This document discusses applying the principles of applied behavior analysis (ABA) to treat emotional and psychological disorders. It argues that ABA has been shown to effectively treat autism through empirical research demonstrating treatment outcomes, but the same cannot be said for emotional/psychological conditions. The author proposes that one reason for this is the lack of objective definitions for concepts like "mood", "anxiety", and "internalization" when describing these conditions. Establishing reliable, measurable definitions for these concepts through collaboration with non-ABA professionals could help bring ABA treatment to these areas by allowing for careful study of treatment effects. The author provides guidelines for defining conditions, treatment goals, procedures, and separating verbal from motor behavior components when applying ABA.
Clinical Psychology Case Formulation and Treatment Planning: A PrimerJames Tobin, Ph.D.
The aim of this primer is to support the learning of clinical case conceptualization and treatment planning for graduate students in clinical psychology, other trainees in the mental health professions, and early-career psychologists and mental health workers.
Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders 113014Odie Anderson
This document summarizes key aspects of cognitive therapy as described in Aaron Beck's book "Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders". It discusses Beck's view that cognitive therapy focuses on clients' conscious thoughts and beliefs rather than underlying meanings. Automatic thoughts are identified and analyzed to understand emotional disorders. While the approach seems simplistic, it empowers clients and enhances the therapeutic alliance. However, cognitive therapy may not be suitable for those with personality disorders or lack of introspection. The document concludes that Beck's approach provides a practical and valid framework for cognitive therapy.
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers. It discusses the need for psychological science to use empirical evidence rather than intuition alone. It describes how psychologists ask and answer questions using the scientific method, including description, correlation, and experimentation. Statistical reasoning is important for interpreting data and making inferences. Frequently asked questions about psychology are also addressed, such as whether laboratory experiments can illuminate everyday life and if psychology experiments on humans are ethical.
The Unique Characteristics of Cognitive Behavior TherapyAdam Smith
Short-term, Wider applicability, Cross-cultural, Organized & structured, Relapse prevention...etc are some characteristics of the Cognitive behavioral therapy. Find out more from the presentation.
The document provides an overview of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) strategies and techniques. It discusses Barlow's model of emotional disorders and how CBT addresses emotional regulation, cognitive appraisals, emotionally-driven behaviors, and avoidance. The basic CBT model examines psychopathology through a bio-psycho-social lens and addresses maladaptive cognitions and behaviors. Common CBT techniques include identifying cognitive distortions, challenging thoughts through questioning and experimentation, and behavioral activation methods like activity scheduling.
This document provides a case report for an individual therapy case using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to treat a client named Jenny. The case report includes a theoretical framework and rationale for using CBT, a psychological assessment and case formulation for Jenny, details of the therapy content and techniques employed over multiple sessions, and an evaluation of the therapy. The main goals of therapy were to challenge Jenny's negative thoughts and core beliefs about herself and her work colleagues, and to help her build relationships and cope with work through behavioral techniques like activity scheduling.
Clinical Psychology Case Formulation and Treatment Planning: A PrimerJames Tobin, Ph.D.
The aim of this primer is to support the learning of clinical case conceptualization and treatment planning for graduate students in clinical psychology, other trainees in the mental health professions, and early-career psychologists and mental health workers.
Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders 113014Odie Anderson
This document summarizes key aspects of cognitive therapy as described in Aaron Beck's book "Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders". It discusses Beck's view that cognitive therapy focuses on clients' conscious thoughts and beliefs rather than underlying meanings. Automatic thoughts are identified and analyzed to understand emotional disorders. While the approach seems simplistic, it empowers clients and enhances the therapeutic alliance. However, cognitive therapy may not be suitable for those with personality disorders or lack of introspection. The document concludes that Beck's approach provides a practical and valid framework for cognitive therapy.
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Psychology (9th Edition) by David Myers. It discusses the need for psychological science to use empirical evidence rather than intuition alone. It describes how psychologists ask and answer questions using the scientific method, including description, correlation, and experimentation. Statistical reasoning is important for interpreting data and making inferences. Frequently asked questions about psychology are also addressed, such as whether laboratory experiments can illuminate everyday life and if psychology experiments on humans are ethical.
The Unique Characteristics of Cognitive Behavior TherapyAdam Smith
Short-term, Wider applicability, Cross-cultural, Organized & structured, Relapse prevention...etc are some characteristics of the Cognitive behavioral therapy. Find out more from the presentation.
The document provides an overview of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) strategies and techniques. It discusses Barlow's model of emotional disorders and how CBT addresses emotional regulation, cognitive appraisals, emotionally-driven behaviors, and avoidance. The basic CBT model examines psychopathology through a bio-psycho-social lens and addresses maladaptive cognitions and behaviors. Common CBT techniques include identifying cognitive distortions, challenging thoughts through questioning and experimentation, and behavioral activation methods like activity scheduling.
This document provides a case report for an individual therapy case using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to treat a client named Jenny. The case report includes a theoretical framework and rationale for using CBT, a psychological assessment and case formulation for Jenny, details of the therapy content and techniques employed over multiple sessions, and an evaluation of the therapy. The main goals of therapy were to challenge Jenny's negative thoughts and core beliefs about herself and her work colleagues, and to help her build relationships and cope with work through behavioral techniques like activity scheduling.
This document provides an overview of qualitative and quantitative data gathering tools that can be used for research. It discusses various qualitative tools like interviews, accounts, diaries, group interviews/focus groups, and document analysis. It also discusses quantitative tools like questionnaires and scales. The key methods described are semi-structured interviews, which combine a structured interview schedule with flexibility to follow-up; and mixed methods that can collect both words and numbers. The document emphasizes matching the right data collection tool to the type of data needed.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) developed out of dissatisfaction with psychoanalysis and a desire to incorporate cognition into therapy. CBT looks at distorted thoughts and behaviors, challenges them, and works to make positive changes. Techniques include rational-emotive behavior therapy and the A-B-C method. CBT is effective for a wide range of issues like depression, substance abuse, and stress. It takes an integrative approach combining elements of different theories. Current CBT focuses on common cognitive profiles, increasing client awareness, and continued integration with other approaches.
