The PPP is for the students of UG and PG only. Not for my API. For more pics of Chola period- https://www.clevelandart.org/art/collection/search?i=1&search=chola

1. Metal Art of Chola Period
( c.850-1250 CE)
The Golden Age of Tamil History
Sachin Kr. Tiwary

3. Map showing the extent of the Chola empire during Rajendra Chola I (c. 1030 CE)
Map
Showing
Extension of
Chola
Empire
out of
todays India
boundary,

4. Historical Background
• One of the longest-ruling dynasties in the world's history,
• Earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from
the c.300 BCE left by Ashoka (Major Edict No.13),
• Heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri river,
• Under Rajednra Chola-I & his successors Rajendra Chola-I,
Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajednra Chola & Kulothunga Chola-I, the
dynasty became a military, economic & cultural power in South-
Asia & South-East Asia,
• At the beginning Cholas migrated north during the time of the
Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the
dominating influences of the Pandyas & Pallavas,
• Huen-tsang, who spent several months in Kanchi during 639–
640 CE writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in an apparent
reference to these Cholas,
• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty who
was the feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity
arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty & Pallava
dynasty in c. 850, captured Tanjavur from Muttarayar &
established the dynasty,
• Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.
Statue of Rajaraja Chola at the Brihadiswara Temple, Thanjavur

5. Introduction-
• At least 300 stone temples were built during Chola Period.
• Its monarchs extended their dominion into Sri Lanka and
the nearby Maldive Islands, maintained regular contact
with Java, and sent diplomatic missions to Myanmar
(Burma), Malaysia, and China.
• Enlightened patrons of the arts, Chola rulers
commissioned elegant sculptures and dedicated majestic
temples to Hindu deities in order to proclaim the power,
wealth, and piety of the Chola dynasty.
• After the decline of the Pallavas in Tamil Nadu, the Cholas
emerged as a triumphant power. Everyone knows that
they were responsible for the erection of number of
temples in Tamil Nadu.
• Rajaraja I has constructed a Siva temple at Polanuruva in
Srilanka in the same pattern of Chola architecture.
• His son Rajendran I conducted eastern expeditions in
order to stabilize the trade between Tamil Nadu and far
flung countries of South East Asia.
• The temple of Angorwat in Combodia was born out of
commerce and conquest.
• Chola bronzes are few intricate ornament in
comparison with the subsequent bronzes of the
Vijayanagar & Nayaka period.
• There is gentle grace, a restrained and quiet
elegance, an ethereal, out-worldly beauty, and above
all else - a life that throbs and pulsates and thereby
enlivens the bronze sculpture.

6. • Large bronze images were created to be carried outside the
temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple
festivals.
• The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these
sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy
images.
• The deities in bronze who participated in such festivities were
sumptuously clothed and decorated with precious jewelry.
• Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a
much larger and a much greater number of bronze sculptures
in all sizes ranging from massive to miniature were cast during
the Chola period than before, further attesting to the
importance of bronze sculpture during this period.
• Decorating temple bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a
thousand years old and such decorations are referred to in
10th-century Chola inscriptions.
• Though Cholas art evolved out of Pallava & early Pandyian
forms it has certain characteristic of its own which as yet has
not been sufficiently studied by scholars.
Introduction:

7. Books
Temple art under the Chola queens
by Balasubrahmanyam Venkataraman
Early Chōl̤a art: origin and emergence of style
by Rama Sivaram
Chōl̲a Murals: Documentation and Study of the
Chōl̲a Murals of Bṛihadīśvara Temple, Thanjavur
by P. S. Srirama
C Sivaramamurty

8. Chola
Metal
Art
Purpose
Medium
Context
Theme
Technique
Types
InfluencePlace
Sources
Unique
Feature
Under
whom
Order ?
Comparative

9. • Metal- Bronze (Image), Copper, Gold (Coin), Bronze is an alloy, (Copper + Tin).
Modern Bronzes (Lead + Aluminum + Manganese or Zinc).
oReligious- Shaktisim, Vaishnavism, Shaktism,
oPolitical- King, Queen, Saint
 Molding- Lost Wax Technique,.
Religious Place- Temples,
Public Place- Public Building,
Political Buildings- Royal Palaces.
Medium
Theme
Technique
Context

10. Types
Freestanding
Sculptures
small in size
Freestanding
Sculptures
Lifesize for
outside yatra
God-Goddess King-Queen
Saint Others
In group on the
single platform
Copper Plate
Stamp
Coins
Sambandar

11. Comparative of Material
1. Artist can highlight as per the demand
and requirement due to the material,
2. Most Attractive due to Carving,
3. Minute Carving of Each ornaments and
posture can be done,
4. Easy Carriable- For Village Processions,
5. Less Risk of Damage,
6. Recycling is Possible,
7. Long Durability,
8. Easy to Maintain,
9. Due to High Cost,
10. Light in weight….

