Learning Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process. The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Behaviorism Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors. Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured. Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response. How Classical Conditioning Works Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior. Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement. How Operant Conditioning Works Observational Learning Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational

1. Educational Psychology
EDU-202
Spring -2021
Dr. Fouad Yehya
fyehya@aust.edu.lb
1

2. Social Context and Socio-
emotional Development

3. Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
• The ecological theory that focuses on the
social contexts in which children live and the
people who influence their development.

4. ERIKSON’S EIGHT
LIFE-SPAN STAGES

5. Erikson’s theory
• Erik Erikson presents a developmental view of
people’s lives in eight development stages.
1-Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first
psychosocial stage. The development of trust
requires warm, nurturing caregiving. The
positive outcome is a feeling of comfort and
minimal fear. Mistrust develops when infants are
treated too negatively or are ignored.

6. Erikson’s theory
2- Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 3
years of age).
• Infants begin to discover that their behavior is
their own. They assert their independence and
realize their will.
• If infants are restrained too much or punished
too harshly, they develop a sense of shame and
doubt.

7. Erikson’s theory
3- Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5 years of age)
• Young children need to engage in active,
purposeful behavior that involves initiative.
• Children develop uncomfortable guilt feelings
if they see themselves as irresponsible or are
made to feel too anxious.

8. Erikson’s theory
4- Industry versus inferiority (elementary
school years, from 6 years of age until early
adolescence (10 years)).
• children direct their energy toward mastering
knowledge and intellectual skills.
• The danger in the elementary school years is
that of developing a sense of inferiority,
unproductiveness, and incompetence.

9. 5- Identity versus identity confusion (10-20
years).Adolescents try to find out who they are,
what they are all about, and where they are going
in life.
6- Intimacy versus isolation (20s-30s). The
developmental task is to form positive close
relationships with others. The risk of this stage is
that one will fail to form an intimate relationship
with a romantic partner or friend and become
socially isolated.
Erikson’s theory

10. 7- Generativity versus stagnation (40s-50s)
Generativity means transmitting something
positive to the next generation. Stagnation as the
feeling of having done nothing to help the next
generation.
Erikson’s theory

11. 8- Integrity versus despair (60d- death). Older
adults tend to review their lives, reflecting on
what they have done. If the retrospective
evaluations are positive, they develop a sense of
integrity. In contrast, older adults become
despairing (hopeless) if their backward glances
are mainly negative.
Erikson’s theory

12. • Which stage of Erikson’s theory are you in?
• Does Erikson’s description of this stage
characterize you?

13. Evaluating Erikson’s Theory
• Erikson’s theory captures some of life’s key
socioemotional tasks and places them in a
developmental framework.
• His concept of identity is especially helpful in
understanding older adolescents and college
students.

14. Criticism
• Experts point out that his stages are too rigid.
• Identity, intimacy, independence, and many
other aspects of socioemotional development
are not appear in packaged age intervals.
• The eight stages always occur in the order and
according to the timetable he proposed has not
been scientifically documented.

15. Strategies for Educating
Children Based on Erikson’s
Theory

16. 1- Encourage initiative in
young children.
• Children in preschool and early childhood
education programs should be given a great
deal of freedom to explore their world. They
should be allowed to choose most of the
activities they engage in.
• Provide exciting materials that will stimulate
their imagination.

17. Encourage initiative in young children.
• Help children assume responsibility for putting
toys and materials back in place after they
have used them.
• Criticism should be kept to a minimum so that
children will not develop high levels of guilt
and anxiety.
• Structure activities and environment for
successes rather than failures by giving them
developmentally appropriate tasks;

18. 2- Promote industry in
elementary school children.
• Teachers could provide an atmosphere in
which children become passionate about
learning.
• It is important for teachers to encourage
motivation for mastery and curiosity.
• Give students meaningful tasks to accomplish
that are challenging, but not overwhelming.

19. 3. Stimulate identity
exploration in adolescence
• Student’s identity is multidimensional. Ask
adolescents to write essays about such
dimensions, including vocational goals,
intellectual achievement, and interests in
hobbies, sports, music, and other areas,
exploring who they are and what they want to
do with their lives.
• Have people from different careers come and
talk with your students about their work
regardless of the grade you teach

20. • Encourage adolescents to think independently
and to freely express their views by listening
to, reading about, and participating in debates
on religious, political, and ideological issues.
• Understand that adolescents often express their
developing identities through their appearance,
language choices, and peer group choices.
3. Stimulate identity
exploration in adolescence