Effect of dyeing parameters on dyeing of cotton fabrics with fluoro chloro py...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The fifth lecture in the module Particle Technology, delivered to second year students who have already studied basic fluid mechanics.
Filtration covers the modification of Darcys law to predictive filtration design equations as well as ones used for test data analysis. Examples of industrial equipment for filtration are included.
Quantitative Modeling Of Formation Damage On The Reservoir During Microbial E...IJERA Editor
Microbial enhanced oil recovery is an inexpensive, environmentally friendly method of oil recovery, utilizing the potentials of certain microbes to significantly influence oil productionwith wide range of oil recovery mechanisms including oil mobilization, reservoir re-pressurization, permeability alteration, mobility control and a range of other exploitable recovery techniques. This study presents an investigation on the degree of damage to the reservoir as a result of microbial injection. Results from this analysis shows that for a continuous microbial injection process, the pore area of the formation reduces equivalently due to microbial plugging and or as a result of biomass accumulation in the reservoir. The prevailing effects of formation damage (skin) due to these microbes are also presented. Residual fluid flow rates and corresponding velocities were found to reduce in magnitude with deducing pore area after several days of injection.
A dual mechanism of the drag reduction by rigid polymers and cationic surfact...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Several approaches have been employed to reduce the high cost of energy associated with the way liquids are transported in pipelines. Polymers have been widely explored to replace the pumping stations and other high energy cost mechanisms, but degrade over a period of time due to the accompanying turbulent mode of such transportation. Surfactants which are better alternatives with the ability to reenact their lost efficiency, are less effective, there is therefore the need for an alternative mechanism for drag reduction. In this present work, drag reduction efficacy of dispersed silica nanoparticle additives with polar additives as complexes and nanofluid have been investigated as a new method to reduce drag. Thus the present work was carried out with Xanthan gum which is able to withstand degradation compared to the flexible polymers, hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride as the surfactant and sodium salicylate as the counterion. In the study both complexes and nanofluid were able to reduce drag as well as withstand shear stresses, although at different concentration which could be as a result of the different approaches of working, about 60% drag reduction was observed. It could thus be concluded that, these materials are able to reduce drag both as complex or nanofluid, only that, they could do that at different concentrations.
Keywords: Nanofluid, Polymers, Surfactants, Drag reduction, rotating disk apparatus, degradation
Evaluation of volumetric shrinkage ofmarble dust soil compositeeSAT Journals
Abstract Locally available reddish soil was analysed for volumetric shrinkage strain by treating it with marble dust till 40%. Volumetric shrinkage strain in soils indicates the variation in volume of compacted soil, which will result in inducing cracking of soil sample. This property majorly affects soil used as liner material since shrinkage and subsequent cracking results in voids, which interrupt the proper functioning of liner. The soil sample were compacted using standard and modified Proctor compactive effort using moulding water contents -2, 0 and +2 percentage relative to optimum. The soil samples compacted at required water content and corresponding density were extruded from the compaction mould and kept fordrying, till it was completely dry. The variation in volume and weight of sample is recorded each consecutive 5 days. The results obtained indicated that the volumetric shrinkage strain were large within the first five days of drying. The weight also found to decrease largely within first five days of drying. The VSS value was found to decrease till 25 percentage marble dust addition and there after increase slightly. It was also found to increase with higher moulding water content. Using the results, compaction plane of acceptable zones were also plotted, from which marble dust addition percentages satisfying the regulatory value of VSS ≤ 4% is proposed as 25%. Keywords:Marble dust, Landfill liner, Compactive effort, Hydraulic conductivity, Volumetric shrinkage strain, Relative to optimum
Effect of dyeing parameters on dyeing of cotton fabrics with fluoro chloro py...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
The fifth lecture in the module Particle Technology, delivered to second year students who have already studied basic fluid mechanics.
Filtration covers the modification of Darcys law to predictive filtration design equations as well as ones used for test data analysis. Examples of industrial equipment for filtration are included.
Quantitative Modeling Of Formation Damage On The Reservoir During Microbial E...IJERA Editor
Microbial enhanced oil recovery is an inexpensive, environmentally friendly method of oil recovery, utilizing the potentials of certain microbes to significantly influence oil productionwith wide range of oil recovery mechanisms including oil mobilization, reservoir re-pressurization, permeability alteration, mobility control and a range of other exploitable recovery techniques. This study presents an investigation on the degree of damage to the reservoir as a result of microbial injection. Results from this analysis shows that for a continuous microbial injection process, the pore area of the formation reduces equivalently due to microbial plugging and or as a result of biomass accumulation in the reservoir. The prevailing effects of formation damage (skin) due to these microbes are also presented. Residual fluid flow rates and corresponding velocities were found to reduce in magnitude with deducing pore area after several days of injection.