12. Purpose
Religious
Political
Reach the
idol door to
door
Showing
Power/ To
get fame
Ceremonies
Social
Activities-
cultural
activities
Metal mold
was more
Easy
Chola bronze sculptures
were intended for
temple ritual

13. Under whom
Order ?
King
Queen
FeudalCommon
Public
Donation
of Idol
Brihadeshwara
Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Airavateshwara Temples
and many more
Sembiyan Mahadevi-
Gandaraditya wife,
Parantaka I's second son
Lokmaha Devi- Rajaraja
I's queen
Kundavai= the sister of
Rajaraja I
Vanavan Mahadevi
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/56998/12/12_chapter%205.pdf

14. Inscriptions-
• The inscriptions give, apart from a
comprehensive history of the times, a
full enumeration of all the metallic
images set up in the temple.
Literatures-
• Vishnu Samhita, Vishnudharmottara
Purana (III Khanda), Sukranitisara,
Manasara Silpa, Mahabharata,
Ramayana.
Art (Metal, Stone & Mural)-
Need Comparative Study.
Temples
Sources

15. • The Kanchi Kailashnatha Temple built by Rajasimha Pallava
was the inspiration for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeshwara at
Thanjavur, it can be safely concluded that the Pallavas were
among the first emperors in India to build both large temple
complexes & very large deities & idols which influence later
Chola.
• The artistic nature of the rulers and the craftsmen resulted
in the combination of different styles and the creation of
new ideas in making sculpture. One would not deny that the
same style was also adopted simultaneously in different
regions.
• Cholas and Pallavas used Bronze sculptures models
specifically for detailing ornaments of statues.
• It is been said that in India in the period of Pallavas, the
bronze sculptures and art came in their form of their own.
The artistic works of this time is an example of simplicity
and elegance.
• Cholas period is considered as the remarkable period for its
Bronze sculptures and art. It is the great age of Bronze
sculpture. Huge Bronze images in large numbers were
created.
Influence
Pallava
Chola

16. Influence
Pallava
Chola
Pandya

17. Somaskanda image is a particular form of representation of
Shiva with his consort Parvati, & Skanda as a child. This family group
depiction of Shiva originated during the 6th-8th centuries during the
period of the Pallava in South India. The representation shows Shiva
with four arms and Uma, and between them the infant Kanda
(Murugan) is shown as dancing with ecstasy. Over a period of time, a
number of such depictions have been discovered from different
regions which were once under the control of Pallavas.
Pallava
Chola
Influence
Pallava
Stone

18. Chola Period
Development
Early Stage Mature Stage

19. Shiva as Nataraja, Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Shiva Nataraja:
• One of the most important and famous of all Hindu
icons is intimately associated with Cholas bronzes- the
Great image of Shiva Natraja, Lord of Dance/Dancers.
• Large number of this icon were created during the
Chola period in South India.
• Their manufacturing continued into the 12th century.
• Shiva is depicted in cosmic dance of creating &
destroying the universe.
• The height of the bronzes statue is 82 cm. & period
between 11-12 century A.D.

20. Iconographical details (of Shiva) and its symbolism:
• Shiva’s hair flies out widely as he dances, transfixed by the rhythm of the small
hour- glass- shaped drum held in his upper right hand. The rhythm is the heart
beat sound of the cosmos & it comes into being through the beneficent action
of the creative dance..
• The cosmos itself is represented as the ring encircling the
deity, which springs from the fertile mouths of makaras on
the sculpture’s base.
• The single flame reduces all to naught: it significantly balances the creative drum
in the deity’s right-hand.
• The lower right hand offers solace to his devotee by performing the reassuring
Abhaya Mudra of benediction.
The blessing is further affirmed by the lower left hand’s pose of gaja hasta. The flag
position of the hand is formed by dropping the figures into an imitation of an
elephant trunk, which here points to the left foot as it springs from the back of the
dwarf.
• This symbolic pose promises the devotee release form the suffering of Maya,
while the right foot crushes, with the full force of the dance, the back of the dwarf.
• A poisonous cobra is held by the dwarf, but the same deadly serpent is worn as an
ornament over Shiva’s blessing right hand
• Contemplating this moment of creation is the simultaneous destruction of
the cosmos, symbolized by the flames edging the encircle and the single
flame held in the God’s left hand.

21. Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as the Goddess Parvati,
Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC
Parvati:
• A tenth-century Chola Bronze image of Parvati shows the concert of
Shiva in the likeness of a Chola queen or princess.
• The figure with its greatly elongated body and limbs combines a certain
dignity and liveliness.
• Lugs at the base for inserting poles show that it was meant to be borne
in processions.
• The svelte form appears at first to be completely nude because the
folds of the one lower garment are minimized as they cling to the
upper legs.
• Even the pointed crown and the jewels appear to merge with the body
and to provide only the slightest variation to the modulation contours
of the whole.
• The absolute grace of the slight tribhanga pose the flowing arm and
hand position all contributes to a unified stylization of the figure and
elevate it beyond its human aspect to that of a celestial manifestation.
• The double lotus base on which the figures stands is fitted at its corners
with four lugs.
• The figures still retain some of the fluid grace of the Pallava stone
figures on the Arjuna Rath at Mamallapuram.

22. Shiva & Parvathi c. 1200 CE.Trident with
Shiva Idol
The Rishabaandhika or
the Vrishabavahana
murthy pose, we see Shiva
standing with one leg
youthfully crossed across
the other and his arm
elegantly flexed and raised
as if resting or leaning on
something. Shiva is leaning
on his bull-vahana, Nandhi,
on whose shoulders He is
resting His arm.

23. Ulster Museum

24. Kalyanasundara Murti
• The 9th century Kalyanasundara
Murti is highly remarkable for the
manner in which panigrahana
(ceremony of marriage) is
represented by two separate
statuettes.
• Parcati standing in a graceful
tribhanga (triple-bend) posture.

25. Shiva Vinadhara Dakshinamurti
Shiva Vinadhara Dakshinamurti
• Standing with one foot slightly forward on a lotus base over a
square plinth,
• his principle hands poised to play the vina and the upper ones
holding the battle-axe and antelope,
• dressed in a short veshti secured with a belt and adorned with
various necklaces and the sacred quadruple thread,
• the face wearing a benevolent expression with gentle smile
and elongated eyes,
• the tall jatamukuta supporting the skull, serpent, and crescent
moon.

26. Bhadrakali
Dakshinanugraha

27. Kaliaya-naag- Rukmini
Bhu Devi

28. Sambandar
Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Mother of Karaikkal
Saints

29. DetailofaStatueofRajarajaCholaI
BrihadisvaraTemple
StatueofKing&Queen

30. • The Chola images were made of Bronze with an unusually high percentage of copper.
• The statues were cast by the `cire perdue’ (lost wax) process, of which two methods are practiced in India from earliest
times.
• Beeswax and kungilium/ Sal dhuna/Dammer are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this
mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the wax model original.
• The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until the mould is of a necessary thickness.
• This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham.
• The similarity between so many Hindu Bronze is explained by the fact that the craftsmen were religiously required to
follow strict canons of measurement and iconography, set out in the Shilpa Shastras, the manual of sculpture,
architecture, and other crafts.
• Basic to the rules were measurement defined by the width of the craftsman’s finger and length of his palm.
Technique ‘Cire perdue’ (Lost Wax)/ Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana in Sanskrit

31. 1. (Solid) First method of
making bronze art:
I. They prepare a wax model
II. Over this they made a clay
mould.
III. When this mould became
hard, they melted the wax
out and poured liquid
metal into the clay mould.
IV. When the metal had
cooled, they broke the
mould and gave the image
the final chasing and
burnishing.
V. It gives a solid figure.
Technique
2. (Holo) Second method of making bronze art:
I. They first made a clay model and coated it with a layer of
wax to reproduce exactly all the details of the form.
II. Then they covered the wax with a thin layer of fine clay.
III. When this dried, they added more layers until a thick out
shell had formed.
IV. This is called the negative.
V. They heated the statue until the wax melted and ran
through openings, leaving a space between the clay
mould and the negative.
VI. They poured liquid metal to replace the wax and
reproduce all the details of the figure.
VII. When the metal had cooled and hardened, they broke
away the outer shell.
VIII. Then the figure was chased with a chisel and polished
IX. It gives a shell.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-Chola-bronze-art
The first method gave a solid figure, the second a shell

