Cell Biology (Reproduction in Cell)) Best notes for Botany/Zoology/Chemistry/Molecular Biology/Biotechnology and Biochemistry Students Genetics UCMS Khanewal

1. Course Title:
Cell Biology, Genetics &
Evolution
Course Instructor:
SALMAN SAEED
Botany department
UNIVERSITY college of management
& Sciences, Khanewal, PAKSITAN

2. Remember – All Living Things are
Made of Cells
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3. Why Are Cells Small?
• As cells get bigger, more of its cytoplasm is
located farther from the cell membrane.
• If a cell gets too big, it would take too long to
get materials into the cell and too long to get
waste out of the cell.
• Smaller cells are more efficient!
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4. Cell Division
• All cells come from other living cells.
• You (and other living things) grow because your
cells get bigger and your number of cells gets
larger.
– A single cell divides into two cells.
– Two cells divide into four, etc.
• Cells must also divide because old cells die and
need new cells to replace them!
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5. The Cell Cycle
• Cell cycle – regular sequence of growth and
division that eukaryotic cells undergo.
– Prokaryotic cells undergo binary fission
• Divided into three main stages:
– Interphase – cell grows into its mature size, makes a
copy of its DNA, and prepares for division.
– Mitosis – one copy of the DNA is distributed into each
of its daughter cells
– Cytokinesis – the cytoplasm divides and organelles
are distributed into the two new cells
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6. Interphase
• Interphase is made up of 3 separate parts.
– G1
– S
– G2
• Interphase is the stage that the cell is in for
most of its life!
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7. Chromosome Structure
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8. Sister Chromatids & Chromosomes
Copy of chromosome from mom
or dad
Chromosome made in S phase of
Interphase
Human somatic cells (any cell other than a gamete) have 23 pairs
of chromosomes. – one from mom and one from dad. These are
called homologous chromosomes.
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9. • The cell’s chromatin condenses into
chromosomes
• The chromosomes look like an “X”
– Each chromosome is made up of two identical
sister chromatids attached by a centromere
– This is “created” in S phase of interphase
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10. G1 – Growth Phase
• Cell doubles in size
• Cell produces all of the structures it needs to
carry out its functions
• Think of this phase as the cell just living its
normal life.
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11. S – DNA Copying
• Cell makes a copy of its DNA (replication)
• This happens because the new cell needs all of
the directions for its function and survival.
• Think of this phase as placing the DNA on a
copy machine.
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12. G2 – Preparation
• Cell prepares to divide
• Cell produces structures needed for cell
division
• Think of this phase as the cell double checking
everything it needs to divide.
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13. Learning Checkpoint
1. T/F: Interphase is usually divided into 3 phases: G1, S, G2.
2. The ________ is the regular sequence of growth and division that cells undergo.
3. ________ is the stage of the cell cycle where the cell grows to its mature size,
copies it DNA, and prepare to divide.
4. Cells can not get too big because:
A. there is not enough DNA to support large cells
B. diffusion is too slow to provide for large cells
C. the surface area of a cell increases too fast for the cell membrane to meet its
needs.
D. all of the above
5. DNA is replicated during:
A. interphase
B. prophase
C. metaphase
D. cytokinesis 13Salman Saeed Lecturer (Botany)

14. Mitosis and Cytokinesis

15. Mitosis
• During mitosis, the cells’ copied genetic
material separates and the cell prepares to
split into two cells
• This allows the cell’s genetic material to pass
into the new cells
– The resulting daughter cells are genetically
identical!!
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16. Where Do I Find DNA?
• Chromosomes are in the
nucleus of every cell.
• Chromosomes are made
up of DNA.
• Genes are pieces of DNA
that contain the instructions
for building a protein.
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17. The Four Stages of Mitosis
• Remember PMAT!
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
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18. Prophase
• Nucleus disappears
• Spindle fibers form in the cytoplasm
• Spindle fibers attach to sister chromatids
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19. Metaphase
• The sister chromatids are pulled to the center
of the cell
• They line up in the middle of the cell
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20. Anaphase
• Spindle fibers begin to shorten
• The sister chromatids are pulled to the
opposite ends of the cell
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21. Telophase
• The sister chromatids arrive at the opposite
poles of the cell and begin to unravel
• New nucleus begins to form
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22. Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm
• Results in two separate daughter cells with
identical nuclei
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23. Cytokinesis
In plants, a cell plate forms between the two daughter nuclei.
In animal cells, it is accomplished by using microfilaments to “pinch” the cytoplasm.
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24. Real-Life Cells Dividing!
Animated Mitosis
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25.  Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction
indirectly.
 It allows the sexually reproducing organism
to grow and develop from a single cell into a
sexually mature individual.
 This allows organisms to continue to
reproduce through the generations.
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26.  Repair of worn out parts (healing of wounds)
takes place by mitosis.
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27. 27Salman Saeed Lecturer (Botany)