A dual mechanism of the drag reduction by rigid polymers and cationic surfact...eSAT Journals
Abstract
Several approaches have been employed to reduce the high cost of energy associated with the way liquids are transported in pipelines. Polymers have been widely explored to replace the pumping stations and other high energy cost mechanisms, but degrade over a period of time due to the accompanying turbulent mode of such transportation. Surfactants which are better alternatives with the ability to reenact their lost efficiency, are less effective, there is therefore the need for an alternative mechanism for drag reduction. In this present work, drag reduction efficacy of dispersed silica nanoparticle additives with polar additives as complexes and nanofluid have been investigated as a new method to reduce drag. Thus the present work was carried out with Xanthan gum which is able to withstand degradation compared to the flexible polymers, hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride as the surfactant and sodium salicylate as the counterion. In the study both complexes and nanofluid were able to reduce drag as well as withstand shear stresses, although at different concentration which could be as a result of the different approaches of working, about 60% drag reduction was observed. It could thus be concluded that, these materials are able to reduce drag both as complex or nanofluid, only that, they could do that at different concentrations.
Keywords: Nanofluid, Polymers, Surfactants, Drag reduction, rotating disk apparatus, degradation
Evaluation of volumetric shrinkage ofmarble dust soil compositeeSAT Journals
Abstract Locally available reddish soil was analysed for volumetric shrinkage strain by treating it with marble dust till 40%. Volumetric shrinkage strain in soils indicates the variation in volume of compacted soil, which will result in inducing cracking of soil sample. This property majorly affects soil used as liner material since shrinkage and subsequent cracking results in voids, which interrupt the proper functioning of liner. The soil sample were compacted using standard and modified Proctor compactive effort using moulding water contents -2, 0 and +2 percentage relative to optimum. The soil samples compacted at required water content and corresponding density were extruded from the compaction mould and kept fordrying, till it was completely dry. The variation in volume and weight of sample is recorded each consecutive 5 days. The results obtained indicated that the volumetric shrinkage strain were large within the first five days of drying. The weight also found to decrease largely within first five days of drying. The VSS value was found to decrease till 25 percentage marble dust addition and there after increase slightly. It was also found to increase with higher moulding water content. Using the results, compaction plane of acceptable zones were also plotted, from which marble dust addition percentages satisfying the regulatory value of VSS ≤ 4% is proposed as 25%. Keywords:Marble dust, Landfill liner, Compactive effort, Hydraulic conductivity, Volumetric shrinkage strain, Relative to optimum
Simultaneous Equation and Area Under the Curve Spectrophotometric Methods for...BRNSS Publication Hub
Two simple spectrophotometric methods were developed and validated for the determination of ranolazine hydrochloride in the presence of its base-induced degradation product, namely simultaneous equation method using two wavelengths of 272 and 249 nm method (A) and area under the curve method using two wavelength ranges of 267–277 nm and 244–254 nm method (B). The accuracy, precision, and linearity ranges of the planned methods were firm. The methods were validated and the specificity was assessed by analyzing synthetic mixtures containing the drug and it’s degradant. The two methods were useful for the determination of the cited drug in its pharmaceutical preparation and the obtained results were statistically compared with those of a reported method. The comparison shows that there is no important difference between the proposed methods and the reported method about both accuracy and precision.
Dewatering Waste Activated Sludge Using Greenhouse-Gas Flotation followed by ...Medhat Elzahar
The aim of this study is to develop a simple method
for dewatering waste-activated sludge (WAS) for easier reuse
and safer disposal of sludge. The paper builds on the success of
a new flotation technique developed in previous research by the
author utilizing the high water solubility of CO2 gas along with
the model-gas (80%N2+20%CO2). The paper introduces a
simple laboratory model for dewatering WAS in two stages,
flotation followed by centrifugation. The first stage enables
recycling a mixture of greenhouse gases containing 20% of CO2
and 80% of N2 gases by volume. The second stage uses a simple
centrifuge model for dewatering WAS. Experiments were
carried out to reduce the moisture content and volume of WAS.
This was executed by generating low pressure using centrifugal
force introduced by a simple centrifuge apparatus. Using the
experimental dewatering model, promising results were
obtained for dewatering WAS. Furthermore, additional data
were obtained, such as the effect of temperature on the
efficiency of dewater-ability. It is hoped that the results of this
study will lead to more study for the efficient reuse of
greenhouse gases. This can happen by collecting and recycling
industrial emissions of fossil fuels then utilizing them in
wastewater and sludge treatment, thereby decreasing the
resulting harmful effects of these gases on global warming.
