The document discusses key concepts related to curriculum including definitions of curriculum, hidden curriculum, and three approaches to curriculum - content, product, and process. It also covers foundations of curriculum in areas like philosophy, psychology, sociology and history. The stages of curriculum development including planning, design, implementation are outlined. Finally, the relationship between curriculum and instruction is explained noting that curriculum is the 'what' of education while instruction is the 'how'.

1. TOPIC 1:WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
SEMINAR 1: 3 OCT 2015
HIU LUANG PENG

2. TOPIC OUTLINE
• Definition of curriculum
• Hidden curriculum
• Three approaches to curriculum
• Foundations of curriculum
• Curriculum development
• Curriculum and instruction

3. Definition of Curriculum
It is a statement of :
•what students should know (knowledge),
•be able to do (skills),
•how it is taught (instruction),
•how it is measured (assessment), and
•how the education is organized (context)

4. Hidden Curriculum
Definition:
What is taught in schools is more than
the sum total of the curriculum. School
should be understood as a socialisation
process where students pick up
messages through the experience of
being in school, not just from things
that they are explicitly taught
Philip Jackson, 1968

5. Hidden Curriculum
Definition:
Meighan, 1981
The hidden curriculum is taught by the school, not by
any teacher...something is coming across to the pupils
which may never be spoken in the English lesson… .
They are picking-up an approach to living and an
attitude to learning .

6. Approaches to Curriculum
•Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be
transmitted- content
•Curriculum as an attempt to achieve
certain ends in students – product
•Curriculum as process

7. ARISTOTLE’S CATEGORIZATION OF
KNOWLEDGE INTO THREE DISCIPLINES
The theoretical The practical The productive
Syllabus Process Product

8. Curriculum as Content
Focus:
•Body of knowledge/content to be
transmitted/delivered to students by the
most effective teaching methods
•Limit instruction to acquisition of facts,
concepts and principles prescribed in the
syllabus

9. Curriculum as Content
Weakness:
•A syllabus will not generally indicate the
relative importance of its topics or the order in
which they are to be studied
•People who equate curriculum with a syllabus
are likely to limit their planning to a
consideration of the content or the body of
knowledge that they wish to transmit

10. Curriculum as Product
•The dominant modes of describing and
managing education are today couched in the
productive form.
•Education is most often seen as a technical
exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up,
then applied, and the outcomes (products)
measured.

11. Curriculum as Product
Focus:
•to equip students with knowledge/skills/ and
values to function effectively in society
•to have the instructor bring about significant
changes in the students' pattern of behaviour
(hence emphasis on objectives)
•to formulate behavioural objectives - providing
a clear notion of outcome so that content and
method may be organized and the results
evaluated (Tyler, 1949)

12. Curriculum as Product: Weakness
• Too technical and sequential
• Too much emphasis on the plan /programme which
overlooks the needs of the students
• Success of a curriculum is dependent ONLY on occurrence
of pre-specified changes in the behaviour of learners
• The focus on pre-specified goals may lead both educators
and learners to overlook learning that is occurring as a
result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an
objective.
• Due to emphasis on measurement, things have to be broken
down into smaller and smaller units resulting in long lists of
often trivial skills or competencies -sidelining the role of
overall judgment.

13. Curriculum as Process
•Curriculum as a process, is not a physical thing,
but rather the interaction of teachers, students
and knowledge.
•Curriculum is what actually happens in the
classroom and what people do to prepare and
evaluate.

14. Curriculum as Process
Focus:
•On the context in which the process occurs
(particular schooling situations);
•the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any
other formal educational setting with a more
fully worked-through idea of what is about to
happen (proposal for action which sets out
essential principles and features of the
educational encounter).
Stenhouse, 1975

15. Curriculum as Process
Weakness:
•It is a problem for those who want some greater
degree of uniformity in what is taught.
•It can lead to very different means being employed in
classrooms and a high degree of variety in content
because this approach places meaning-making and
thinking at its core and treats learners as subjects
rather than objects.
•Examinations would be difficult to conduct due to the
lack of uniformity in student learning.

16. Curriculum as Process
Weakness:
• It may not pay enough attention to the context in
which learning takes place
•There is the 'problem' of teachers because this
approach rests upon the quality of teachers. If they are
not up to much then there is no safety net in the form
of prescribed curriculum materials. The approach is
dependent upon the cultivation of wisdom and
meaning-making in the classroom. If the teacher is
not up to this, then there will be severe limitations on
what can happen educationally.

17. Process Versus Product
Process Product
• looks to the world of experimentation.
(Ongoing testing and refining)
• appeals to the workshop for a model
(finished product)
• each classroom setting is unique
i.e. it means that any proposal, even at
school level, needs to be tested, and
verified by each teacher in his/her
classroom
• a curriculum package which is
designed to be delivered almost
anywhere (uniform)
• content and means develop as teachers
and students work together. (interaction
is dynamic)
• outcomes are the central and defining
feature specifying behavioural
objectives and methods in advance
• the learners are not objects to be acted
upon. They have a clear voice in the
way that the sessions evolve.
• the focus is on interactions.
• attention shifts from teaching to
• has a pre-specified plan
• tends to direct attention to teaching.

