
2005).
In order to effectively reduce problem behavior, the communi-
cative response, or mand for escape, should ideally require less
response effort, have a denser schedule of reinforcement, and
have a shorter delay to reinforcement than the problem behav-
ior (Horner & Day, 1991). Researchers have reduced problem
behavior by teaching mands for escape (Horner & Day) and
for assistance (Carr & Durand, 1985). For example, Carr and
Durand used FCT to reduce escape-maintained disruptive
behavior (e.g., aggression, tantrums, screaming, SIB) of three
children with developmental disabilities. The authors taught
the participants the vocal response, “I don’t understand,”
which was immediately followed by assistance on the task.
Occurrences of disruptive behavior were followed by continued
task presentation without assistance. For all three participants,
FCT reduced disruptive behavior to near-zero levels.
Functional communication training decreases problem
behavior while actively targeting a communication skill and
providing continued access to escape. Moreover, research
has demonstrated that some individuals prefer FCT over
noncontingent reinforcement and extinction (Hanley, Piazza,
Fisher, Contrucci, & Maglieri, 1997). However, FCT may
result in high rates of the communicative response, which
must immediately be followed by breaks from instruction. As
with DNRA, delivering breaks contingent on the consumer’s
communicative responses can be logistically difficult to manage
in some environments. Also as with DNRA, FCT sometimes
requires the supervision of someone with expertise to oversee
additional interventions to reduce high rates of the communi-
13. cative response. We refer the reader to a literature review by
Tiger, Hanley, and Bruzek (2008) for additional information
on FCT.
Differential negative reinforcement of zero rates of responding.
Differential negative reinforcement of zero rates of responding
(DNRO) involves delivering escape when the problem behav-
ior has not occurred for a specific period of time (Vollmer &
Iwata, 1992). The general suggestion is to use
initial intervals that are shorter than the mean
inter-response time of the problem behavior
during baseline, giving the individual a high
probability of contacting the programmed
contingency (Deitz & Repp, 1983). A com-
mon feature of DNRO is interval resetting,
by which occurrences of the problem behavior
immediately reset the timer to zero seconds
and a new interval begins (Vollmer & Iwata).
Buckley and Newchok (2006) used DNRO
to reduce problem behavior maintained by
escape from music of a 7-year-old boy with
pervasive developmental disorder. The DNRO
procedure decreased disruptive behavior to near-zero levels
that were maintained as the interval duration was successfully
increased to 5 min.
For problem behavior maintained by escape from in-
structional activities, DNRA (including FCT) is generally
more preferred than DNRO because the former procedure
includes a skill acquisition component (Vollmer & Iwata,
1992). Furthermore, DNRA has shown to be more effective
than DNRO in reducing escape-maintained problem behavior
(Roberts, Mace, & Daggett, 1995). Alternatively, DNRO may
be more appropriate for increasing tolerance to an aversive
14. activity (e.g., an invasive medical procedure) because breaks
may not be permitted to be under the client’s control, as they
are in DNRA (Vollmer & Iwata).
One benefit of DNRO is that it provides continued access
to breaks while increasing tolerance to aversive situations that
are necessary, such as medical procedures. However, DNRO is
labor intensive because it requires constant monitoring of the
consumer for occurrences of problem behavior. In addition,
providing breaks on dense schedules at treatment outset can be
logistically difficult if they disrupt ongoing activities. Finally,
DNRO requires the supervision of someone with expertise in
establishing the DNRO intervals and monitoring the schedule
thinning process. We refer the reader to the literature review
by Vollmer and Iwata (1992) for additional information on
DNRO.
Escape Extinction
Escape extinction involves the continued presentation of an
aversive activity (e.g., instructional tasks) while eliminating the
possibility of escape from the activity contingent on problem
In order to effectively reduce problem behav ior,
the communicative response, or mand for
escape, should ideally require less response
effort, have a denser schedule of reinforcement,
and have a shorter delay to reinforcement
than the problem behavior
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 25 4/18/10 11:04:11 PM
26 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
15. behavior (Iwata, Pace, Kalsher, Cowdery, & Cataldo, 1990).