Design and Construction of a Simple and Reliable Temperature Control Viscomet...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
It is a quantitative analysis in which amount of substance is determined in the solution. For this purpose, we titrate the solution against the other solution whose concentration is known
Practical work
Titration
Types
Titrant
titrand
Procedure
Calculation
Precaution
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Comparative study of parabolic trough collector through MWCNT/H2o nanofluid a...Husain Mehdi
In this present work MWCNT nanofluid and water were used as working fluid to compare the thermal performance of solar parabolic trough collector. Both the fluids were flowing through receiver at different volume flow rates 160L/h and 100L/h. Experimental tests was performed only during sunny weather and temperature at outlet of receiver was measured through thermometer after every half an hour of total testing time period. MWCNT nanofluid with weight fraction 0.01% and 0.02% and water were used to find efficiency of system and it has been seen that MWCNT nanofluid 0.02wt% with 160L/h showed better results for overall thermal efficiency among other and also an application of surfactant Triton X-100 with in MWCNT nanofluid was used to enhance the quantity of heat absorption capability of base fluid
Optimum Conditions for the Removal of Cadmium from Aqueous Solution with Bamb...theijes
The performance of two varieties of Bamboo activated carbon (CABC washed and CABC unwashed), produced by chemical activation with ZnCl2, was evaluated through batch adsorption studies for the removal of Cadmium from aqueous solution. The effects of adsorbent dose, initial concentration of cadmium, agitation time, adsorbate p and, particle size were used as variables to obtain the optimum conditions for the removal of cadmium. Results obtained revealed that as the adsorbent dose increased, the amount adsorbed per unit mass decreased indicating that more active sites were utilized at smaller adsorbent dose. Also, the effects of initial cadmium concentration showed that percentage removal rate increased with increase in cadmium concentration due to availability of more metal ions at higher concentrations. Thus, all the carbons achieved at least 82.62% removal at initial Cadmium concentration of 50mg/l. The optimum pH was 5 and 7 for CABC unwashed and CABC washed respectively while the optimum particle size was 50μm for all the carbon tested. Furthermore, CABC unwashed performed better as an adsorbent because it achieved 71.48% removal of Cadmium in 60 minutes, while CABC washed achieved 69.46% removal in 120mins.
In this paper, linear graphical method, moment method and inverse function method are first applied in the laboratory test of one dimensional sand column device, determining the longitudinal dispersion coefficient. The longitudinal dispersions for five groups of sand taken from 20cm below the ground surface in the Oil Refinery of China Petroleum Ningxia Filial are obtained. On this basis, the problems within the calculation process when the three kinds of methods are applied into actual data were discussed. It can be readily concluded that the three values of dispersion coefficients are approximate, and the errors caused by the subjective factors of artificial mapping and numerical reading were avoided. The inverse function method is recommended to apply for the high accuracy, sample calculation process, less known conditions and better linearity.
Simultaneous Equation and Area Under the Curve Spectrophotometric Methods for...BRNSS Publication Hub
Two simple spectrophotometric methods were developed and validated for the determination of ranolazine hydrochloride in the presence of its base-induced degradation product, namely simultaneous equation method using two wavelengths of 272 and 249 nm method (A) and area under the curve method using two wavelength ranges of 267–277 nm and 244–254 nm method (B). The accuracy, precision, and linearity ranges of the planned methods were firm. The methods were validated and the specificity was assessed by analyzing synthetic mixtures containing the drug and it’s degradant. The two methods were useful for the determination of the cited drug in its pharmaceutical preparation and the obtained results were statistically compared with those of a reported method. The comparison shows that there is no important difference between the proposed methods and the reported method about both accuracy and precision.
Dewatering Waste Activated Sludge Using Greenhouse-Gas Flotation followed by ...Medhat Elzahar
The aim of this study is to develop a simple method
for dewatering waste-activated sludge (WAS) for easier reuse
and safer disposal of sludge. The paper builds on the success of
a new flotation technique developed in previous research by the
author utilizing the high water solubility of CO2 gas along with
the model-gas (80%N2+20%CO2). The paper introduces a
simple laboratory model for dewatering WAS in two stages,
flotation followed by centrifugation. The first stage enables
recycling a mixture of greenhouse gases containing 20% of CO2
and 80% of N2 gases by volume. The second stage uses a simple
centrifuge model for dewatering WAS. Experiments were
carried out to reduce the moisture content and volume of WAS.
This was executed by generating low pressure using centrifugal
force introduced by a simple centrifuge apparatus. Using the
experimental dewatering model, promising results were
obtained for dewatering WAS. Furthermore, additional data
were obtained, such as the effect of temperature on the
efficiency of dewater-ability. It is hoped that the results of this
study will lead to more study for the efficient reuse of
greenhouse gases. This can happen by collecting and recycling
industrial emissions of fossil fuels then utilizing them in
wastewater and sludge treatment, thereby decreasing the
resulting harmful effects of these gases on global warming.
