эдийн засгийн философи

1. +
МАКРО, МИКРО L-10
ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН
ӨРСӨЛДӨӨНИЙ МӨН
ЧАНАР

2. +
Дэд сэдэв:
 1. ЙOЗЕФ ШVМПЕТЭР-БИЗНЕС ОРЧИН
 2. МАКРО ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН ӨРСӨЛДӨӨНИЙ
ЗАГВАРУУД
 3. МИКРО ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН ӨРСӨЛДӨӨНИЙ
ЗАГВАРУУД
 Дүгнэлт

3. Йoзеф Шvмпетэр

4. +
БИЗНЕС ОРЧИН
 Шvмпетэрийнхээр- коммунист орнуудад чөлөөт зах
зээлvvдийг бий болгох нь хялбар vйл биш.
 Процесс өөрөө эхлэхгvй.
 Vvнийг хангах нөхцөлvvд нь бизнес орчинг бvрдvvлэх:
 vйл ажиллагаа сайтай, өндөр чадавхитай банкууд,
 боловсролтой мотив сайтай хvмvvс,
 хvн амын дунд капитализмын өмнөх vеийн vнэт
зvйлсийн талаархи мэдрэмж байх ёстой.

5. +
БИЗНЕС ОРЧИН
Жишээ нь: коммунизмын дараа эдийн засгийн
зохистой дэг журмийг бий болгохын төлөөх өрсөлдөөн
гарч ирэх ёстой.
 Бvх юм хvнээс л хамаарна.
 Хvмvvст менежментийн мэдлэг,
 техникийн шинэ know-how бол мөнгөнөөс ч илvv
чухал байх ёстой.
МОНГОЛ: ХӨӨСРӨЛТИЙН ЭДИЙН ЗАСАГ

6. ШVМПЕТЭР: ПРОЦЕСС ЭХЛЭХЭД
ХУГАЦАА ХЭРЭГТЭЙ
 Зах Зээл өөрөө хvрээд ирэхгvй.
 Харин эдийн засагчид?
• Эдийн засгийн хvрээнээс хальж, сэтгэж сурах
• Сэтгэлзvй, социологийн мэдлэгийг эзэмших
• Өөрсдөдөө эргэлзэж сурах.
 Зах зээл эмх замбараагүй байдлаар дvvрэн-vр дvнг урьдчилан
харахгvй.
• Эдийн засгийн бодлогыг "цэвэр оюун ухааны хvчээр хийнэ"
гэдэг туйлын даруу зангийн хvрээнд л боломжтой бөлгөө.

7. ӨРСӨЛДӨӨН

8. +
2. МАКРО ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН
ӨРСӨЛДӨӨНИЙ ЗАГВАРУУД
Шинэ бүтээгдэхүүн ба бизнесийн шинэ стратеги нэвтрүүлж
амжилтанд хүрсэн компаний туршлагыг бусад нь
хуулбарладаг.
Өрсөлдөөний харилцаа:
1. Шууд харилцаа – өрсөлдөгчийнхөө зах зээлд эзлэж буй байр
суурийг багасган ноёрхлоо дангаараа тогтоох гэсэн харилцаа
2. Шууд бус дам харилцаа – өрсөлдөгчидтэйгээ хэлэлцэн
тохиролцох, энэхүү харицаа нь бага зардалтай бөгөөд аль
аль талдаа ашигтай тусдаг байна.