This document discusses the concept of corrective emotional experience in psychotherapy. It begins with an overview of the historical origins and contemporary understandings of the concept. It was originally proposed by Franz Alexander to make psychoanalysis more effective by ensuring flexibility and adapting the therapist's approach. It is understood as exposing patients to emotional situations under better circumstances to repair past trauma. While initially controversial, it is now widely used in interpersonal and psychodynamic therapies to transform relationships and foster positive change through new, satisfying responses from the therapist. Providing a corrective experience is seen as an integrated part of treatment that can help resolve core conflicts over time through consideration interventions.
This chapter aims to provide students with a comprehensive and integrated understanding of the many factors that have contributed to the evolution of counseling and psychotherapy theories and practices. It introduces an integral approach consisting of four interconnected quadrants addressing: 1) individual perceptions and meaning making, 2) behavioral/physical/neurological factors, 3) cultural and community influences, and 4) societal and professional impacts. The chapter discusses how this holistic framework can help students and practitioners think about clients in a non-reductionist way and make informed choices in applying appropriate counseling theories. It also emphasizes developing culturally competent skills to best serve diverse client populations.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology including:
- The scientific method and how psychologists ask and answer questions through description, correlation, and experimentation.
- Common research methods like surveys, interviews, and longitudinal studies.
- The importance of control groups, random assignment, and double-blind studies in experiments.
- Statistical analysis and making inferences from data through measures like mean, median, standard deviation, and statistical significance.
- Frequently asked questions about the field address topics like laboratory research, cross-cultural comparisons, animal research ethics, and the value-laden nature of psychology.
Hyland2008 motivational concordance an important mechanismbenwhalley
This study tested whether response expectancy or motivational concordance better explains the mechanisms underlying placebo effects. 251 participants took flower essences for self-selected symptoms. They were randomized to receive information framing the essences as either a spiritual, affirmation, or neutral therapy. When presented spiritually, participants' baseline spirituality and response expectancy predicted outcomes. When presented non-spiritually, only expectancy predicted outcomes, supporting the theory that motivational concordance through a therapy's meaning is important for placebo effects.
This PPT is developed for post graduate and under graduate students of psychology. The ppt is comprehensive and will provide a good insight about the behavior approach to counselling or therapy from various perspectives.
This document discusses the importance of homework in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). It provides guidance on setting effective homework assignments and reviewing them in sessions. Homework is seen as a core mechanism for promoting change, giving clients opportunities to practice skills outside of sessions. Research finds a relationship between homework completion and positive therapy outcomes. The document outlines best practices for utilizing homework in CBT.
Cbt workshop for internationally trained health professionalsMatt Stan
Cognitive therapy is an active, directed, time-limited, structured approach, used to treat a variety of psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, phobias, chronic pain and others)
Clinical Case Formulation & Treatment Planning: A Fact-to-Inference Strategy...James Tobin, Ph.D.
Clinical case formulation and treatment planning are core competencies of clinical psychologists and other mental health professionals. Yet there is no clear consensus regarding how to support the development of these skills in formal academic and clinical training. According to Dr. Tobin, the standard approach to supporting the development of these skills is "hierarchical learning," i.e., the trainee is first taught objective facts (declarative knowledge) and then required to transition to more subjective (inferential) forms of thinking in order to understand the cause and maintenance of the patient's problems. Dr. Tobin suggests that this approach is flawed on numerous levels, Instead, using a scene from the film "Dead Poets Society," he argues for the primary need to "subjectify" learning for the clinical trainee. The accomplishment of this initial goal will personalize all subsequent academic and clinical training, thus securing inferential capacities even before object knowledge is fully achieved.
This document provides an overview and introduction to counseling theories and psychotherapy. It discusses 11 major approaches and emphasizes that no single model can explain all human experiences. It also stresses that the quality of the client-therapist relationship is important. Students are encouraged to develop a personalized counseling style that reflects their own personality and experiences. They are also advised to relate the readings to their own lives and apply concepts and techniques personally. The document directs students to consider case studies from the perspective of different theoretical orientations. It underscores that both the therapeutic relationship and the specific therapy used contribute to positive treatment outcomes.
Improving Writing and Critical Thinking Competence in Psychology: A Primer a...James Tobin, Ph.D.
This manual was composed to support psychology students' ability at the undergraduate and graduate levels to write more effectively in a variety of contexts within academic and applied settings. The primer is not meant to be a comprehensive writing guide, but focuses instead on the core components of scholarly writing, critical thinking, and the formulation and execution of original ideas. The relevance of these competencies for clinical psychology training is emphasized throughout the manual. Exercises are provided to help the instructor and/or student with practice experiences to support the refinement of the ideas and skills presented.
Psychodiagnosis refers to the process of classifying information about an individual's emotional and behavioral state in order to understand their psychological functioning. It aims to develop both a classification or label for any disorders (categorical diagnosis) as well as a deeper understanding of the individual's personality and experiences (characterological diagnosis). The objectives of psychodiagnosis are to describe psychopathology, provide diagnoses, formulate case studies to understand causes, and guide treatment planning.
The document discusses the importance of the counselor's personal qualities and self-awareness in effectively doing their job. It emphasizes that the counselor's character, willingness to self-reflect, and ability to manage their own values are central to building strong therapeutic relationships and outcomes. Counselors are encouraged to engage in their own personal growth work through self-care, therapy, and addressing issues like countertransference.
Emotional intelligence refers to an individual's ability to perceive, assess, and manage emotions in oneself and others. It involves four main components: perceiving emotions, utilizing emotions to accomplish tasks, understanding emotional variations, and managing emotions to achieve goals. Emotional intelligence is important for nurses as the nursing profession requires constant interaction with patients, medical staff, and other healthcare workers. This interaction involves perceiving patient emotions, understanding them, and using this to manage patient situations and provide effective care. Emotional intelligence can help minimize stress in nursing students and leads to more positive attitudes, adaptability, and orientation towards patient-centered care among nurses.
This document is a literature review comparing the humanistic and psychoanalytic orientations in psychology. It discusses the key aspects and differences between the two approaches, including their philosophical views and effectiveness in treatment. The review finds that while both orientations have strengths and weaknesses, neither is clearly superior to the other. It concludes by proposing a new question for further study - how the humanistic and psychoanalytic orientations could potentially be integrated to form an improved approach that combines aspects of each theory.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
1) Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach for modifying behaviors that uses principles of learning theory. ABA breaks tasks into small steps and uses techniques like positive reinforcement to teach skills.
2) ABA is used to help people with intellectual or developmental disabilities by systematically introducing skills in small steps and rewarding correct responses while ignoring incorrect ones.
3) Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques can also help patients adjust to chronic illness by addressing thoughts, monitoring triggers, and changing distressing beliefs. Supportive psychotherapy provides comfort and helps patients cope.
- Behavior intervention helps children with ADHD understand their feelings and actions, change their thinking and coping strategies, and modify their behavior.
- Support can include practical assistance organizing tasks or homework, or self-monitoring and self-reward programs to encourage controlling impulses.
- Parents and teachers use behavioral techniques to help children learn to control their behavior, such as reinforcement and praise for desired behaviors.
This document provides an overview of qualitative and quantitative data gathering tools that can be used for research. It discusses various qualitative tools like interviews, accounts, diaries, group interviews/focus groups, and document analysis. It also discusses quantitative tools like questionnaires and scales. The key methods described are semi-structured interviews, which combine a structured interview schedule with flexibility to follow-up; and mixed methods that can collect both words and numbers. The document emphasizes matching the right data collection tool to the type of data needed.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) developed out of dissatisfaction with psychoanalysis and a desire to incorporate cognition into therapy. CBT looks at distorted thoughts and behaviors, challenges them, and works to make positive changes. Techniques include rational-emotive behavior therapy and the A-B-C method. CBT is effective for a wide range of issues like depression, substance abuse, and stress. It takes an integrative approach combining elements of different theories. Current CBT focuses on common cognitive profiles, increasing client awareness, and continued integration with other approaches.
This document discusses the concept of corrective emotional experience in psychotherapy. It begins with an overview of the historical origins and contemporary understandings of the concept. It was originally proposed by Franz Alexander to make psychoanalysis more effective by ensuring flexibility and adapting the therapist's approach. It is understood as exposing patients to emotional situations under better circumstances to repair past trauma. While initially controversial, it is now widely used in interpersonal and psychodynamic therapies to transform relationships and foster positive change through new, satisfying responses from the therapist. Providing a corrective experience is seen as an integrated part of treatment that can help resolve core conflicts over time through consideration interventions.
This chapter aims to provide students with a comprehensive and integrated understanding of the many factors that have contributed to the evolution of counseling and psychotherapy theories and practices. It introduces an integral approach consisting of four interconnected quadrants addressing: 1) individual perceptions and meaning making, 2) behavioral/physical/neurological factors, 3) cultural and community influences, and 4) societal and professional impacts. The chapter discusses how this holistic framework can help students and practitioners think about clients in a non-reductionist way and make informed choices in applying appropriate counseling theories. It also emphasizes developing culturally competent skills to best serve diverse client populations.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in psychology including:
- The scientific method and how psychologists ask and answer questions through description, correlation, and experimentation.
- Common research methods like surveys, interviews, and longitudinal studies.
- The importance of control groups, random assignment, and double-blind studies in experiments.
- Statistical analysis and making inferences from data through measures like mean, median, standard deviation, and statistical significance.
- Frequently asked questions about the field address topics like laboratory research, cross-cultural comparisons, animal research ethics, and the value-laden nature of psychology.
Hyland2008 motivational concordance an important mechanismbenwhalley
This study tested whether response expectancy or motivational concordance better explains the mechanisms underlying placebo effects. 251 participants took flower essences for self-selected symptoms. They were randomized to receive information framing the essences as either a spiritual, affirmation, or neutral therapy. When presented spiritually, participants' baseline spirituality and response expectancy predicted outcomes. When presented non-spiritually, only expectancy predicted outcomes, supporting the theory that motivational concordance through a therapy's meaning is important for placebo effects.
This PPT is developed for post graduate and under graduate students of psychology. The ppt is comprehensive and will provide a good insight about the behavior approach to counselling or therapy from various perspectives.
This document discusses the importance of homework in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). It provides guidance on setting effective homework assignments and reviewing them in sessions. Homework is seen as a core mechanism for promoting change, giving clients opportunities to practice skills outside of sessions. Research finds a relationship between homework completion and positive therapy outcomes. The document outlines best practices for utilizing homework in CBT.
Cbt workshop for internationally trained health professionalsMatt Stan
Cognitive therapy is an active, directed, time-limited, structured approach, used to treat a variety of psychiatric disorders (depression, anxiety, phobias, chronic pain and others)
Clinical Case Formulation & Treatment Planning: A Fact-to-Inference Strategy...James Tobin, Ph.D.
Clinical case formulation and treatment planning are core competencies of clinical psychologists and other mental health professionals. Yet there is no clear consensus regarding how to support the development of these skills in formal academic and clinical training. According to Dr. Tobin, the standard approach to supporting the development of these skills is "hierarchical learning," i.e., the trainee is first taught objective facts (declarative knowledge) and then required to transition to more subjective (inferential) forms of thinking in order to understand the cause and maintenance of the patient's problems. Dr. Tobin suggests that this approach is flawed on numerous levels, Instead, using a scene from the film "Dead Poets Society," he argues for the primary need to "subjectify" learning for the clinical trainee. The accomplishment of this initial goal will personalize all subsequent academic and clinical training, thus securing inferential capacities even before object knowledge is fully achieved.
This document provides an overview and introduction to counseling theories and psychotherapy. It discusses 11 major approaches and emphasizes that no single model can explain all human experiences. It also stresses that the quality of the client-therapist relationship is important. Students are encouraged to develop a personalized counseling style that reflects their own personality and experiences. They are also advised to relate the readings to their own lives and apply concepts and techniques personally. The document directs students to consider case studies from the perspective of different theoretical orientations. It underscores that both the therapeutic relationship and the specific therapy used contribute to positive treatment outcomes.
Improving Writing and Critical Thinking Competence in Psychology: A Primer a...James Tobin, Ph.D.
This manual was composed to support psychology students' ability at the undergraduate and graduate levels to write more effectively in a variety of contexts within academic and applied settings. The primer is not meant to be a comprehensive writing guide, but focuses instead on the core components of scholarly writing, critical thinking, and the formulation and execution of original ideas. The relevance of these competencies for clinical psychology training is emphasized throughout the manual. Exercises are provided to help the instructor and/or student with practice experiences to support the refinement of the ideas and skills presented.
Psychodiagnosis refers to the process of classifying information about an individual's emotional and behavioral state in order to understand their psychological functioning. It aims to develop both a classification or label for any disorders (categorical diagnosis) as well as a deeper understanding of the individual's personality and experiences (characterological diagnosis). The objectives of psychodiagnosis are to describe psychopathology, provide diagnoses, formulate case studies to understand causes, and guide treatment planning.