Design and Construction of a Simple and Reliable Temperature Control Viscomet...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
It is a quantitative analysis in which amount of substance is determined in the solution. For this purpose, we titrate the solution against the other solution whose concentration is known
Practical work
Titration
Types
Titrant
titrand
Procedure
Calculation
Precaution
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Comparative study of parabolic trough collector through MWCNT/H2o nanofluid a...Husain Mehdi
In this present work MWCNT nanofluid and water were used as working fluid to compare the thermal performance of solar parabolic trough collector. Both the fluids were flowing through receiver at different volume flow rates 160L/h and 100L/h. Experimental tests was performed only during sunny weather and temperature at outlet of receiver was measured through thermometer after every half an hour of total testing time period. MWCNT nanofluid with weight fraction 0.01% and 0.02% and water were used to find efficiency of system and it has been seen that MWCNT nanofluid 0.02wt% with 160L/h showed better results for overall thermal efficiency among other and also an application of surfactant Triton X-100 with in MWCNT nanofluid was used to enhance the quantity of heat absorption capability of base fluid
Optimum Conditions for the Removal of Cadmium from Aqueous Solution with Bamb...theijes
The performance of two varieties of Bamboo activated carbon (CABC washed and CABC unwashed), produced by chemical activation with ZnCl2, was evaluated through batch adsorption studies for the removal of Cadmium from aqueous solution. The effects of adsorbent dose, initial concentration of cadmium, agitation time, adsorbate p and, particle size were used as variables to obtain the optimum conditions for the removal of cadmium. Results obtained revealed that as the adsorbent dose increased, the amount adsorbed per unit mass decreased indicating that more active sites were utilized at smaller adsorbent dose. Also, the effects of initial cadmium concentration showed that percentage removal rate increased with increase in cadmium concentration due to availability of more metal ions at higher concentrations. Thus, all the carbons achieved at least 82.62% removal at initial Cadmium concentration of 50mg/l. The optimum pH was 5 and 7 for CABC unwashed and CABC washed respectively while the optimum particle size was 50μm for all the carbon tested. Furthermore, CABC unwashed performed better as an adsorbent because it achieved 71.48% removal of Cadmium in 60 minutes, while CABC washed achieved 69.46% removal in 120mins.
In this paper, linear graphical method, moment method and inverse function method are first applied in the laboratory test of one dimensional sand column device, determining the longitudinal dispersion coefficient. The longitudinal dispersions for five groups of sand taken from 20cm below the ground surface in the Oil Refinery of China Petroleum Ningxia Filial are obtained. On this basis, the problems within the calculation process when the three kinds of methods are applied into actual data were discussed. It can be readily concluded that the three values of dispersion coefficients are approximate, and the errors caused by the subjective factors of artificial mapping and numerical reading were avoided. The inverse function method is recommended to apply for the high accuracy, sample calculation process, less known conditions and better linearity.
Analysis for predicting the Input Interactions of HBF Performance at -10 μm P...journal ijrtem
ABSTRACT: Dewatering is an important process in any mineral industry. It is a process which removes the unwanted material from
the liquid solid suspension called slurry by using a filter element which separates the unwanted fluid material from the solids from the
feed. The paper attempts to establish the way towards analysis of Hyper Baric Filter (HBF) performance at -10μm particle size
treating iron ore fines (24% to 29%). Dewatering in HBF, requires reduction in moisture and material throughput rate in terms of per
hour so as to increase the performance of HBF. The present work carried out illustrates a method to predict the influence of process
input parameter such as vessel pressure, snap blow and filter disk rotation for reduction in moisture percentage level and material for
reduction moisture percentage level and material throughput rate for particle size in the range of 24% to 29%. Using Design of
Experiments (DOE) a linear regression model is developed to study the performance of HBF full factorial design method using
ANOVA to analyze the data. Validation of the results is performed by comparing the experimental values and predicted values for
Material through put rate in terms of cycles/hr and reduction in moisture percentage by weight and hot spots.
Keywords: Hyper Baric Filter, dewatering, design of experiments, size of particles, vessel pres
Parameter Estimation of Pollutant Removal for Subsurface Horizontal Flow Cons...mkbsbs
Treatment efficiencies of a pilot scale constructed wetland treating greywater
from a staff canteen of the University of Moratuwa was studied to estimate the
temperature dependent reaction rate constants of specific pollutant removal
mechanisms.
For Domestic Wastewater Treatment, Finding Optimum Conditions by Particle Swa...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— Performing jar test method is used for finding out optimum conditions (coagulant type, coagulant dose, pH etc.)for treatment of domestic wastewater before physicochemical process, or coagulation process. In this study, Response Surface Method (RSM) is applied to determine optimum combinations of coagulant dose and pH value in jar test. Alum, FeCl3 and FeSO4 are used as coagulant and compared with highest removal efficiency of their two responses which turbidity and chemical oxygen demand (COD).Finding equations from RSM are also evaluated with Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method by using Matlab Program. Alum and Ferric Chloridedose500 mg/lat pH7 found as optimum conditions for domestic wastewater treatment. COD removal for Alum and Ferric Chloride are 90% and 70%,respectively.In addition, Because of becoming low COD removal (maximum 50%) and ineffectively color removal, Ferric Sulfate coagulant found as inconvenient for treating domestic wastewater.