9. + МАКРО ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН
ӨРСӨЛДӨӨНИЙ ЗАГВАРУУД
 Эргэх холбоос бүхий динамик системийн загвар
Динамик системүүд нь чанарын гэхээсээ тоон өөчлөлтөнд суурилагдсан
байдаг – хувьсал - эерэг болон сөрөг эргэх холбоостой.
Системийг өөр өөр чиглэлд оруулах төрөл бүрийн хүчин зүйлүүдийн
хоорондох өрсөлдөөнийг хамааруулж ойлгоно.
Динамик системийн загварыг дараах өрсөлдөөний асуудлуудыг
шийдвэрлэхэд ашиглаж болдог. Үүнд:
 Соёлын динамик
 Зах зээлийн эдийн засаг
 Ардчилал
 Нийгмийн нэр хүндийн төлөөх өрсөлдөөн
 Дайн

10. Системийн коэволюци бас коадаптаци

11. +
Өрсөлдөөний загварууд
Цогц системийн загвар
Эдийн засгийн системд компаниуд - худалдан авагч -
үүрэг гүйцэтгэдэг.
- Өрсөлдөөн, селекцийн төрөл бүрийн салбаруудыг
нэгтгэн авч үзэх нь олон эргэх холбоос бүхий маш том,
цогц сүлжээг үүсгэдэг.
Энэхүү системийн чухал нөлөө бүхий холбоосийг олж
шинжлэх нь бидний амьдарч буй цогц нийгмийн
динамик-ийг зөв ойлгож, сайжруулах түлхүүр юм.

12. +
Өрсөлдөөнд оролцогчид ба өртөгчид
Өрсөлдөөнд зөвхөн өрсөлдөгчид төдийгүй түүнд шууд болон шууд
бус оролцогчид, эерэг болон сөрөг өртөгчид ч хамаардаг. Үүнд:
 Өрсөлдөгчид: Худалдагчдыг гол төлөв өрсөлдөгчид боловч
худалдан авагчид ч ялангуяа эрэлт нь нийлүүлэлтээсээ давсан
нөхцөлд мөн өрсөлдөгчид .
 Өрсөлдөх нөөц: Нийлүүлэлт нь эрэлтээсээ давсан зах зээлийн
эдийн засагт худалдагчид худалдан авагчидын төлөө өрсөлддөг.
Энэ нөхцөлд худалдан авагчид нь өрсөлдөх нөөц.
 Ашиг хүртэгч: Өрсөлдөж буй нөөц нь хувь хүмүүс, компаниуд
тэдгээр нь өрсөлдөөнөөс ашиг хүртэнэ.

13. + Өрсөлдөөний стратеги, хэмжүүр
Өрсөлдөгчид төрөл бүрийн стратегийг сонгож болно.
Стратегийн параметрүүдийг тэнцвэржүүлэх загвар
Өөрөөр хэлбэл хязгаарлагдмал хөрөнгөө эсрэг хоёр зорилт
хоорондын тэнцвэржилтийн буюу оновчтой түвшинд зарцуулах
шаардлага гарна.

14. + Өрсөлдөөний үр дагавар
 Бид дараах өрсөлдөөний үр дагаваруудыг судлана. Үүнд:
1. Зах зээлийн тэнцвэрийн буюу алдагдсан боломжийн үр дагавар
2. Гүйцэтгэлийн алдаатай хэмжүүрийн үр дагавар
3. Өрсөлдөгч, ашиг хүртэгчдийн хоорондын тэнцвэргүй байдлын үр
дагавар
4. Хязгаарлагдмал оновчтой байдлын үр дагавар
5. Бусдын төлөө тоглогчдын үр дагавар
6. Ашиггүй ашиг хүртэгчдэд бага үйлчилсэний үр дагавар
7. Тогтмол ба хувьсах зардлын үр дагавар

15. + 2. МÈКРО ЭДИЙН ЗАСГИЙН ӨРСӨЛДӨХ ЧАДВАР
 Давуу байдлын тухай олголт
 ¯éëäâýðëýë, ¿éëчèëãýýíèé êëàñòåð áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð.
 Èííîâàö áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð.
 Байгалийн өгөөжийн нөлөө ба өрсөлдөх чадвар.
 Íèéãìèéí àñóóäàë áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð.
 Ýêîëîãè áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð.