Iwata et al. implemented escape extinction with physical guid-
ance to reduce the escape-maintained SIB of six children with
mental retardation1. For 5 of 6 participants, escape extinction
with physical guidance reduced SIB to low levels and resulted
in increased task compliance. For the sixth participant, escape
extinction did not reduce SIB until response blocking was
added. Further, Iwata, Pace, Cowdery, and Miltenberger (1994)
showed that escape extinction was an effective treatment for
escape-maintained SIB, but had no effect on SIB maintained
by attention or automatic reinforcement. This finding under-
scores the importance of matching reductive treatments to the
function of problem behavior.
The main benefit of escape extinction is that it can be
combined with other treatments (e.g., activity choice, demand
fading, DNRO) to enhance their effectiveness. However,
escape extinction may not immediately decrease problem
behavior and there is often a high degree of effort associated
with implementing the procedure. Instructors are likely to
implement escape extinction with lower treatment integrity
than other procedures, which might make problem behavior
more resistant to extinction in the future (McConnachie &
Carr, 1997). Furthermore, extinction might result in a burst
of responding that is at least as high as pretreatment rates and
might evoke aggressive behavior, although these outcomes are
not guaranteed (Lerman, Iwata, & Wallace, 1999). We refer
the reader to literature reviews by Ducharme and Van Houten
(1994) and Lerman and Iwata (1996) for additional informa-
tion on escape extinction.
Noncontingent Escape
Noncontingent escape (NCE) involves the delivery of
escape from instructional activities on a time-based schedule
(e.g., fixed-time, variable-time), regardless of the individual’s
16. problem behavior (Kodak, Miltenberger, & Romanuik, 2003;
Vollmer, Marcus, & Ringdahl, 1995). At the beginning of the
procedure, escape is typically provided on a denser schedule
than what the problem behavior typically produces (Carr &
LeBlanc, 2006). After NCE is successful in reducing problem
behavior, the reinforcement schedule is generally thinned to
a more manageable value. For example, Vollmer et al. used
NCE to reduce the escape-maintained SIB of two males with
developmental disabilities and were able to thin the schedule of
noncontingent (fixed time) breaks from 10 s to 2.5 min for one
participant and to 10 min for the other. In addition, NCE and
DNRO were compared with one of the participants and NCE
resulted in quicker reductions in problem behavior.
1 Although Iwata et al. (1990) suggested that the physical
guidance necessary
to keep an individual from escaping an instructional situation
may constitute
a form of punishment, the response reductions that typically
occur under
such procedures share characteristics of those associated with
extinction (e.g.,
response bursts, gradual reductions; Iwata, Pace, Cowdery et
al., 1994).
One of the main benefits of NCE is that it immediately
reduces problem behavior while continuing to provide the
functional reinforcer (Vollmer et al., 1995). Additionally,
because NCE is an antecedent intervention, it does not require
the occurrence of problem behavior to be effective, and might
even prevent problem behavior from occurring. Another
potential benefit is that noncontingent reinforcement has been
shown to be effective without extinction, which would make
the intervention an option for when extinction is impractical
(Lalli, Casey, & Kates, 1997). A potential concern with NCE
is that the schedule of noncontingent breaks is quite dense at
17. the beginning of intervention, which could be impractical or
disruptive to the consumer’s environment. Like other inter-
ventions that require schedule thinning, NCE requires the
involvement of someone who can adequately calculate schedule
values and oversee the thinning process. Another potential, but
probably unlikely, concern is that noncontingent reinforcement
has sometimes been shown to accidentally reinforce problem
behavior (Vollmer, Ringdahl, Roane, & Marcus, 1997). In
such an event, skipping or briefly delaying scheduled breaks
that occur just after problem behavior should eliminate the
problem. We refer the reader to the book chapters by Carr and
LeBlanc (2006) and Vollmer and Wright (2003) for additional
information on noncontingent escape.