Delignification of pulp using deep eutectic solventsMichal Jablonsky
Lot of works during the last decades have been focused on the new modes of pulp processing. One promising technology is the use of deep eutectic solvents. Deep eutectic solvents (DES) have opportunities to open new paths in the field of delignification methods. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of deep eutectic solvent treatment on physical and chemical properties of delignified pulp. In the following experiment we used as an initial pulp the kraft pulp (Kappa No. 21.7; Degree of polymerization 1157). The pulp was treated with two different DES system based on choline chloride with lactic acid (1 : 9), and system alanine : lactic acid (1 : 9). The efficiency of delignification expressed as a decrease in kappa number on the unit change of the initial kappa number of pulp. The order by the delignification efficiency growth is as follows: choline chloride : lactic acid (37.8%) > alanine : lactic acid (43.3%). During delignification by DESs, a degradation of pulp chain occurs, however a decrease in degree of polymerization was only 23 units versus kraft unbleached pulp, which represents maximum decrease by 2%. Delignified pulp with DESs has a brightness 34% and unbleached pulp achieved brightness 27%, therefore, it achieves the increase in brightness by 26%.The physical strength properties of DES delignified pulps were assessed in terms of tensile, tear and burst index and stiffness. Application of deep eutectic solvents were achieved to reduce tensile index by 13.2%, burst index by 14.3% and a tear index by 9.8%, and the pulp stiffness was increased by 4% again the unbleached pulp. The results indicate that application of DESs might be an interesting alternative to oxygen delignification of pulp following kraft cooks.
Strategic In-stream Systems (STRAINS) is a small-scale, low-tech, in-stream decontamination strategy deployed to overcome these problems. STRAINS use the insights of the Sowl Kere studies to develop a series of larger interventions which can be placed directly with nallahs to prevent the contamination and eutrophication of urban lakes.
Treatability study of cetp wastewater using physico chemical process-a case s...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Treatability study of cetp wastewater using physico chemical process-a case s...eSAT Journals
Abstract The present study is focused on a Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) located at Umaraya, District Baroda. Waste water from about thirty five small and medium scale industries majorly comprising of chemical manufacturing and pharmaceutical industries are treated in this CETP. The incoming wastewater was collected and mixed to prepare samples. They were then oxidized by Fenton’s reagent (Fe2+/H2O2) reduction in COD and BOD were observed at different H2O2 and FeSO4 doses to determine the optimum values. Thereafter pretreated wastewater was subjected to filtration with ordinary charcoal and COD and BOD reductions were noted.COD and BOD reduction of 64.35% and 68.57% respectively was achieved by Fenton’s reagent and after filtration the values were well within the disposal standards. The results clearly indicate that conventional system should be replaced by physicochemical process like oxidation and filtration. Index Terms: CETP, COD and BOD reduction, Fenton’s Reagent, Charcoal Filtration
37.8 MGD Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment Plant Field and Model Capacity...njcnews777
This paper presents results from the model capacity evaluation of an activated sludge plant at a large 37.8 MGD regional municipal wastewater treatment plant with reuse potential. The plant capacity evaluation (stress test) was performed to evaluate treatment process capacity and efficiencies as a part of the continuous improvement of the treatment plant for process optimization and maximization of flow through the plant.
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11.rotary brown stock pulp washers through mathematical models a review
1. Mathematical Theory and Modeling www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-5804 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0522 (Online)
Vol.2, No.3, 2012
Rotary Brown Stock Pulp Washers through Mathematical
Models – A Review
V. K. Kukreja1 and Jitender Kumar2*
1. Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Sangrur, Punjab.
2. Bhai Gurdas Institute of Engineering & Technology, Sangrur, Punjab.
* E-mail of the corresponding author: Email: jitenderrattan2005@gmail.com
Abstract
Increasing the accuracy of a model generally increases cost and decreases flexibility. The goal in creating a
model is usually to obtain a “Sufficiently accurate” and flexible model at a low cost. Pulp and Paper
making process involves many complex unit operations and process. The process of pulping and paper
making is intensive with respect to row materials, energy, water and chemicals. If the plants are heat
operated carefully it can also become pollution intensive. The key operation influencing the economy of the
plant as well as controlling the pollution load is the washing process. Almost all the mills in the country use
rotary vacuum washers for separating the black liquor from the pulp and for ensuring clean pulp to be
available for downstream processing. The parameters which influence the operation of a brown stock
washer are many and the phenomenon involved in the washing operation are complex. The present paper
makes an attempt to look at the various parameters influencing the washing and look at various
mathematical models used to predict the washer performance.
Keywords: accuracy, flexibility, low cost, pulp washing, black liquor.
1. Introduction
From a business perspective, it is clear that an improved ability to simulate, predict, or understand certain
real-world systems through mathematical modeling provides a distinct competitive advantage. Furthermore,
just as in pure science, as computing power becomes cheaper, modeling becomes an increasingly
cost-effective alternative to direct experimentation. A washer yields weak black liquor and washer pulp.
The black liquor solids which remain in the washed pulp are sources of biological oxygen demand (BOD)
chemical oxygen demand (COD) absorbable organic halogens (AOX) etc. in effluent streams. Also poorly
washed pulp increases the amount of dioxins and chlorinated furans during bleaching (Hise et al. [1990]).