16. + Давуу байдлын тухай ойлголт
 Өрсөлдөх чадавхитай байхын тулд юуны өмнө өндөр хэмжээнд
локалчилсан процессийн үр дүнд íýì¿¿ ºðòºã áóþó өрсөлдөх давуу
байдлыг бий болгох хэрэгтэй.
 Íýì¿¿ ºðòºã ãýäãèéã õóäàëäàí àâàãч, õýðýãëýãч, ¿éëчë¿¿ëýãчäèéí
ýðýëò õýðýãöýýíä õàìãèéí ¿ð àøèãòàéãààð íèéö¿¿ëýõ чàäàâõè.

17. + Үндэстний үнэт зүйлс, соёл, эдийн засгийн бүтэц,
түүх өрсөлдөөний амжилтад нөлөөлнө.
 Өâëºãäñºí- õàðüöàíãóé äàâóó òàë.
 àðüöàíãóé äàâóó áàéäëàà õýðõýí ºðñХ ºëäºõ äàâóó áàéäàë áîëãîæ
чàäñíààñ шалтгаална.
 ªðñºëäºõ äàâóó áàéäëûã õàðèí øèíýýð áèé áîëãîно.

18. +
М.Е.Портер өрсөлдөх чадвар,
стратегийн сонголт, өрсөлдөх
давуу талын онолыг дэвш¿¿лэн,
өрсөлдөх чадварын “Diamond
Model”-ыг боловсруулсан.
1990-ээд онд “The competitive
advantage of nations” бүтээл-
салбарын төвлөрсөн
бүлэглэлийн шинэ үзэл
баримтлалыг дэвшүүлжээ.

19. +
èêðî ýäèéí М çàñãèéí ñóóðü:
 êîìïàíóóäûí ñòðàòåãè,
 ïðàêòèê ¿éë àæèëëàãàà áîëîí ¿íäýñíèé õýìæýýíä êîìïàíóóä
ºðñºëäºõ áèçíåñèéí áîäëîãî,
 òýäãýýðèéã äýìæèõ áàéãóóëëàãóóä, îðîëò, äýä á¿òýö
 ò¿¿íèéã ¿éëäâýðëýëèéí õ¿чèí ç¿éëèéí íºõöºë, ýðýëòèéí
íºõöºë, êîìïàíèé ñòðàòåãè, ºðñºë人í, äýìæèõ
áàéãóóëëàãóóäûã áàãòààñàí îчèð ýðäýíèé çàãâàðààð
òºñººëсөн байна.

20. + Компаний төгөлдөршил
Үүнд: Дэмжих үйл ажиллагаа:
 Компаний дэд бүтэц:
Хүний нөөцийн
менежмент
Технологийн хөгжил
Худалдан авалт
Анхан шатны үйл
ажиллагаа:
Оролтын логистик
Процессийн үйл
ажиллагаа
Гарцын логистик
Маркетинг,
Борлуулалт
Борлуулалтын
дараахь үйлчилгээ

21. + Колумбын петрохимийн
“төвлөрсөн бүлэглэл”-ийн жишээ
Зардлын бүлэг Зардлын бүрэлдэхүүн
Пропилен Нэгжийн нийлүүлэлтийн зардал
Тээвэрлэн авч ирэх
Пропилен үйлдвэрлэх технологи
Цахилгаан Киловат бүрийн үнэ
Полипропилен үйлдвэрлэх технологи
Гадагш тээвэрлэх Ачааны машины миль тутмын зардал
Ачааны машины ашиглалт