Clinical Considerations and Decision Making
The clinical decision-making model described here is in-
tended for use by individuals with experience with functional
assessment and function-based treatment of problem behavior,
instructional curricula, and effective teaching procedures.
Seasoned practitioners who have strong influence over their
clinical environments most likely have their own guides for
selecting treatments. However, behavior analysts who have less
control over clinical environments, such as those who consult
or are newly in charge of the settings may find these recom-
mendations useful.
Each of the treatments described in the previous section is
empirically supported for the treatment of escape-maintained
problem behavior. However, not every treatment is equally
well-suited to a particular client or therapeutic environment.
Identifying the function of problem behavior is a necessary
precondition before selecting each of these interventions.
Fortunately, there are numerous helpful resources for conduct-
ing a functional assessment (e.g., Carr, LeBlanc, & Love, 2008;
Iwata & Dozier, 2008; Vollmer, Marcus, Ringdahl, & Roane,
18. 1995). The next step in the process is equally important and
involves consideration of specific characteristics of the client
and therapeutic environment. Some important client charac-
teristics to consider include the current skill repertoire, level
of compliance, and severity and dangerousness of the problem
behavior. Some important environmental factors to consider
include the appropriateness of the curriculum and instruction,
tolerance for disruption to others in the environment, staffing
ratios, and the amount of available technical expertise.
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 26 4/24/10 11:38:54 AM
27TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
Treatment Description Strengths Potential Limitations
Activity
Choice
Offer a choice
among selected tasks
Might prevent problem behavior•
No lost instruction time•
Provides choice-making opportunities•
Increased compliance•
No programmed consequence for problem behavior•
Requires preparation of additional instructional •
materials
Requires choice-making skills•
Requires an appropriate curriculum be in place•
Requires learners who can tolerate some instruction•
19. Curricular and
Instructional
Revision
Change curricular
targets or instructional
procedures
Results in improvements in teaching•
Might benefit other learners in the •
environment
Might produce more efficient and ef-•
fective skill acquisition
Might prevent problem behavior•
Requires time, effort, and expertise to change •
curriculum/instruction
No programmed consequence for problem behavior•
Demand
Fading
Remove all demands,
then gradually
reintroduce them
over time; include
escape extinction
Immediately reduces problem behavior•
The first step of the intervention (de-•
mand removal) is often already done
Might prevent problem behavior•
Might increase tolerance of instruction•
A good match for dangerous behavior •
and large clients
20. Gradually fading in demands might be logistically •
difficult
Requires expertise to establish and oversee the fading •
process
Periods of non-instruction could be disruptive to •
classroom activities
Differential
Negative
Reinforcement
of Alternative
Behavior
Provide a break from
work after a new,
alternative behavior and
place the problem be-
havior on extinction (see
text for other variations)
Actively targets new skills or increases •
existing ones
Provides continued access to escape •
throughout the intervention
May be used without extinction•
Periods of non-instruction could be disruptive to •
classroom activities
Requires expertise to establish and oversee schedule •
thinning process
Differential
Negative
Reinforcement
of Zero Rates of
Behavior
21. Provide a break from
work if the problem be-
havior has not occurred
for a specified amount
of time and place the
problem behavior on
extinction
Provides continued access to escape •
throughout the intervention
Useful for increasing tolerance of neces-•
sary, but aversive, stimuli
Requires constant monitoring for occurrences of •
problem behavior
Periods of non-instruction could be disruptive to •
classroom activities
Requires expertise to establish and oversee schedule •
thinning process
Extinction
Do not provide a break
from work contingent
on problem behavior;
continue presenting
the task regardless of
problem behavior
Provides a contingency for problem •
behavior
Compatible with other treatments to •
enhance their effectiveness
High response effort of implementation•
22. Might produce a response burst or aggression•
Might make behavior more resistant to extinction •
without strong treatment integrity
Does not result in immediate response suppression•
Functional
Communication
Training
Provide a break from
work for a new, com-
municative response
and place the problem
behavior on extinction
(or punishment)
Actively targets new skills or increases •
existing ones
Provides continued access to escape •
throughout the intervention
Preferred by some individuals over •
NCE and extinction
May be used without extinction•
May result in high rates of the communicative •
response
Does not result in immediate response suppression •
Periods of non-instruction could be disruptive to •
classroom activities
Requires expertise to establish and oversee schedule •
thinning process
Noncontingent
Escape
Provide breaks from
23. work on a time-based
schedule, irrespective of
problem behavior
Provides continued access to escape •
throughout the intervention
Immediately reduces problem behavior•
Might prevent problem behavior•
May be used without extinction•
May produce adventitious reinforcement of problem •
behavior
Periods of non-instruction could be disruptive to •
classroom activities
Requires expertise to establish and oversee schedule •
thinning process
Table. Strengths and potential limitations of treatments for
escape-maintained problem behavior.