According to Stromberg [1991] one kg of COD consumes about 0.4 to 0.8 kg of active chlorine.
Cullinan [1991] has shown that soda loss (as Na2So4) in a linear function of COD. According to
Mccubbin et al. [1995] the average Canadian mill discharges nearly 2.0 kg AOX/ton of finished product.
Estimated cost of removing the AOX was $84/kg of AOX. AOX values of Indian mills using elemental
chlorine for bleaching are much higher.
The present study is mainly intended to show the effect of different parameters on the brown stock
washing. Different investigators have contradictory views regarding the effect of pH temperature,
concentration of solids, consistency, and amount of wash water and velocity etc. on washing efficiency.
Mathematical models connected with brown stock washing and some efficiency parameters are also given.
2. Moral Motive of Pulp Washing
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In a rotary vacuum filter pulp is diluted in the vat with weak wash liquor and pulp consistency is
lowered to an extent of around 1. Due to the phenomenon of diffusion the black liquor solids present within
the fibers are removed. The phenomenon of adsorption desorption and dispersion also affects the washing
operation.
Diffusion of black liquor solids out of fibers depends upon time allowed. Volume of shower water and its
application, vat consistency rpm, channeling and foaming etc. Hakamaki et al. [1985] have shown that
introduction of 5 by volume of dispersed air decreases brown stock washer capacity by approximately 30.
3. Technique and Equipments
A mathematical algorithm to solve some coupled equations is developed and implemented into a computer
program using MATLAB. Rotary vacuum washer, digester washer, wash press, belt washer atmospheric
diffusers and febrifuge washer etc. are used to wash the pulp. Stromberg [1994] has presented an overview
of different washers regarding consistency, temperature range, retention time, displacement ration
efficiency and COD. Rotary vacuum washer consisting of a battery manner is still very common in majority
of industries in the world.
4. Models For Cake Washing Zone
The general equation used by different investigators to analyze the flow of liquor through the packed bed
can be written as (Kukreja et al.[1995])
DL (1)
Various forms of equation (1) can be obtained by putting different values for the ration a. For each equation
two cases might arise by considering or neglecting the effect of longitudinal dispersion coefficient (DL)
n=k*c (Linear) (2)
n/ t = k(c-n) (Finite rate) (3)
n/ t = k1c-k2n (Finite rate) (4)
n=ABc/(1+Bc) (Langmuir) (5)
Equation (1) has been solved for the above adsorption desorption isotherms with different initial and
boundary conditions, by Lapidus et al. [1952] Kuo (1960) Grahs et al., [1975] Perron et al. [1977] , Kukreja
et al. [1995] and other investigators.
By using the microscopic analysis black liquor concentration of different stream can be found, which can
be used to measure the performance of brown stock washing system as a whole.
5. Performance of Different Parameters
The parameters used to describe the performance of pulp washers can be divided into three
categories
• Wash liquor usage parameters
• Solute removal parameters
• Efficiency parameters
5.1 Wash liquor Usage parameters
During pulp washing operation, the amount of wash water added, is sent to the evaporator for further
treatment. If more chemicals are used in this section, it will have perilous effect on environment whereas
excess use of water will increase the load on evaporator. Therefore there needs to be a balance in the
amount of wash water added and the impurities to be removed. Dilution factor, wash liquor ratio, weight
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liquor ratio, filter entrainment and thickening factor are some commonly used parameters. For the
sake of brevity dilution factor is explained here, remaining parameters are discussed in Arora et al. (2008).
The difference between wash liquor entering and wash liquor in the washed pulp is known as dilution factor
or excess wash water.
DF = Lc – Ld (6)
Dilution factor represents the net amount of water that is added during washing. DF = 0, implies that the
black liquor in the pulp pad has been replaced by an equal amount of wash water. Negative DF means that
the amount of wash water used is less than the amount of liquor leaving with washed pulp.
5. 2 Solute Removal parameters
These parameters describe the amount of solids removed during a washing stage or washing operation and
can be used to predict the amount of bleach chemical consumption. The values of these parameters increase
when the wash liquor usage parameters are increased. Displacement ratio is the most prominent among
such parameters and is discussed below.
Displacement ratio of any stage is defined as the ratio of actual reduction of dissolved solids to the
maximum possible reduction of dissolved solids.
DR = ( xi = xd ) / ( xi - xs) (7)
DR value always lies between 0 to 1. When DR = 0 it means that the actual reduction of dissolved solids is
equal to the maximum possible reduction of dissolved solids, but this is an ideal stipulation and can not be
met in the industry.
5.3 Efficiency parameters
Efficiency parameters constitute an important part of the study of pulp washing operation. Soda loss (salt
cake loss) is a widely accepted method to check the efficiency of a washer. Percent efficiency is also used
for this purpose by some industries. Norden and modified Norden efficiency factors are used to find out the
number of stages to achieve the desired efficiency. Equivalent displacement ratio can be used to compare
the efficiency of two different types of washers.