22. + ¯éëäâýðëýë, ¿éëчèëãýýíèé êëàñòåð áà ºðñºëäºõ
чàäâàð.
 õîëáîî á¿õèé êîìïàíóóä,
 òºðºëæñºí íèéë¿¿ëýãчèä, ¿éëчèëãýý ¿ç¿¿ëýãчèä
 ¿íäýñíèé áóþó á¿ñ íóòãèéí õ¿ðýýíä ¿éë àæèëëàãààãààтай õîëáîãäñîí
áàéãóóëëàãóóäûí газар зүйн òºâëºðºë.
 õîîðîíäîî ºðñºëääºã óчðààñ òýäíèé á¿òýýìæ ºñч áàéäàã.
 Êëàñòåðèéí õºãæëèéí ñàíààчëàãà íü ýäèéí çàñãèéí áîäëîãî, ìàêðî ýäèéí
çàñãèéí òîãòâîðæóóëàëò, õóâüчëàë, çàõ çýýëèéã íýýëòòýé áîëãîõ,
áèçíåñèéí ¿éë àæèëëàãààíû çàðäëûã áóóðóóëàõ чóõàë чèãëýë ìºí.

23. + Кластерын шинэ ойлголт
 Ãëîáàëь ºðñºë人íèé ýðèíèé òóðø òåõíîëîãèéí õºãæèë, ºðñºë人íèé
èäýâõæëèéí óлìààñ ýäèéí çàñãèéí газар зүй áóþó áàéðøëûí
óëàìæëàëò àч õîëáîãäëûг ¿ã¿éñãýæ áàéëàà.
 Гэвч Бàéãóóëëàãóóäûí гàçàð ç¿éí болон ñî¸ëûí хувьд îéð äºò áàéäàë
íü:
 тэдний õîîðîíä íÿãò õàðèëöàà,
 ìýäýýëýëèéí èë¿¿ ñîëèëöîîг бий болгож,
 бие биенээ харилцан тэтгэх
 áóñàä олон äàâóó áàéäëóóäûг îëãîæ áàéíà.

24. +
Колумбад-цахилгааны үнэ өндөр байгаа нь,
Мексикийн Пемескид-хуучин технологи нь сөргөөр нөлөөлж байгаа
бол,
Венесуэлд байгалийн хий их ба цахилгааны үнийн хөнгөлөлт их
зэрэг нь таатай орчинг бүрдүүлж байна.

25. + Үйлдвэрлэлийн хүчин зүйлсийн
шилжилт
Нөөцийн шилжилтийн үр дүнд сул хөгжилтэй бүсүүд
өсөлтийн хурдац их,
 өндөр хөгжилтэй бүсүүдийн хурдац бага.
Ижил түвшинд хүрэхэд зах зээлийг төгс өрсөлдөөнтэй
байна гэж үзээд үйлдвэрлэлийн хүчин зүйлс хаана
өндөр үнэлэгдэж байна тийшээ шилжинэ гэж үзсэн.
 / Д.Рикардо, Хекшере-Олин, Хекшере-Олина–
Самуэльсона, Солоу и Свана, Мэнкью–Ромер–Уэйла,
Барро, Сала и Мартин/

26. + Èííîâàö и áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð.
 Үíäýñòíèé ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð, àðä ò¿ìíèé àæ àìüäðàëûí
ò¿âøèíã äýýøë¿¿ëýõýä øèíý á¿òýýãäýõ¿¿í, ïðîöåññ,
ìåíåæìåíòèéí àðãà áàðèëûí èííîâàö çàéëøã¿é õýðýãòýé.
 Үíäýñòíèé èííîâàöûí чàäàâõè ???

27. + Компанийн өðñºëäºõ äàâóó òàë
Иííîâàöûí õàìãèéí èõ чàäàâõòàé хэсэгт õºðºíãº
îðóóëàõ.
Бóñäàä ¿ë ã¿éöýãäýõ ºðñºëäºõ äàâóó òàë:
 ªìч ýçýìøëèéí òàëààðõè ìýäýýëëèéí óðñãàë,
 îðîí íóòãèéí áàéãóóëëàãà,
 êîìïàíóóäòàé òîãòîîñîí äàâóó ýðõ
 áàéðøëûí äàâóó áàéäàë.