The document discusses the importance of the counselor's personal qualities and self-awareness in effectively doing their job. It emphasizes that the counselor's character, willingness to self-reflect, and ability to manage their own values are central to building strong therapeutic relationships and outcomes. Counselors are encouraged to engage in their own personal growth work through self-care, therapy, and addressing issues like countertransference.
Emotional intelligence refers to an individual's ability to perceive, assess, and manage emotions in oneself and others. It involves four main components: perceiving emotions, utilizing emotions to accomplish tasks, understanding emotional variations, and managing emotions to achieve goals. Emotional intelligence is important for nurses as the nursing profession requires constant interaction with patients, medical staff, and other healthcare workers. This interaction involves perceiving patient emotions, understanding them, and using this to manage patient situations and provide effective care. Emotional intelligence can help minimize stress in nursing students and leads to more positive attitudes, adaptability, and orientation towards patient-centered care among nurses.
This document is a literature review comparing the humanistic and psychoanalytic orientations in psychology. It discusses the key aspects and differences between the two approaches, including their philosophical views and effectiveness in treatment. The review finds that while both orientations have strengths and weaknesses, neither is clearly superior to the other. It concludes by proposing a new question for further study - how the humanistic and psychoanalytic orientations could potentially be integrated to form an improved approach that combines aspects of each theory.
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
1) Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach for modifying behaviors that uses principles of learning theory. ABA breaks tasks into small steps and uses techniques like positive reinforcement to teach skills.
2) ABA is used to help people with intellectual or developmental disabilities by systematically introducing skills in small steps and rewarding correct responses while ignoring incorrect ones.
3) Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques can also help patients adjust to chronic illness by addressing thoughts, monitoring triggers, and changing distressing beliefs. Supportive psychotherapy provides comfort and helps patients cope.
- Behavior intervention helps children with ADHD understand their feelings and actions, change their thinking and coping strategies, and modify their behavior.
- Support can include practical assistance organizing tasks or homework, or self-monitoring and self-reward programs to encourage controlling impulses.
- Parents and teachers use behavioral techniques to help children learn to control their behavior, such as reinforcement and praise for desired behaviors.
Due Thursday Feb 18, 2016 by NoonInstructions The critical eval.docxjacksnathalie
Due Thursday Feb 18, 2016 by Noon
Instructions: The critical evaluation essay – Be sure to submit a final draft in MLA format on word. This paper should be at least 700 words, but no more than 850. Also, take great care not to plagiarize.
Mark Twain “The Story of the Bad Little Boy”
Write a critical analysis of Mark Twain’s “The Story of the Bad Little Boy” approaches can be quite straightforward. Psychological, gender, sociological, biographical, and historical are all approaches that many use naturally in viewing a work. However, if your interest lies elsewhere, feel free to choose another approach. This essay will need a debatable thesis. A thesis is not a fact, a quote, or a question. It is your position on the topic. The reader already knows the story; you are to offer him a new perspective based on your observations.
Since the reader is familiar with the story, summary is unnecessary. Rather than tell him what happened, tell him what specific portions of the story support your thesis.
Link to “The Story of the Bad Little Boy”
http://www.washburn.edu/sobu/broach/badboy.html
This paper should be at least 700 words, but no more than 850. The paper should be formatted correctly MLA style and written in third person (do not use the words I, me, us, we, or you). The essay should also contain citations and a works cited list based on your selected essay in the assigned readings. Formulate the structured response from your own close reading of the text.
DISCLAIMER: Originality of attachments will be verified by Turnitin.
Key Terms
This document lists and defines some of the 28 most important concepts that all psychology students and psychologists should know and understand well. Many of these concepts will appear again and again in your future classes and work in psychology. You will go deeper into many of them as you explore the world of Psychology.
CONCEPTS
Definition
1. ABC
Behavior therapists conduct a thorough functional assessment (or behavioral analysis) to identify the maintaining conditions by systematically gathering information about situational antecedents (A), the dimensions of the problem behavior (B), and the consequences (C) of the problem. This is known as the ABC model, and the goal of a functional assessment of a client's behavior is to understand the ABC sequence. This model of behavior suggests that behavior (B) is influenced by some particular events that precede it, called antecedents (A), and by certain events that follow it, called consequences (C). Antecedent events cue or elicit a certain behavior. For example, with a client who has trouble going to sleep, listening to a relaxation tape may serve as a cue for sleep induction. Turning off the lights and removing the television from the bedroom may elicit sleep behaviors as well. Con- sequences are events that maintain a behavior in some way, either by increasing or decreasing it. For example, a client may be more likely to return to counselin ...
Research review of Treatments for Autism in patients residing in psychiatric ...Jacob Stotler
Review of Evidence-based practice and research conducted on effective treatments with patients with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in patients residing in psychiatric facilities.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a form of cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis. It aims to help people overcome psychological distress by recognizing and disputing irrational beliefs. The core ABC model explains how activating events lead to irrational beliefs and negative consequences. Therapists use techniques like disputation to challenge beliefs and help clients replace them with rational ones. Research shows REBT can effectively reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety, and other disorders by teaching people to manage emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a healthier way. The process of REBT involves active participation through activities like homework assignments.
Psychological tests were developed to assist in understanding human behavior and making important decisions in an objective manner. Tests provide standardized samples of behavior that can be used to infer underlying traits and make comparisons to norms. This allows for decisions to be made with less bias than relying solely on subjective human judgment. Tests quantify results to precisely describe behaviors and allow for clearer communication than qualitative descriptions alone.
CBT as a core of psychotherapy in relapse prevention of addictionRaghda Gamil
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapy approach that integrates cognitive and behavioral theories. It developed from behavioral therapy and focuses on how thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes affect emotions and behavior. CBT aims to change problematic behaviors through cognitive and behavioral techniques such as functional analysis, skills training, and modifying automatic thoughts and core beliefs. Therapists use CBT to help clients recognize high-risk situations, avoid triggers, and develop coping strategies to reduce substance abuse.