32. 1 Sculptors mold images from hard beeswax mixed with a small amount
of dammar (resin) from the shal tree. The wax is carefully molded into
the separate parts that comprise the sculpture and then lowered into a
basin of cold water where it hardens instantly
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:
.
2 In order to join the individual pieces into a whole, they are returned to a malleable state through brief
reheating. Simple tubular struts connect the hands of the images to the body providing both stability to
the wax model and acting as channels through which molten bronze can be poured. While the wax is still
soft, details, down to the individual beads of a sculpted necklace, are added with a sharp wooden chisel.

33. 3 The fully assembled wax model is then
encased within several layers of clay. The
entire piece is held together with metal
wire to ensure a strong container that will
withstand the heat of fire and molten
metal.
4 The heavily clay-encased mold is then
baked in a fire pit, melting the wax, which
runs out through the channels leaving a
perfectly detailed hollow clay mold.
Specialized metal-workers now take over,
heating copper with a small proportion of
lead and tin (and in earlier times small
amounts of gold and silver). This alloy is
carefully poured into the clay mold, which
has been heated to the temperature of
the molten metal.
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

34. Technique
5 After cooling for several days, the clay mold is
broken open to reveal a rough version of the
sculpture.
The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

35. 6 The sculptors carefully
chip away the clay and then
smooth and polish the
bronze, a process that can
take anywhere from a few
days to several weeks.
During the Chola dynasty,
only the barest minimum of
finishing work, such as
removing the channels of
bronze connecting hand to
torso, remained to be
executed. Today, however,
artists resort to an extensive
amount of cold chiseling
that gives a distinct, sharp
finish to the details.
Technique The following process, which was used by Chola-period artists:

37. The purpose of making
these big and small
sizes are for village
processions as
opposed to the stone
deity installed in the
temple
Installing at different
religious places,

39. Life-size Idol of Chola Bronze- Living Idol
Dressing bronze images in silks and adorning them lavishly with jewels and flowers prior to
their participation in festival processions is a vital part of worship in south India today—
just as it was over a thousand years ago. Since at least the sixth century, priests have
ritually bathed bronze deities in milk, curds, butter, honey, and sugar, followed by water
from the Kaveri river; anointed them with fragrant sandalwood paste; draped them in
colorful cloth; and shaded them from the sun with canopies during festival processions.

40. • The human figures appear less abstract.
• The Cholas differentiate between
representation of Gods & human portraits.
• The human portraits reveal distinctive
individuality & character rather than idealized
type as in the case of Gods.
• Decorative details however become more
elaborate.
• While the Pallava carved in low relief the Chola
Statues stand out in bold high relief or in the
round.
• The Chola Bronze at a later stage have become
more ethereal appearance.
• They greatly exaggerate the length of the body
and limbs in proportion to head.
Unique
Feature

41. • The bronze casting technique and making of bronze images of traditional icons
reached a high stage of development in south India during the medieval
period.
• The union of Shiva and Parvati is very ingeniously represented in
the Ardhanarisvra in a single image. Beautiful independent figurines of Parvati
have also been modelled, standing in the graceful tribhanga posture.
• The technique of art fashioning bronze images is still skilfully practiced in
South India, particularly in Kumbakonam.
• Flower garlands -- though the flowers are not marked as clearly as in Chola
sculpture -- are shown on guardian deities (dwarapalakas) and others, going
over the left shoulder and then over the right hand in the typical Pallava
fashion.
• The word maalai was used to denote the necklaces, garlands and similar
ornaments.
• Similarly the word yagnopavita also denotes a variety of ornaments which are
worn over the left shoulder.
Unique
Feature

42. • The sculpture has combined the likeness of the facial features with certain
elements of idealization.
• The idealization is further observed in the manner the physical body is
modeled to appear imposing as well as graceful.
• Pearl-strings which go over both shoulders and are tied in the middle,
forming an ' X ' in the front and back, are shown on a few figures. These are
often called sanna vira, veera sangili or swarnakshaka.
• Some of the female figures show another ornament which goes just above
and below the breasts and is tied at the centre. This is not found on the
Chola bronzes.
• Vishnu holds his attributes—the discus and conch shell—in two rear hands;
one front hand is raised in the gesture of protection, the other rests on his
hip in a gesture of ease.
• At the waist a narrow belt (arai naan or kati sutra) knotted in front with a
bow can be seen on both men and women.
• In some cases a gem-set buckle is visible at the knot and in one place two
short chains with pendants suspended from the belt.
Unique
Feature