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 27 4/18/10 11:04:12 PM
28 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
The Table summarizes the important strengths and po-
tential limitations of each treatment. Consider the example
of NCE. For clients with very dangerous behavior, NCE is a
promising option because it frequently produces immediate re-
ductions in problem behavior, particularly when the schedule is
nearly continuous. In addition, NCE can be implemented with
or without extinction, making this treatment a good match
for environments that are unable or unwilling to implement
escape extinction. However, minimal instruction occurs during
NCE, particularly at the onset of the treatment, and expertise
24. is required to effectively guide the schedule thinning process.
In addition, no new skill is explicitly targeted, which may be
a concern for clients who need to develop functional commu-
nication repertoires but may not be a concern for clients who
already have those repertoires.
A Clinical Model for Optimal Treatment Selection
It may be challenging for practitioners to simultaneously
consider all of the relevant client and environment variables
that should impact treatment selection. One solution to this
challenge is to prioritize the clinical considerations and follow
a specific model in decision-making. The Figure illustrates a
clinical model for sequentially asking and answering questions
that will lead to differential treatment selection. The ordering
of the questions is based on ethical responsibilities, safety and
practical considerations, and organizational issues. Each time
a question is answered negatively, 1 or 2 treatments become
the optimal options. The earlier in the framework a question is
answered affirmatively, the more possible treatments there are
from which to choose. Refer to the Table for a comparison of
the strengths and potential limitations of each treatment when
deciding between multiple options. Extinction in isolation is
presented as an optimal alternative in one area of the model;
however, several of the procedures (noted with an asterisk in
the Figure) can be implemented with or without extinction
depending on the constraints of the clinical situation. If clinical
progress turns a “no” response into a “yes” response, but some
degree of problem behavior remains, return to the clinical
model. For example, if implementation of NCE or demand
fading after negatively answering question 3 produces some
level of compliance, you may have the option of continuing
with questions 4 and 5 in the model.
The first question about the appropriateness of the cur-
riculum and instructional procedures is important for two
25. reasons. First, it speaks to the behavior analyst’s ethical respon-
sibility to promote effective learning environments rather than
teaching individuals with disabilities to tolerate ineffective ones
(Winett & Winkler, 1972). Second, improving curricular and
instructional procedures is a practical way to directly address
the escape contingency by abolishing the reinforcing value of
escape. When clients are presented with tasks that are far above
their current capabilities or are exposed to ineffective prompt-
ing strategies, learning environments are typically aversive. The
most direct way to address the problem would be to teach the
relevant pre-requisite skills before advanced skills and to use
more effective instructional strategies, thus abolishing escape
as a negative reinforcer. Such changes should enhance learning
in addition to decreasing problem behavior. The practitioner
will only need to progress to the next step in the model if the
curriculum and instruction are appropriate, if curriculum/in-
structional revision fails to produce adequate treatment effects,
or if influence over these variables is not currently possible.