The document discusses several third wave cognitive behavioral therapies including dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), behavioral activation therapy (BAT), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). It provides overviews of each therapy's theoretical foundations, techniques, and empirical support for treating various mental health issues like depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and more.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Outbreak management including quarantine, isolation, contact.pptx
2008 06146-005
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Beyond Autism Treatment: The Application of Applied Behavior
Analysis in the Treatment of Emotional and Psychological Disorders
Robert K. Ross
Abstract
The field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) has increasingly come to be associated with the treatment of autism in
young children. This phenomenon is largely the result of empirical research demonstrating effective treatment
outcomes in this population. The same cannot be said with regard to the treatment of conditions often referred to as
emotional or psychological problems. The current article describes the philosophical and descriptive differences
that likely account for the lack of application of ABA in these areas and proposes potential solutions to help ABA
practitioners more effectively address these issues. Specifically, the issue of how to objectively describe these
“conditions” needs to be addressed so that careful study of treatment effects can occur in a manner similar to the
way that brought ABA to prominence in autism treatment.
Keywords: Applied Behavior Analysis, emotional behavior, psychological disorders
Introduction
Over the course of the past decade, the field of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) has become
synonymous in the eyes of many parents, teachers and clinicians from other disciplines with treatment of
autism. Many professionals in ABA do not fully welcome a narrow view of this applied science.
However, it can be argued that this is partially a very good thing for our field. The perception of ABA as
the most effective treatment for children with Autism Spectrum Disorders has come about as a result of
the demonstrated effectiveness of the application of the principles and procedures consistent with the
science of ABA (Lovaas, 1987; NYS DPH EIP, 1999: NRC, 2001). The lack of the identification of
ABA as the most empirically effective treatment for other areas (e.g., psychological and emotional
disorders), for which is it often applied, may stem from an absence of such data and formal application of
our technology. Rather than lament the over identification of ABA with autism treatment, the more
adaptive response would be to conduct the kind of empirical studies in the areas of psychological and
emotional disorders that has served to bring ABA prominence in autism treatment.
A major impediment to accomplishing this goal, in my view, is the lack of careful application of
some of the tenets of applied behavior analysis to areas that are typically described as “psychological” or
“emotional” rather than “behavioral”. This needs to be addressed directly. As behavior analysts, we
must be willing to use terms outside of our discipline, but insist on operational definitions for these terms
when we use them. For example, a behavior analyst can treat a child who presents with a “mood
disorder” by specifying the behavioralevidence of the disorder. Is it that the child is often happy, but
becomes enraged when told “no” or when there is a change in their schedule? Is it that they describe high
levels of variability in their mood and would like to describe more stable levels?, or it is that the child
behaves in certain ways more often than we would like (hitting, yelling, inactivity,) and describe this as
evidence of a mood disorder? We can, if we choose to, make specific and measureable the evidence for
the disorder/diagnosis, and then apply treatment. Subsequent evaluation of levels of the symptoms can
enable us to determine empirically if treatment has reduced, increased or had no effect on these
symptoms.
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Descriptive Differences between Behavior Analytic and Non- Behavior Analytic Approaches
To understand why ABA based approaches to treatment of psychological and emotional issues
are less well accepted, we need to describe how behavior analytic and non-behavior analytic approaches
fundamentally differ in terms of how professionals talk about (describe) and treat these issues. Before
doing that we must confront the elephant in the room. What is a “psychological” or “emotional” issue?
This argument can be phrased as “are we treating the “emotion/psyche” or are we treating “behavior”? If
we step back just a little from this question we may be able to see that the treatment goal for both
perspectives is to have treatment change behavior. Unfortunately, for behavior analysts the descriptions
of treatment from a non-behavior analytic framework involves the use of descriptions of hypothesized
mental processes. One of the fundamental tenets of our science is that we do not embrace such
hypotheticalentities such as “mind” and “will”, these terms “refer to a possibly existing, but at the
moment unobserved process or entity” (Moore, 1995, p.36).
While that may be how the question is correctly answered on the Behavior Analyst Certification
Board exam, it is simply not what most psychologists believe and often not what some behavior analysts
believe as well. Additionally the field of behavior analysis requires precise definitions and objective
measurable outcomes (BACB, 2005). The treatment goal for many clinicians treating “emotional” and
“psychological” issues may be that the patient self-reports to “feelbetter” as evidence of an improved
condition. Given that these divergent views exists, and that such terms and concepts as “mind”,“mood”,
“anxiety”, “frustration”, “lack of internalization” are, and will continue to be, commonly used we must
begin the process of defining what these terms and concepts mean. The gulf between behavior analytic
and psychological/emotionally based treatments will likely remain large until this task is accomplished.
The requirement for precise descriptions is critical here, because it is this point that makes the
distinction between behavior analytic and non-behavior analytic treatment most clear. Treatment
consistent with the principles of ABA requires us to define in objective and reliably measurable terms,
what is meant by those concepts or terms that are used to make diagnoses or describe emotional or
psychological disorders. This is crucial in determining the current condition of the person whom we are
treating and whether our treatment decreases symptomology and increases adaptive skills and behaviors,
thereby lessening the probability of the symptoms (and thus the disorder) returning. I have purposefully
assiduously avoided talking about treatment procedures thus far, because evaluating the efficacy of
interventions can only happen when some agreement as to the problem being treated has been established.
At this point in time, it is not clear that this condition has been met when referring to the many diagnoses
of emotional and psychological disorders.
Establishing Reliable Definitions for Psychological/Emotional Concepts
Like the English and Americans, Behavior Analysts and psychologists can be said to be separated
by a common language. While we both use English, we use it in remarkably divergent ways. For most
psychologists the terms “mind”, “mood”, and “emotions” are clear and have meaning. For most behavior
analysts, they represent imaginary concepts, euphemisms for observable measurable behavior, and
hypotheses of causes of behavior [masquerading as a description of behavior.] This is the chasm we must
overcome in order to work together effectively.
Since behavior analysts contend that these terms are faulty, we should provide some technical
support to help resolve the problem. This is more productive than not bringing our technology to bear on
these problems because we only want to “use our ball to play the game.” I suggest severalgeneral
guidelines to follow and questions to be asked that can guide our efforts to accomplish this task.
First and foremost behavior analysts need to start with a willingness to tolerate the use of
common (but imprecise) language by non-behavior analysts. Behavior Analysts need to take the time to
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develop measurable definitions in conjunction with non-behavior analysts and to get agreement from
them that this is what they mean by these terms. If we are going to operate in this field, we need to work
effectively with those in the field. Doing so will require us to apply our principles in our interactions with
other professionals. We will need to shape the behavior of others slowly and with reinforcement for any
gains observed so that we can work from a common and mutually acceptable framework.