18. Foundations of Curriculum
To aid in the all round development of a learner,
curriculum needs to be securely established in:
•philosophy
•psychology
•sociology and history

19. Foundations of Curriculum
• Philosophy influences how people should be
educated and what knowledge is worthwhile --
the beliefs guide curriculum developers on
how they should go about designing
curriculum
• Psychology looks into the various
perspectives on how humans learn.

20. Foundations of Curriculum
• Sociology provides an insight into society.
Sociology relates to curriculum because
curriculum is a reflection of societal values
and beliefs it serves.
• History – curriculum has evolved over time
and developers refer to history to better
understand decisions made over time (the
educational focus prevalent during a particular

21. National Philosophy of Education
Malaysia
Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards
further developing the potential of individuals in a
holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually,
emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious
based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such an
effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who
are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high
moral standards and who are responsible and capable
of achieving a high level of personal well-being as
well as being able to contribute to the betterment of

23. Curriculum Development
Curriculum Development is a process involving many
different people and procedures which include:
1.Curriculum planning
(identify philosophical beliefs & aims of
education)
2. Curriculum design
(decide on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ to teach)
3. Curriculum implementation
(get people to practice the ideas with support with
materials etc…)

24. Curriculum and Instruction
• Curriculum is the design, the framework of
education and refers to all the subjects that make up
for a course of study according to a grade in school
or college (the ‘what’ of education)
• Instruction is how teachers deliver the curriculum to
the students (the ‘how’ of the system of education)
Note: A curriculum, however good it may be, is ultimately
dependent upon how it is delivered to the students.
Designing curriculum in isolation without taking into account
the instruction part of education can lead to disastrous
results

25. A Curriculum
• Curriculum is a very broad-based concept that different
educators and teachers choose to define differently.
• There is a consensus, however, that it is the content of
the course that has to be taught by the teachers in a
particular manner that forms the curriculum in a course
of study.
• The content of a course is decided by the authorities
who are ultimately bound by the policies of the
government and the legislation passed by the
government in this regard.
• Teacher is the medium through which a curriculum gets
delivered in the manner in which it is intended.

26. contd…
• Curriculum is provided to teachers in the form of
text. It is a roadmap, a guide as to what to deliver to
the students and in what manner.
• The speed at which a teacher has to go to let the
students absorb the content of the course in an
optimum manner is also provided along with the
curriculum.
• All the subjects that comprise a course according to
a grade in a school are collectively referred to as
curriculum.
• It is like the skeleton or the framework of a structure
that defines what is to be taught to the students.

27. Instruction
• Instruction is the method or way of teaching to
students- teachers or the instructors are in control
• Teachers decide the ‘how’ part of education – to
impart the knowledge decided based upon the
curriculum.
• Instruction is always dependent upon the teaching
skills and the professional attitude of the teachers.

28. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
TEN GENERAL AXIOMS
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and
desirable.
Schools and school systems grow and develop in
proportion to their ability to respond to change and adapt
to changing conditions. Society and its institutions
continuously encounter problems to which they must
respond.
2. Curriculum both reflects and is a product of its time.
The curriculum responds to, and is changed by, factors
such as social forces, philosophical positions,
psychological principles, accumulating knowledge, and
educational leadership at its moment in history.

29. contd…
3. Curriculum changes made at an earlier period of time
can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes.
Curriculum revision rarely starts and ends abruptly.
Changes can coexist and overlap for long periods of time.
Usually curriculum is phased in and phased out on a
gradual basis.
4. Curriculum change depends on people to implement
the change.
People who will implement the curriculum should be
involved in its development. When individuals internalize
and own the changes in curriculum, the changes will be
effective and long-lasting.

30. contd…
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group
activity.
Significant and fundamental changes in curriculum are
brought about as a result of group decisions. Any
significant change in the curriculum should involve a
broad range of stakeholders to gain their understanding,
support, and input.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process
in which choices are made from a set of alternatives.
Examples of decisions curriculum developers must make
include what to teach, what philosophy or point of view to
support, how to differentiate for special populations, what
methods or strategies to use to deliver the curriculum, and
what type of school organization best supports the

31. contd…
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.
Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and
improvement of curricula are needed. No curriculum meets
the needs of everyone. As the needs of learners change, as
society changes, and as new knowledge and technology
appear, the curriculum must change.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a
comprehensive process, rather than a “piecemeal”
process.
Curriculum development should not be a hit or miss
proposition, but should involve careful planning and be
supported by adequate resources, needed time, and
sufficient personnel.

32. contd…
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it
follows a systematic process.
A set of procedures, or models, for curriculum should be
established in advance, and be known and accepted by all
who are involved in the process. The model should outline
the sequence of steps to be followed for the development
of the curriculum.
10. Curriculum development starts from where the
curriculum is.
Most curriculum planners begin with existing curriculum.
Oliva advises planners to "hold fast to that which is good."
(Oliva, 2003, pp. 28-41)