Percentage of black liquor solids removed during the washing operation is known as efficiency of the
system. Kukreja et al (1995) have proposed an expression in terms of concentration and consistency by
assuming that density of all streams leaving and entering the washer is same.
(8)
The efficiency factor of a washing system without side stream can be defined as the number of mixing
stages in series with complete mixing of underflow and overflow required achieving the same departing
underflow and overflowing as those of the washing system, when the entering flows of the mixing stage
system are the same as those of the washing system. Mathematically Norden’s efficiency factor (NEF) for a
single stage can be written as,
(9)
According to Oxby et al. [1986] NEF is highly sensitive to flow rate measurement errors. They have
proposed an expression in terms of concentration and consistency measurements as follows,
(10)
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Phillips et at ( 1977) have developed Modified Norden’s efficiency factor ( MNEF) for a stage, as
the number of ideal counter current mixing stage equivalent to a washing system operating at standard
discharge consistency of 10 % or 12 % and at the same dilution factor.
(11)
Where, Lst = (100 – Cyst) / Cyst
NEF and MNEF have the advantage of assigning an efficiency number to equipment. NEF and MNEF of
the entire system can be found by adding the value of each individual stage.
6. Factor Affecting Rate of Solute Removal
Several factors which affects the rate of solute removal from pulp fibers during washing are kappa number,
type of pulping (i.e. wood species, pulping methods, temperature, pH, concentration of solute and other
cations in the wash liquor and time allowed for leaching.
6.1 Kappa Number and Type of Pulp
Kappa number is used to describe the relative hardness, the degree of delignification obtained in a chemical
pulping process, the bleach ability or whitening optitude of a pulp. However, it should be noted that there is
no general and unambiguous relationship between the Kappa number and the lignin content. Hartler N.
and Rydin S. (1975) has studied the bisulphate pulp of spruce. Rosen (1975) has found that the level of
sorbed sodium was higher in pine (softwood) pulps than the white oak (hardwood) pulp. Grahs (1976) has
used pine aulphate pulps where as Xuan et al.(1978) used pine soda oxygen pulp and pine Kraft pulps for
their experiments. Smith et al. (1993) have shown that the leachable lignin and Kappa number are linearly
related.
6.2 Temperature
According to Loney et al. (2001) studied the effect of high output light-curing on temperature transfer
through resin composite and dentin. There exists no discernible relationship between sorbed sodium and
temperature in the range of 100-190 ºF (Rosen 1975). Similarly Trinh et al . (1987) have found no
relationship for Na between 30-50º C. Smith et al. (1993), for Douglas fir pulp, between 20-90ºC. Have
shown that relationship between rate of leaching of lignin and temperature is approximately linear.
6.3 pH
Liquids having different pH value were used as wash liquids. According to Potucek et al. (2002) the
distilled water was acidified to pH value ranging from 2.1 to 6.2 with sulfuric acid, while pH value in
alkaline region up to 10.9 were adjusted by the addition of sodium hydroxide. Hartler et al. (1975) when the
pH value of Kraft pulp is lowered towards neutrality, dissociation of free phenclac groups in the Kraft
lignin is reversed resulting in desorption of sodium. Rosen (1975) has found that there is a decrease of
about 8lb of Na2SO4/AD ton (4.03 kg Na2SO4/OD ton) for each pH unit. This relationship was found to be
independent of both Kappa number and pulp type. Trinh et al. (1987) have found that at low pH (3-6)
sorbed sodium increases rapidly. Smith et al. (1993) have shown that high pH is required to remove a
significant amount of lignin.
6.4 Concentration of Solutes
Rosen (1975) , Xuan et al. (1978) and Smith et al. (1993) have observed no effect of sodium ion
concentration in the wash liquor on sorbed sodium, where as other investigators like,Hartler et al. (1975),
Grahs (1976) and Trinh et al.(1987) have found that at low liquor concentration the sorbed sodium
decreased rapidly towards zero . At high liquor concentration the sorbed sodium approaches an asymptotic
value. This type of behavior can be well described by Langmuir equation,
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S = ABc /(1+Bc) (13)
Ohlsson et al. (1975) have given a series of calions that are know to have a greater affinity for cellulose
than sodium,
H+ > Zn+2 > Ca+2 > Mg+2 > Cs+2 > K+ > `Na+
6.5 Time of Leaching
Grahs (1976) has reported that rates of adsorption and the times for mass transport for lignin and sodium
are different. Trinh et al. (1987) have shown that within 1 minute masority of sodium ions and lignin
present in the liquor inside and outside the fiber walls is removed by the wash liquor. However, even after 2
days leaching of lignin from the continued. Cullinan (1991) has suggested that the difference in the
leaching rate of lignin and sodium is due to their molecular mass.
7. FACTOR AFFECTING BROWN STOCK WASHING
Some of the key factor which affects the efficiency is cake thickness consistency velocity and amount of
wash water used rpp pressure prop etc. specific surface area of fiber also affected the performance of a
rotary washer.