The obvious next step is to correctly describe what is being treated, and to specify the treatment
goal or expected outcome. Baseline status of this condition should be specified. We need to describe
what a good treatment outcome looks like in terms of adaptive functioning in all settings. For example,
the child who is being seen, who takes items that do not belong to him/her (stealing), needs to be able to
be alone in settings where items of interest are present and he or she does not touch or take them. For this
problem, it is not enough to set a goal of having “better morals” or a “conscience”. If he/she does not take
items when opportunities to do so (including unobserved instances) occur repeatedly over time, we can
conclude that we have taught him/her not to steal or we can infer that we have successfully supported the
development of “better morals” or a “stronger conscience”.
In attempting to define behavior that has historically been categorized as
psychological/emotional, the symptomology that comprise the condition should always be broken into
two distinct categories: Motor-physical (non-verbal) behavior and verbal behavior. If someone
accomplishes the task of saying that stealing is wrong, without reductions in taking items when no-one is
watching, treatment is unlikely to be described as effective. It is not enough to “know” right from wrong.
One must do “right” in order for other to become convinced that the individual “knows” right from
wrong. In an interesting “catch 22” this individual is often described as lacking adequate
“internalization” of the rule of not stealing, even when they can clearly state the rule. In a twist of
language that Heller (1961), himself would appreciate, it turns out that evidence of “internalization” is
external behavior.
Finally, we need to determine if the condition being treated occurs because the individual lacks
knowledge. For example does the person “know” that most people think stealing is wrong? Or does the
person “know” that people describe stealing as wrong and steal nonetheless? There is a fundamental
difference between possessing information and possessing information but not engaging in the behavior
consistent with this knowledge. We must accurately determine which condition reflects the current status
of the individual before beginning to implement procedures to provide this knowledge.
Questions to be asked and answered include;
1. What does their verbal behavior indicate? (e.g., Do they report that taking other’s things is
not okay? If so, this evidence suggests that they understand that taking things is wrong, yet do
it despite this knowledge.)
2. Will providing what they already have (knowledge of social rules and how the behavior
affects others) be sufficient to diminish stealing?
3. If the answer to # 2 is “no”, then the problem (stealing) is a motor performance problem.
(e.g., touching or picking up an item that does not belong to you). Simply stated, if
knowledge is present and stealing persists, why do we need to continue to work on
knowledge? The existence of a motor performance problem is likely to be the case in every
instance of psychological/emotional conditions. It may also be true that this problem is more
likely to be the failure to produce the motor skill that exists in the person’s repertoire, not the
lack of the motor skill. The implication of this reality is that almost all treatment for
“psychological/emotional” issues must also include motor behavior change procedures, and
that the use of knowledge change procedures may be superfluous.
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Defining Treatment Procedures
Precise descriptions of the desired short and long term outcomes can be a critical step in defining
the treatment strategies themselves. We can define the long term goal of not stealing in the following
manner: “the person will be able to be present in rooms where items that are desired are present but are
not touch them”. This description makes it clear that our treatment package will need to include more
than discussions of why stealing is wrong and how it makes others feel. We may need to rehearse the
desired (but clearly not fluent) skill of being present with items and doing something else. We may need
to incorporate reinforcers to strengthen the skill/routine of not touching. We may also want to start with
short durations of alone with items and systematically increase the time in the room alone based upon
success in not touching items. When descriptions of what the actual physical performance looks like are
used and incorporated into outcome measurement, reliance on knowledge of rules to control behavior
(particularly where such reliance has proved ineffective) can be reduced. Careful review of the previous
paragraph may lead the observant reader to conclude that I am suggesting an instructional program or
skill practice activity rather than a traditional therapy approach to the problem of moral development or
lack of internalization of rules. This reading would be correct. The response of any coach to an athlete,
whose skills are not well developed, would be to suggest practicing the skill correctly so that performance
of the skill under other conditions would be enhanced. Since we have identified that the problems lies
more correctly in the domain of physical skill, this would seem a more reasonable response.
This is change to teaching observable measurable behavior and describing the problem in these
terms rather than having a goal of “increasing the internalization of rules” is vital in that often we are
treating these types of problems as if they are evidence of a disorder rather than evidence of the lack of
adequate skills.
The issue of separating and working on both verbal and motor behavior is critical. When treating
individuals who are verbal and possess the ability to report symptoms as well as knowledge, we must be
careful to understand that verbal behavior is behavior and as a result subject to the following concerns:
1. Verbal reports of mood states, feelings, and behavior may or may not be reliable. (They may say
that they “feel depressed a lot”, because a recent event may result in the feeling being prevalent
today but not necessarily true of how they felt the past week).
2. Reinforcement may be available for inaccurate reporting of symptomology. (They may say that
they “feel depressed a lot”, in order to continue to access a therapist or obtain medication)
3. Descriptions of symptomology are much more likely to be subjective unless operational
definitions of these symptoms exist and are used in treatment. (They may say that they “feel
depressed a lot”, because they view not being “happy” all time as evidence they are depressed).
4. Adaptive verbal repertoires may need to directly teach to compete with less adaptive and well
established existing repertoires. (They may say that they “feel depressed a lot”, because they have
not been taught other descriptors to used to describe gradations in mood).
The above is a set of guidelines that I use when asked the question “is it behavioral or
psychological/psychiatric?” In fact, no question highlights the current challenge with respect to
description of the problem better than this question. For many psychologists there is a clear distinction
between “behavioral issues” and “psychological” or “emotional issues”. While the perception may be
widespread, the simple and objective reality is that almost all “psychological” issues are identified and
described by evaluating behavior (including verbal behavior). We cannot know that someone is
depressed unless they say and do things (complain of being depressed or stay in bed for days). If a person
is active, functioning successfully every day at work and states that they are happy reliably when asked, it
is unlikely that they will be considered “depressed” by most clinicians. That said, it is anathema to
suggest to most psychologists that, if we increase positive statements of mood and increase activity levels
and adaptive behavior at work through the use of reinforcement procedures, that the person will no longer
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be depressed. This would be dismissed as treating the symptoms rather than the “problem”. The fact that
the symptomology used to diagnose the condition are no longer present may be described as “not
relevant” and simplistic. The larger issue of treating the “whole person” and not a collection of symptoms
is raised to diminish anyone so foolish as to suggest this approach.
This mechanistic model is said to be inappropriate treatment since we are not addressing the
“underlying psychological issues” that have come to cause the person to be depressed in the first place.