43. • Neckless over the bust of the female,
• The hair, a mass of curls,, resembles a large wig in context of Nataraj image.
• The very early figures look a bit stocky,
• In Pallava, garlands are shown on the crowns in two styles: as a short
crescent on one side of the karanda makuta and worn just above the
forehead. The flowers are not clearly depicted, but from the later Chola
sculpture, where flowers are clearly shown, one can confirm that flowers
were worn over the crown.
• Different kinds of necklaces: Necklaces were often worn without pendants
by both men & women. Pendants (thooku) are shown on a few female
figures. Unlike the Chola period we seldom see short necklaces fitted high
up on the neck.
• On the female figures (exception Parvati in the Somaskanda panels in the
Shore Temple and in the Mahishasuramardini cave) we do not see the
ornament poon, worn from the left shoulder to the right side of the waist
like the sacred thread, and quite common in the Chola and the Vijayanagar
sculptures.
Unique
Feature

44. • Yagnopavita of different kinds with clasps, long ones going down to the leg,
double and triple strands meeting at the clasp are found in Pallava art &
developed in Chola art.
• Although bronze images were modeled and cast during the Pallava period in
the 8th and 9th centuries, some of the most beautiful and exquisite statues
were produced during the Chola period in Tamil Nadu from 10th to
12th century AD.
• The distinguished patron during the 10th century was the widowed Chola
Queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi.
• The well known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully
developed during the Chola period and since then many variations of this
complex bronze image have been modeled.
• A wide range of Shiva iconography was evolved in the Tanjore region of Tamil
Nadu.
• The standing King and Queens are depicted in a praying posture, that is, both
hands in the Namaskara mudra.
Unique
Feature

45. • Hight nose at the height of the Chola art, whereas during first and
second phase it was not high,
• Chola art shows greater movement and rhythmic freedom of action
within well-formed outlines.
• The Cholas differentiate between the representation of gods and huma
portraits.
• The latter reveal distinctive individuality and character rather than an
idealized type as in the case of gods.
• Decorative details, however, have become more elaborate,
• Elongated Mukut,
• Cylindrical long Body,
• The human figures appear less abstract,
• I In the Chola bronzes kazhal is often shown as
a band on one leg just above the ankle.
Unique
Feature
• In Pallava only women are shown wearing anklets, whereas in
the Chola period both men and women wore a variety of
anklets.

46. • An ornamental belt worn by men called the udhara bhanda is shown
just above the stomach. It appears plain in most cases but in a few
cases patterns are worked on it.
• The corresponding belt worn by women across the breasts is
called kachu, vambu, or vaar in Tamil, and is shown without the
shoulder straps.
• This buckle evolved into an elaborate lion-faced clasp during the Chola
period.
• Women are shown with a simple girdle (pattikai) or mekala worn over
the panty-like garment in contrast to the elaborate mekala of the Chola
period.
• Many varieties of arm-bands are depicted on the upper arm. The simplest is a
circular band which may be called thol valai. The Tamil word thol denoted the
upper arm. In the Chola period this simple ornament evolved
into ananda or paampusurul with a cobra head at the upper end.
• The third is an elaborate ornament called the keyura which is set with
gems, and some of these keyuras have extraordinary cross-like pattern
around a circle.
Unique
Feature

47. Development

48. Postures

49. Notable collections:
• Thanjavur Maratha Palace,
• Government Museum,
Chennai,
• Pondicherry Museum,
• Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Outside India-
• British Museum,
• New York's Metropolitan
Museum of Art,
• Norton Simon Museum,
in Pasadena,
• Asian Art Museum in San
Francisco.

50. PM Abbott of Australia returns Shiva Nataraja
idol & Ardhanariswara idol to the PM Narendra
Modi
https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/return-of-the-nataraja/article6384683.ece
Illicit Trafficking-
Since European conquest, the
Chola bronzes were a
showcase of creativity and
engineering skills and the idols
find a place of pride in major
museums around the world
even now.

51. https://navrangindia.blogspot.com/2019/05/900-year-old-sripuranthan-lord.html

52. Sources-
https://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Archeaology/arch_jewellery.htm
https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Chola%E2%80%99s-bronze-sculpture-more-refined
Thank you