28. + Хаана өрсөлдөхөө сонгох

29. + Өрсөлдөгчийн үйл ажиллагааны танилцуулга ба
өрсөлдөгч, зардал, хэрэглэгчийн судалгааг нэгтгэх
нь

30. + Байгалийн өгөөжийн нөлөө ба
өрсөлдөх чадвар.
 “Бàéãóóëëàãóóäûí ã¿éöýòãýõ ¿¿ðýã. Òóõàéëáàë, áàéãàëèéí íººöèéí
áàÿëàã áàéäàë íü óëñ òºðèéí èíñòèòóö, ýäèéí çàñãèéí áîäëîãûí чàíàðò
ñºðºã íºëºº ¿ç¿¿ëæ, ÿâààíäàà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàðûã ìóóòãàäàã áàéíà.
 Газар зүйн байршил - баялагт гаднаас нөлөөлөх өөр нэг өгөөж. Ж:
том зах зээлд ойр байх явдал нь гадаад худалдааны үр ашигт
эерэгээр нөлөөлнө.

31. +
Ì.Ïîðòåðèéí ºðñºë人íèé øèíý çàãâàð
 Кîìïàíóóäàä ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàðòàé áîëîõ øèíý ¿¿ðýã
 Бèçíåñ, Çàñãèéí ãàçàð, îðîí íóòãèéí áóñàä áàéãóóëëàãóóäûí
õîîðîíäûí õàðèëöààíû øèíý õýëáýð,
 Çàñãèéí ãàçðûí áîäëîãûí òóõàé ñýòãýõ á¿õýë á¿òýí øèíý àðãà çàì
øààðäëàãàòàé áàéãààã íîòëîí õàðóóëæ áàéíà.

32. +
Íèéãìèéí àñóóäàë áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð
 Нèéãìèéí áîäëîãî
 Ýäèéí çàñãèéí áîäëîãî
 ¿í àðäûíõàà ñàéí ñàéõàí àæ àìüäðàëûí òºëºº æèíõýí äýâøèë Хãàðãàõàä чèãë¿¿ëýí õîîðîíä íü èíòåãðàöчëàõ õýðýãòýé.

33. + Ýêîëîãè áà ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàð
 Бàéãàëь îðчíû чàíãà ñòàíäàðò íü êîìïàíóóäûã
íººöºº èë¿¿ á¿òýýìæòýé àøèãëàõàä
чèãë¿¿ëнэ.
 èííîâàöûã øààðäàæ,
 ãëîáàë ºðñºë人íèé øèíý øààðäëàãà.
 Бàéãàëü îðчèí, íººöèéí á¿òýýìæ, èííîâàö,
ºðñºëäºõ чàäâàðûã õîîðîíä õîëáîñîí ýäèéí
çàñãèéí ñóóðü үзэл баримтлалыг áèé áîëãîõ

34. + Àæ ¿éëäâýðèéí ýêîëîãè íü ¿éëäâýðèéíõýý íººöèéí á¿òýýìæ,
ºðñºëäºõ àäâàðàà ñàéæðóóëàõûã çîðüæ ч áóé êîìïàíóóäàä
èõýâчëàí аøèãòàé.
 Бàéãàëü îðчíûã áîõèðäóóëæ áóé êîìïàíè íèéãýì
ÿàæ õîõèðч áàéãààã òîîöäîãã¿éãýýñ
ÿâààíäàà íýð õ¿íä íü óíàñíààð ÿìàð õîõèðîë
ººðºº àìсдаг.
 Аæ ¿éëäâýðèéí ýêîëîãè íü ìàòåðèàë, ýðчèì
õ¿чíèé óðñãàëä àíõààðëàà õàíäóóëдаг.
 Нèéãìèéí õ¿ðýýíä ºðñºëäºõ чàäàâõèä íºëººëºõ
áóñàä õ¿чèí ç¿éë¿¿äèéã îíîâчòîé áàéäëààð
òîîöîæ чàääàãã¿é.