The hypothesis that the symptomology of all psychological/emotional issues are caused by something
internal that must be worked out via specific relationship based verbal interactions is just that, a
hypothesis.
An equally valid hypothesis is that the collection of observable measurable behaviors that we
describe as evidence of “depression” are evidence of nothing more than that the individual engages in
these behaviors. These behaviors can be decreased by providing identified reinforcers to competing
adaptive skills and limiting reinforcement when the behaviors that comprise the symptoms of depression
occur.
The problems of the traditionalpsychological approach here for behavior analysts are many.
The paradigm of emotion and past trauma causing psychological disorders is a circular one. The
circle goes like this, past events make you “upset”, and this causes you to experience “distress” that
“makes” you have “difficulty” in the same or similar situations in the future. This account makes you a
victim of past events and “explains” why you are sad, angry, or mad. It is an account that diminishes or
eliminates the role of learning in the account of why new skills, repertoires of behavior and language are
acquired and maintained.
Behavior is viewed by traditional psychologists as a symptom of a disorder or condition not a
functional response that enables you to escape, avoid or mitigate exposure to this unpleasant condition. A
corollary of this hypothesis is that maladaptive behavior is not functional. Another version of how this
mechanism is used is the explanation for the condition of Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD): The
failure to have “bonded” or “attached” to a parent/primary caregiver is the “reason” why a child treats
adults poorly, steals or seeks attention from current caregivers. The idea that these behaviors could
produce responses from current caregivers that are desired by the child (and thus these behaviors are
being reinforced by those caregivers) is not taken into account, only that past failure to appropriately
“attach” explains these behaviors. If instead we describe what the child does and does not do, and what
specific skills need to be developed, we can begin the process of effective treatment.
It may be that a desired skill is to demonstrate emotion consistent with events (cry when talking
about past events of a sad nature rather than laugh). This is a motor task, not a verbal performance, and
therefore can be practiced. The absence of this performance can be viewed as a psychological deficit
and/or evidence of a disorder or it can be seen as a skill that is not currently demonstrated.
It is in this view that ABA may have much more to offer treatment for areas historically viewed
as out of the province of ABA. The absence of effective instruction to reinforce adaptive social behavior
and the presence of reinforcement for maladaptive (but functional) behavior accounts for the presence of
those specific topographies of behavior in young children. As a behavior analyst you can recognize that
past trauma may evoke behavior, but you know that whether those specific topographies of behavior
continue or diminish is the result of consequences in the current environment.
However, this view is not the dominant one in our culture. Practitioners in the fields of
psychology and psychiatry are still primarily attempting to treat behavior by treating the “mind”. These
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attempts are firmly rooted in a belief that changing “thought” is necessary and at times sufficient to
change behavior. The evidence of this change is often a change in verbal behavior.
A Focus on Language:
As I have previously stated, language is often at the heart of our differences in approach to
treatment. As behavior analysts, we look for precision in descriptions of human behavior and instead we
find euphemisms replete in psychological literature. Terms that have no single agreed-upon meaning are
rampant in the literature on the treatment of psychological and emotional issues. These devices we create
often “mis-describe” what is actually happening and unfortunately this practice often interferes with, if
not prevents, effective treatment.
Examples of problematic descriptions include such terms as: emotional states (i.e. “angry”,
“frustrated”, “insecure”, “anxious”); issues (i.e. “self-esteem issues”, “transition issues”, “sensory
issues”, “executive functioning issues”); diagnoses (i.e. RAD, ADHD, Bi-Polar Disorder); and conditions
(i.e. “lacks a conscience”, “shows no remorse”, “does not accept responsibility for his/her actions”).
All of these reflect our interpretations of what they do, without accurately describing behaviors.
The terms often represent a hypothesized “why” or cause of the behavior that they purport to describe.
They are interesting yet unhelpful and may be highly misleading. It is often the case that a child who is
seeking parental attention may engage in aggression. They do so when attention is less available or
because doing so under similar stimulus conditions has been reinforced in the past. Was the child who
was aggressive angry? Was he/she frustrated? Or perhaps he/she were internally experiencing some past
trauma that was triggered by a sound in their environment and this caused the child to lash out
protectively?
We can apply our clinicaljudgment and decide that since they hit the parent, they were angry.
But can we truly know that this is true? Since our interpretation is just that, an interpretation, others may
interpret the situation from an entirely different point of view. Can accurate treatment flow from a model
that is completely subjective and based upon the point of view of the person doing the interpreting? This
modelmakes the diagnostic focus the clinician, rather than the person who is being treated. Simply by
shifting from an objective description of the behavior occurring to a subjective categorization of the
behavior (complete with hypothesized cause), we create a pathology and a rationalization that flows
directly from our subjective interpretations. While objective descriptions of behavior may be far less
interesting and explanatory, they do have the benefit of being accurate regardless of the observer. This
should be a minimum criterion prior to beginning treatment.
Perhaps the child in the above scenario can provide insight into his or her behavior. This might be
of significant help provided the child is an accurate reporter and is capable of such insight. However
without such assistance, it is still possible to determine if the child is or is not provided attention from
parents subsequent to aggression and if this functions to maintain the behavior. It is also possible to
provide attention for more adaptive interactions and reduce levels of attention subsequent to aggression. If
attention truly was the reinforcer maintaining aggressive behavior, effective treatment can occur without
resorting to the use of euphemisms.
Similar circular arguments have also been used with a wide range of “emotional behaviors”. If someone
is “yelling” and we decide that this means that they are frustrated, we must understand why they are
frustrated and “teach” then to tell us they are frustrated with words we like better. However, this may not
address the problem, if they are yelling to get a task removed and it works, then telling us that they are
frustrated with words, (without the task being removed) does not help them. It makes them likely to
continue to yell to make the task go away. This interestingly presents another “catch 22”, since the
previous treatment did not successfully resolve their “frustration issues”, they still present as “frustrated”
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and it is now inferred as meaning that these frustration issues are “deep seated” thus requiring more
“therapy” to get to the “real root” of the problem.