7.1 Cake Thickness
Cake thickness is found to influence the bed porosity significantly. Gren et al. (1973) have a found that the
sustenance yield in cieaa by increasing cake thickness (10 cm) Graphs (1976) observed same effect for the
bed linings 0.102-0.166m, for pine and sprees pulps of kappa number 32. Gren et at. (1985) found that
washing efficiency increase with bed length (10-90mm). Shower flow rate was 0.0127 cm/s. Trinh et
al.(1989)for thickness>25mm and consistency>138 have shown the pressure drop across the pad becomes
so high causing poor displacement washing . Han et al. (1988) have known that when mat thickness
increases E factor also increase.
7.2 Consistency
Fiber consistency is found to decrease linearly with the cake thickness. Lee (1979) found that
increasers in consistency is not beneficial for washing efficiency .Hakamaki et al. (1985) formed pads
of different consistence (7-12%) and mat thickness 2 cm and found that NEF increases as consistency
is increased. Trinh et al. (1989) have shown that below 13% consistency washing efficiency
increasing pad thickness.
7.3 Velocity
Gren et al. (1973) selected velocities between 10-4 to 5 X 10-4 m/s for bed depths of 4,6,9cm and found
slight effect on the sub stance yield Lee (1979) at 40°C increased velocity from 0.0072 to 0.075cm/s and
found little effect on the displacement washing efficiency Hakamaki et al. (1985) have shown that NEF
decreases by increasing water velocity and have also stated that it is not straight forward to decrease the
wash water velocity to obtain high washing g efficiency because drum washer capacity can suffer at low
velocity.
Gren et al. (1985) studied the effect of flow rates between 0.4to 3.2X10-4 m/s and founding that wash ratio
decreases for higher velocities. Trinh et .al (1989) have found that washing efficiency increases with
superficial velocity at low consistency(3%) and remains unaffected with superficial velocity at high
consistency (15%). Pad thickness was 50mm and temperature 40°C.
7.4 RPM
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Hakamaki et al. (1985) increased the rpm of drum from 1to 4 and found that the capacity of drum
increased by 2.5 times. Kukreja et al. (1995) have shown that by increasing the rpm fiber production rate
also increases.
7.5 Pressure Drop
Yi-Ning Wang et al. (2003) Products will increase with increasing reaction pressure while decrease with
increasing reaction pressure while decrease with increasing cooling temperature. Hakamaaki et al. (1985)
performed experiments with a pulp tester and concluded the increase in filtration pressure increase the drum
capacity but it is not so remarkable as with rpm and inlet vat consistency. Range of pressure drop was
between o.5-1.5m H2O (4900-14700 Pascal). Han et al (1988) have found that mat consistency increases
by increasing drum vacuum. Pressure drop was varied between 17.8-43.2 cm hg (23729-57589). Kukreja et
al .1995have also found that pressure drop (17500-25000Pascal) increases the fiber production rate.
8. Conclusion
The general transient mathematical model for a rotary vacuum filter used for pulp washing, was developed
using phenomenological principles.Sodium loss due to sorption is significant and it is essential to include
sorption effects in washing efficiency. Calculation, especially when washing efficiency is very high around
99%.The % error does not exceed 10%. Therefore it is prudent to infer that the model appears to be a
realistic one and can be used for the optimization of industrial problem.
Some optimum conditions for a rotary filter are,
• Cake thickness around 5cm,
• Temperature between 40-60º C,
• Rpm around 2,
• Pad consistency less than 13%
The results published by different investigators are inconsistent even for the same parameter. This may be
attributable to different pulping techniques, species of wood, equipments used for experiments (Pulp tester,
displacement cell, washers) etc.
Hence a uniform analysis is the need of the hour to increase the washing efficiency and to decrease
pollution load.
NOMENCLATURE
A: Maximum amount of sorbed Na, kg Na/kg pulp
B: Rate constant, m3/kg.
C: Concentration of Na in Liquor, kg/m3.
c: Solute concentration in the liquor Phase, kg/m3
Ci: Concentration of solute inside the vat, kg/m3
Cm: Mean concentration of solute, kg/m3
Cs: Concentration of solute in the wash liquor, kg/m3
CY: Pulp consistency, %
Cyd: Discharged consistency of pulp, %
Cyi: Inlet vat consistency of pulp, %
DF: Dilution factor, kg of liquor/kg of pulp
DL: Longitudinal dispersion coefficient, m2/s
DR: Displacement ratio, dimensionless
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K*: Mass transfer coefficients
k, k1, K2: Mass transfer coefficients, 1/s
L: Amount of liquor, kg liq/kg pulp
n: Solute conc. On fibers, kg solid/m3 fiber
S: Amount of sorbed Na
t: Time, s
u: Liquor speed in cake pores, m/s
X; Dissolved solids, %
z: Variable cake thickness, m
Sub scripts
d: Discharged pulp
I : Inside the vat
s: Shower Liquor
st: Standard consistency
References
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51
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