35. +
 - Michael E. Porter and Claas van der Linde, “Green and
Competitive: Ending the Stalemate”, Ha rva rd
 Bus ine s s Re vie w, September-October 1995
 - Àëëåí Õàììîíä “Áàéãàëü îðчèí ºðñºë人íèé äàâóó òàëûí íýã ýõ
ñóðâàëæ áîëîõ íü”
 - Daniel C. Esty and Michael E. Porter, "Industrial Ecology and
Competitiveness: Strategic Implications for the Firm", Jo urna l
o f Indus tria l Ec o lo g y 2, no. 1, 1998.

36. +
Дүгнэлт
 Өрсөлдөөн нь байгаль, нийгмийн хүрээнд явагдах систес
динамикийн үзэгэдэл.
 Зөвхөн эдийн засагт явагддаг процесс бус
 Дэлхийн даяаршлын өнөө үед хөгжлийг нэг улс үндэстэн,
систем дэх салбарын өсөлт, хөгжлөөр авч үзэхээ больж
байна.

37.  Хөгжлийн түвшинг мөнгөн орлогын түвшнээр хэмждэггүй.
 Хөгжил нь эрх чөлөө.
 Хүний хөгжил нь хүний сонголтуудыг өргөжүүлэх үйл явц.
37
*1. Хүний хөгжил
*2. Хүний амьдралын чанар
*3. Хүний амьдралын орчин

38. THANK YOU
BTTemplates_ 100 원대 PPT디자인_www.bizdesign.net

39. +

40. +

41. +

42. +

43. +

44. +
 Аливаа баялаг тухайн эдийн засагт үйл ажиллагаа явуулж
буй компаниудын түвшинд бий болдог учраас үндэсний
өрсөлдөх чадварт микро эдийн засгийн хүчин зүйлс
шийдвэрлэх үүрэгтэй гэдэг.

45. Theories Personality
& Assessment
Modified by
Elizabeth T Santosa, M.Psi, psi.

46. +
Definition of Personality?
PPeerrssoonnaalliittyy refers to the relatively enduring
characteristics that differentiate one person
from another and that lead people to act in a
consistent and predictable manner, both in
different situations and over extended periods
of time.
Personality is defined as: the enduring or
lasting patterns of behavior and thought (across
time and situation).

47. + Personality
Four Major Perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations
Trait - specific dimensions of personality
Humanistic - inner capacity for growth
Social-Cognitive - influence of environment

48. +
Sigmund Freud
University of Vienna 1873
Voracious Reader
Medical School Graduate
Specialized in Nervous
Disorders : SSoommee ppaattiieennttss’’ ddiissoorrddeerrss
hhaadd nnoo pphhyyssiiccaall ccaauussee..
(1856-1939)

49. + Sigmund Freud
What is the structure and development of
personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his
successors (i.e.,psychoanalysts)?
 According to psychoanalysts, much of bbeehhaavviioorr iiss
ccaauusseedd bbyy ppaarrttss ooff ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy wwhhiicchh aarree ffoouunndd iinn
tthhee uunnccoonnsscciioouuss aanndd ooff wwhhiicchh wwee aarree uunnaawwaarree.
 Freud’s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness:
 the ccoonnsscciioouuss mind;
 the pprreeccoonnsscciioouuss mind; and
 the uunnccoonnsscciioouuss mind.

50. +Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious
“the mind is like an iceberg “the mind is like an iceberg -- mmoossttlyly hhididddeenn””
Conscious Awareness
small part above surface
(Preconscious)
Unconscious
below the surface
(thoughts, feelings,
wishes, memories)
Repression
Banishing unacceptable
thoughts and passions to
unconscious:
Dreams and Slips

51. + Psychoanalysis:
Freud’s Theory of Personality
 Three levels of consciousness:
 CCoonnsscciioouuss mmiinndd:
things we are
focusing on.
 PPrreeccoonnsscciioouuss mmiinndd:
things are are not
currently aware of
but which we could
focus on.
 UUnnccoonnsscciioouuss mmiinndd:
that which we are
unaware of.