The second question about behavioral severity and en-
vironmental tolerance for the behavior speaks to the need to
determine if there must be an immediate suppression of prob-
lem behavior during treatment. Several scenarios may make
it imperative that no or few problem behaviors occur at the
onset of treatment. Those in the therapeutic environment may
be unwilling or unable to allow a single instance of problem
behavior or may insist on termination of services if even one
more instance of problem behavior occurs. This situation is
most likely to occur when the client is considered difficult to
physically manage (e.g., a large, aggressive client), the behavior
would produce unacceptable danger to the client (e.g., severe
SIB, elopement), or if the behavior is socially offensive (e.g.,
public disrobing, sexual misbehavior). In these circumstances,
providers often have already eliminated all demands in an effort
to avoid problem behavior.
26. The aforementioned circumstances drastically limit the
number of optimal treatments because certain treatments that
might eventually prove effective often do not produce immedi-
ate suppression of problem behavior (e.g., extinction, FCT) and
might represent a sudden reintroduction of demands into the
environment (e.g., FCT, activity choice). On the other hand,
demand fading and NCE immediately abolish the reinforcing
value of escape and, thus, are typically associated with rapid
reductions in problem behavior. In addition, these two treat-
ments can be implemented without extinction, and stakehold-
ers with a low tolerance for problem behavior are likely to also
have little tolerance for implementation of escape extinction
procedures. Consider demand fading and NCE as the optimal
starting point under these circumstances. As treatment gains
are made, it may become possible to consider other treatment
options as an alternative or supplement and the next questions
in the model can guide your selection at that time.
Third, the practitioner should consider the client’s current
rate of compliance with instructions. If virtually no instructions
are met with compliance, demand fading and NCE are still at-
tractive options because their early phases include few instruc-
tions with the client gradually encountering more as treatment
progresses. Both of these procedures could be implemented
with or without extinction depending on the environment’s
tolerance of escape extinction. Because the curriculum and in-
structional practices have already been deemed appropriate or
have been revised to be appropriate, the client will presumably
come into contact with sufficient reinforcement and effective
prompting strategies for any newly occurring instances of
compliance. Without the prior curriculum and instructional
revision (i.e., question 1 in the model), it is unreasonable to
expect sustained improvements in compliance and problem
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 28 4/18/10 11:04:12 PM
27. 29TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
Functional Assessment Indicates Problem Behavior
is Maintained by Escape from Demands
1. Is the curriculum appropriate and is instruction optimal?
Yes No
2. Can the environment tolerate any level of problem behavior?
Yes No
3. Are there any demands to which the client already complies?
Yes No
4. Is time away from instruction tolerable?
Yes No
Curricular and
Instructional Revision
Demand Fading
NCE
Demand Fading*
NCE*
Activity Choice
Extinction
28. 5. Which is the most important clinical/educational goal?
Communication
Other Curricular
Targets
Tolerance of an
Aversive Event
DNRO*DNRA*FCT*
Figure. A model for selecting function-based treatments for
escape-maintained problem behavior. Note: *Consider including
extinction if viable; DNRA = differential negative
reinforcement of alternative behavior, DNRO = differential
negative
reinforcement of zero rates of behavior, FCT = functional
communication training, NCE = noncontingent escape.
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 29 4/18/10 11:04:12 PM
30 TREATMENT-SELECTION MODEL
behavior as instructional periods are increased. Other excellent
treatments that involve a direct instructional component (e.g.,
FCT) or a requirement of compliance from the outset (e.g.,
DRA) are less optimal initially but might become viable when
compliance becomes more reliable.