28.  Binary fission - single-celled
organisms (e.g. amoeba) reproduce simply
by splitting into two new cells.
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29.  Budding –
• bud on parent organism
•(e.g. yeast) develops into a new organism
through repeated cell division
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30. Mitosis Learning Checkpoint
1. Which phase do cells spend the most time?
2. What are the 3 stages of interphase?
3. What kinds of cells go through mitosis?
4. What are the 4 stages of mitosis?
5. What is the result of mitosis?
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31. Meiosis
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32. Meiosis - the process of cell division
that produces haploid gametes (half
the number of chromosomes:
humans: 23)

33. Discovery of Meiosis
• In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-Joseph
van Beneden found different numbers of
chromosomes in different cells
• Specifically, he observed that gametes (sperm
& egg) contain half the number of
chromosomes compared to somatic cells
(nonreproductive cells).
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34. Fertilization
• Van Beneden then proposed that an egg and a
sperm fuse to produce a zygote .
• The zygote contains two copies of each
chromosome (one copy from the sperm and one
copy from the egg). These are called homologous
chromosomes.
• Fertilization is the name for the fusion of
gametes.
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35. Reduction Division
• Since the sperm and the egg contain only half the
number of chromosomes, they cannot be formed
from mitosis.
• Meiosis - the process of cell division that
produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes as somatic cells
– Cell undergoes 2 rounds of cell division:
• Meiosis 1
• Meiosis 2
• Humans have 46 chromosomes in their somatic
cells.
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36. Example of Meiosis
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37. Unique Features of Meiosis
Feature #1 – Synapsis
Following chromosome replication, the
homologous chromosomes pair all along their
length. This process is called synapsis.
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38. Unique Features of Meiosis
Feature #2 – Crossing Over
While the homologous chromosomes are joined,
crossing over occurs. Crossing over is the
exchange of genetic material from
homologous chromosomes.
This causes genetic variations.
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39. Synapsis and Crossing Over
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40. Unique Features of Meiosis
Feature #3 – Reduction Division
The chromosomes are not copied in between
the two divisions. At the end of meiosis, each
cell contains one half the genetic material.
(haploid or “n”)
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41. Reduction Division
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42. Meiosis I
• Preceded by Interphase- chromosomes are
replicated to form sister chromatids
• Sister chromatids are genetically identical and
joined at centromere
• Single centrosome replicates, forming 2
centrosomes
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43. 43Salman Saeed Lecturer (Botany)

44. Prophase I
• Individual chromosomes first become visible
– homologous chromosomes become closely associated in
synapsis
– crossing over occurs
• Crossing over is a complex series of events in which
DNA segments are exchanged between nonsister or
sister chromatids.
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45. Metaphase I
• The homologous chromosomes line up in the
center of the cell and are still held together
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46. Anaphase I
• Spindle fibers shorten
• The homologous chromosomes are separated
(the sister chromatids are still paired)
• Independent assortment – random
chromosomes move to each pole; some may be
maternal and some may be paternal 46Salman Saeed Lecturer (Botany)

47. Telophase I
• The nuclear membrane reforms around each
daughter nucleus
• Each new cell now contains two sister
chromatids that are NOT identical due to
crossing over
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48. At the end of Meiosis I…
• You have made 2 cells
• Each cell contains a haploid number of chromosomes – 1 copy
of each chromosome
(for humans, each haploid cell has 23 chromosomes)
• No DNA replication occurs between Meiosis I and Meiosis I
• Meiosis II resembles normal, mitotic division
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49. Prophase II
• Nuclear membrane breaks down again
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50. Metaphase II
• The chromosomes line up in the middle of the
cell.
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51. Anaphase II
• The spindle fibers shorten and the sister
chromatids move to opposite poles.
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52. Telophase II
• Nuclear envelope re-forms around the four
sets of daughter chromosomes.
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53. At the end of Meiosis II…
• At the end of Meiosis II, there are 4 haploid
cells. (only 1 copy of each chromosome)
– (for humans, each haploid cell has 23
chromosomes)
• No two of these haploid cells are alike due to
crossing over.
– This is why you and your siblings are genetically
unique! 53Salman Saeed Lecturer (Botany)

54. PROVIDES DIVERSITY
 One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the
diversity it produces within a population. That
variety is a direct product of meiosis. Means
there is variations among the members of a
specie in a population.
Mitosis Significance
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55.  Every sex cell made from meiosis has a
unique combination of chromosomes. This
means that no two sperm or egg cells are
genetically identical.
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56.  Every fertilization event produces new
combinations of traits.
 This is why siblings share DNA with parents
and each other, but are not identical to one
another.
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57.  Recombination at meiosis plays an important
role in the repair of genetic defects.
 The conventional view that it generates by
recombination and sexual reproduction the
genetic diversity on which natural selection
can act.
 It is essential, at least in animals, for the
reprogramming of gametes which give rise to
the fertilized eggs.
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58. Meiosis Quick Check Questions:
1. What kinds of cells does mitosis produce?
2. How many chromosomes do human haploid
cells have?
3. What kinds of cells does meiosis produce?
4. How many cells are produced when one cell
goes through meiosis?
5. How many times are chromosomes replicated
during meiosis?
6. How do cells in meiosis get to be different?
7. If an organism’s somatic cells have 36
chromosomes, how many chromosomes do
their gametes have?
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59. Mitosis Vs Meiosis
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