The good news is however that it is not too difficult to parse out the behaviors from which these
euphemisms were comprised and to obtain reliable descriptions for use in treatment. It does not
necessarily mean abandoning these euphemisms, but simply defining what they mean for a particular
person by describing the behaviors that lead to that label for that particular person. For example, before
we can say a child has “sensory issues” we will have to describe the fact that when certain noises (e.g.
loud sounds and the telephone ringing) occur in the environment, the child puts his/her hands to his/her
ears. If this is what we mean by sensory issues, then why don’t we just say so? The term is so broad that
it may be assumed that the child has a wide range of problems not in evidence. It also implies that the
cause has been investigated and proven to be “sensory”. “Sensory” is not a medical cause, it is a
euphemism to describe a broad range of possible symptoms but nothing specific.
Other examples of the different perspective of twocommon descriptions include:“lack of conscience”
and “poor self-esteem”. The psychologicalperspective of “lack of conscience” is that the child fails to
feel guilty when he/she has done something “immoral”. Something is missing, likely due to some early
deficit in the child rearing environment, or trauma occurring at that time. The behavioralperspective
involves a description which defines that the child does things that we do not like and we describe as
inappropriate; for example, laughing when another child is injured. The psychologicalperspective of
“poor self-esteem” is that the child views him/her self negatively or does not “value” him/her self as a
person .The behavioral definition is that the child makes self-deprecating statements and/or engages in
behavior that we do not like (because it is unsafe or socially not valued); for example, saying “I’m stupid”
or “I can’t do this”.
The traditional approach is that the solution to the above problems or condition lies in getting the child to
have a better understanding of the past. This way the child can know why he/she makes bad decisions or
why doing so is not under his/her control, and what he/she can do differently in the future (this approach
presumes the child does not have this knowledge currently). If this does not help or while this help is
ongoing proponents of this approach may suggest prescription medications for this condition. A tenet of
this approach is that the problem and its causes are very complex and thus treatment is often not readily
accessible and effective in ameliorating the problem.
As a behavior analyst, I fundamentally reject this premise and offer an alternative. First, reduce
complexity by providing objective descriptions of specific behaviors, then building more complex
behaviors by establishing simple skills and expanding on those basic skills.
The best analogy I have to offer is how we teach math and money skills. We do not begin by working on
concepts. We begin by teaching counting and 1:1 correspondence. On these simple skills we build
addition and subtraction. The process of increasing complexity expands to algebra and trigonometry. A
person who cannot identify nickels from dimes is unlikely to understand Keynesian economic theory.
However does someone who can use money functionally, make purchases, count change, and keep a
checking account, truly understand money?
A person who laughs when another person is injured may be described as lacking empathy and considered
to have problems “connecting with others” and thus may be labeled as having RAD, a “complex
condition”. However is this the problem or is it that they have not learned to respond to injuries by asking
if the person needs help or by saying “Are you OK?”
The point here is that the problem is one of skill deficits and the solution should be one of skill
development. In the previous scenario, we can development the following skill development plan:
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1. Teach the child to visually discriminate “sad” from “happy” and to say “What's’ wrong?” to the
sad model. If the child does not say such things or visually present as concerned then he/she will
not be considered by objective observers to demonstrate “empathy”. If the child can “empathize”
but does not demonstrate the above performances (in the correct contexts) then no one will know
he/she has empathy.
2. Systematically generalize the demonstration of this skill in progressively more naturalistic
conditions (ensuring that correct demonstrations are reinforced). This is critical because if the
child can demonstrate all of the correct performances but does not do so under appropriate
contextual control he/she is likely to be viewed with some such label as “mean spirited” or
“cruel”.
I believe that it is imperative that behavior analysts move beyond autism and apply our technology to a
broader range of conditions. In order for this to occur, we will need to work diligently and collaboratively
with other professionals to remove the artificial barriers between what are considered to be
“psychological conditions” and what are considered to be “behavioral issues”. We must all understand
that there are no emotional disorders that do not involve behavior. If behavior analysts are to work with
psychologists to address emotional behavior they must do so by establishing precise criteria for the use of
terms to describe emotional behavior. These criteria would need to be observable and measurable and
have acceptable inter-observer reliability. Skill building procedures can then be developed from these
descriptions. This process is a necessary first step that will enable more objective research of behavioral
analytic treatments for these conditions. The widespread application of behavior analysis to the treatment
of emotional or psychological conditions is unlikely to occur unless and until these critical initial actions
occur. However, once this has occurred, research similar to the type that Lovaas and Smith (1987)
conducted with children with autism can be done in order to have a similar impact on the treatment of
children with emotional or psychological problems.
References
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2005). Behavior analyst task list, third edition.
Tallahassee, FL: author. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from
http://www.bacb.com/consum_frame.html
Butter, E. M., Wynn, J., Mulick, J.A. (2003). Early Intervention critical to autism treatment.
Pediatric Annals. Thorofare:. Vol. 32, Iss. 10; p. 677
Heller, J. (1961). Catch-22. New York: Simon
Lovaas, O.I. & Smith,T. (1987). Intensive behavioral treatment for young autistic children. In
B.B. Lahey & A.E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinicalchild psychology (Vol.11,pp.285-
324). New York: Plenum
Moore, J. (1995). Radical Behaviorism and the subjective-objective distinction. The Behavior Analyst,
18, 33-49
National Research Council (2001). Educating Children with Autism, Committee on Educational
Interventions for Children with Autism, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education,
Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
http://books.nap.edu/books/0309072697/html/index.html
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9. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy Volume 3, No. 4, 2007
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New York State Department of Health Early Intervention Program (1999). Clinical Practice Guideline:
The Guideline Technical Report, Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders, Assessment and
Intervention for Young Children. Publication #4217. Health Education Services, P.O. Box 7126,
Albany, NY 12224.
Author Contact Information:
Robert Ross
BEACON Services
321 Fortune Blvd. Milford MA 01757
508-478-0207 Ext 240
Cell: 508-265-3821
Behavior Analyst Online
www.Behavior -Analyst-Online.org
The Behavior Analyst Online organization (BAO) develops and deploys new resources for behavior
analysts and makes them available on the Internet free of charge to the public. These resources are dedicated
to educating the public about behavior analysis as well as serving as a resource for professionals involved in
the field of behavior analysis.
The BAO organization is responsible to its membership to develop resources that the membership
will find useful in everyday research, education, and application of the science of behavior analysis.
The BAO organization offers may perks to its members, including a Web Forum and the ABA-PRO
Mailing List. In addition, the organization publishes several major free e-journals of interest to the behavior
analysis community:
The Behavior Analyst Today
The Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention
The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy
The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology - Applied Behavior Analysis
The Behavioral Development Bulletin
The Journal of Analysis of Gambling Behavior
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