Next, the practitioner should consider whether time away
from instruction is tolerable. Some of the common concerns
with breaks from instruction include logistical difficulties asso-
ciated with supervision of a learner away from the main learner
group, stigma or fairness problems associated with one person
29. getting a break while others do not, and loss of instructional
opportunities when break schedules are dense. It may be pos-
sible to discuss alternatives that would mitigate implementer
concerns while increasing the number of potential treatment
options. For example, in an inclusive or general education
environment, the first two concerns could be mitigated if the
student were to remain at his/her desk while having a brief
break from instruction (e.g., brief use of headphones during
lecture). If you are unable to mitigate the concerns, the optimal
treatments are activity choice, extinction, and DNRA with ex-
tinction. When the option of choosing seems highly preferred
by the learner, activity choice is a good option and it may be
combined with other treatments such as DNRA or NCE.
However, it has the drawback of requiring preparation of ad-
ditional materials for the learner’s selection. Extinction has the
advantage of directly addressing the contingency for problem
behavior but the drawbacks of potential extinction-related side
effects and high response effort of implementation.
The final question prompts the practitioner to choose the
most pressing clinical or educational goal for the client and
to select an optimal treatment accordingly. When a client
does not have a meaningful communication repertoire, the
optimal treatment is FCT because this treatment establishes
a mand response that allows the client to synchronize breaks
with his or her own motivating operations. If the client already
has communication skills that would allow him to request a
break, then consider targeting other important curricular areas
(e.g., language, mathematics). When establishing the criterion
to earn a break, remember that you can target one of many
important dimensions of responding such as compliance or
accuracy by providing breaks contingent on performance (i.e.,
DNRA). When the presenting problem involves an aversive
event that has to occur for the client’s well-being (e.g., medical
procedures) rather than skill acquisition, DNRO presents an
appealing option for producing tolerance to these events and
30. should be initially implemented with the breaks occurring
based on very brief intervals.
Conclusion
A number of effective treatments for escape-maintained
behaviors have been developed and each has characteristics that
make it optimal for certain environments and clients and less
optimal for others. The present article summarizes the most
commonly researched function-based treatments for escape-
maintained behavior and the clinical contexts for which they
are most appropriate. In addition, we provide a clinical model
for selecting function-based treatments based on client charac-
teristics and the constraints of the therapeutic environment.
Our model is based on selecting a single optimal interven-
tion at a time, which is advisable when the behavior analyst
needs to train providers to proficiency and ensure high treat-
ment fidelity. However, one treatment may sometimes enhance
the effects of another. For example, providing activity choice
or adding an extinction contingency may enhance the effects
of any of the other treatments (e.g., DNRA, FCT, NCE).
However, the behavior analyst should consider whether the
response effort associated with implementing additional
treatment components is likely to produce fatigue or poor
treatment integrity. One particular treatment combination to
avoid is NCE combined with FCT because research indicates
that NCE interferes with acquisition of the communication
response, at least when the NCE schedule is rich (Goh, Iwata,
& DeLeon, 2000). However, these two treatments might be
implemented sequentially. In our model, a practitioner might
initially select NCE as an optimal treatment (at questions 2
and 3) and elect to target a functional communication response
after NCE has been successfully discontinued or the schedule
has been thinned.
31. We have attempted to integrate the findings from a large
experimental literature on treatments for escape-maintained
problem behavior into a decision-making framework for prac-
ticing behavior analysts. Although the model is based on the
empirical literature, our clinical experience guided the ordering
of the questions and the determination of the appropriateness
and usefulness of treatments at different decision points. We
have no experimental evidence that this particular model is
more effective than any alternative, but it is a logical
framework
for the practitioner seeking guidance in treatment selection that
could be experimentally validated in future research.
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Author Notes
We thank Amy Polick, Megan Heinicke, Laura Grow, Jessa
Love, Anna Petursdottir, and Dorothea Lerman for their com-
ments on an earlier version of the model.
Address correspondence to James E. Carr, Department of
Psychology, 226 Thach Hall, Auburn University, AL 36849-
5214 (e-mail: [email protected]).
Action Editor: Timothy Vollmer, Ph.D., BCBA
BAIP-Vol3No1.indb 32 4/18/10 11:04:12 PM
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