52. + Psychoanalysis:
Freud’s Theory of Personality
 Freud’s theory suggest that personality is composed of
tthhee iidd, tthhee eeggoo, and tthhee ssuuppeerreeggoo.
 iidd: the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose
purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to
hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses.
 eeggoo: restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the
safety of the individual and to help the person to be a
member of society.
 ssuuppeerreeggoo: the rights and wrongs of society and consists
of the conscience and the ego-ideal.

53. +Freud aanndd PPeerrssoonnaalliittyy SSttrruuccttuurree
Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives
Pleasure Principle
Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways
Reality Principle
Super Ego
- voice of conscience
that focuses on how
we ought to behave
Ego Super
Ego
Id

54. + Freud’s Theory:
“the ID”
 The iidd uses the most primitive of thinking process.
 Basic biological urges (e.g., hunger, self-protection).
 The iidd operates on the PPlleeaassuurree PPrriinncciippllee.
 Seeks pleasure and avoids pain:“II wwaanntt wwhhaatt II wwaanntt NNOOWW!!”
 The iidd operates completely at an unconscious level.
 No direct contact with reality.
 TThhee id has 2 major instincts:
 EErrooss: life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-seeking
tendencies (e.g., sexual urges).
 TThhaannaattooss: death instinct = motivates people to use aggressive
urges to destroy.
 The energy for the id’s instincts comes from the lliibbiiddoo, (the
energy storehouse).

55. + Freud’s Theory:
“the Ego”
The eeggoo consists of a conscious faculty for
perceiving and dealing intelligently with reality.
The eeggoo acts as a mediator between the id and
the superego.
The ego is partly conscious.
Deals with the demands of reality.
Makes rational decisions.

56. +
Freud’s Theory:
“the Ego”
 The eeggoo serves the ID:
The rational part of personality that maintains
contact with reality.
 Governed by ‘RReeaalliittyy PPrriinncciippllee’’
 “What consequences are there to my behavior?”
 TThhee eeggoo iiss tthhee EExxeeccuuttiivvee ooff tthhee ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy
 The eeggoo controls higher mental processes.
 Reasoning, problem solving.
 The eeggoo uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy the urges of the ID.

57. +
Freud’s Theory:
“the Superego”
 SSuuppeerreeggoo: the moral part of personality.
 Internalized rules of parents and society.
 SSuuppeerreeggoo consists of two parts:
CCoonnsscciieennccee: “notions of right/wrong.”
 EEggoo IIddeeaall: “how we ideally like to be.”
 SSuuppeerreeggoo:: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g.,
murder) because they are immoral, and nnoott because we might
get caught.
 SSuuppeerreeggoo: partly conscious, partly unconscious.

58. +
Freud: superego, id, and ego
According to Freud, an individual’s feelings,
thoughts, and behaviors are the result of tthhee
iinntteerraaccttiioonn ooff tthhee iidd,, tthhee ssuuppeerreeggoo,, aanndd tthhee
eeggoo..

59. +
Freud’s Theory of Personality:
 The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in
ccoonnfflliicctt with one another.
 This conflict generates aannxxiieettyy.
 If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting
anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with
anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with
the tasks of everyday living.
 The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce
anxiety) through the use of ego ddeeffeennssee
mmeecchhaanniissmmss.

60. + EgDoe Dfeenfesnes Me Mecehcahnainsimsmss:
Id
Super
Ego
Ego
When the inner war
gets out of hand, the
result is Anxiety
Ego protects itself via
Defense Mechanisms
DDeeffeennssee MMeecchhaanniissmmss reduce/redirect
anxiety by distorting reality

61. + Ego Defense Mechanisms
DDeeffiinniittiioonn: An defense mechanism is a psychology
tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from
becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting
anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego.
Defense mechanisms operate at an uunnccoonnsscciioouuss
lleevveell:
We are not aware of them during the time that we are
actually using them.
However, we may later become aware of their
previous operation and use.

62. + Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
RReepprreessssiioonn: pushing unacceptable and anxiety-producing
thoughts into the unconscious; involves
intentional forgetting but nnoott consciously done; repressed
material can be memories or unacceptable impulses.
 A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack.
RReeggrreessssiioonn: acting in ways characteristic of earlier life
stages/earlier stage of personality.
 A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home,
sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did
in grade school.

63. + Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
RReeaaccttiioonn ffoorrmmaattiioonn: replacing an anxiety-producing
feeling with its exact opposite, typically going
overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror
opposites.
 A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men
begins dating women several times a week.
RRaattiioonnaalliizzaattiioonn: creating false but believable excuses
to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for
behavior is not accepted by ego.
 A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating
is legitimate on an unfair examination.

64. + Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
DDeenniiaall: claiming and believing that something which is
actually true is false.
 A person disbelieves that she is age, asserting that “I
am not getting older.”
DDiissppllaacceemmeenntt: redirecting emotional feelings (e.g.,
anger) to a substitute target; involves directing
unacceptable impulses onto a less threatening
object/person.
 A husband, angry at the way his boss treated him,
screams at his children.
 Instead of telling your professor what you really think
of her, you tailgate and harass a slow driver on your
way home from school.

65. + Freud’s Theory:
Defense Mechanisms
 PPrroojjeeccttiioonn: attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings
or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in
terms of one’s own personal conflicts.
 An employee at a store, tempted to steal some
merchandise, suspects that other employees are
stealing.
 SSuubblliimmaattiioonn: substitute socially acceptable behavior for
unacceptable impulses.
 Playing video games instead of getting in a fight.

66. + Freud:
Stages of Personality Development
 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality
suggests that personality develops tthhrroouugghh aa sseerriieess
ooff ssttaaggeess, each of which is associated with a major
biological function.
 More specifically, Freud theorized that as people
age, they pass through several systematic ssttaaggeess ooff
ppssyycchhoosseexxuuaall ddeevveellooppmmeenntt in their personality.

67. + Psychosexual Stages of Development
are Source of Unconscious Conflicts.
 The stages of personality ddeevveellooppmmeenntt involve critical
events that occur in every child’s life.
 At each level, there is a conflict between pplleeaassuurree aanndd
rreeaalliittyy.
 The resolution of this conflict determines personality.
 AAtt aannyy ssttaaggee,, ““aa ffiixxaattiioonn”” ccaann ooccccuurr:
 If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we
become ffiixxaatteedd aatt aa ppaarrttiiccuullaarr ssttaaggee.
 Each stage also involves an eerrooggeennoouuss zzoonnee.
 Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.

68. Freud and Personality Development
“personality forms during the first few years of life,
rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”
“personality forms during the first few years of life,
rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood”
Psychosexual Stages
Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth
Anal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.
Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”
(Identification & Gender Identity)
Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant
Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others
Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3

69. + Freud’s Stages of Personality
Development:
OOrraall ssttaaggee: the oral state is the first period, occurring
during the first year of life.
 AAnnaall ssttaaggee: next comes the anal stage, lasting from
approximately age 1 to age 3.
 PPhhaalllliicc ssttaaggee: the phallic stages follows, with interest
focusing on the genitals.
 LLaatteennccyy ppeerriioodd: then follows the latency period lasting
until puberty.
GGeenniittaall ssttaaggee: after puberty, people move into the
genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.

70. +
(1) Oral stage of development:
 Time period: Birth to 18 months:
 Erogenous zone is mmoouutthh.
Gratification through sucking and swallowing.
OOrraall ffiixxaattiioonn has two possible outcomes.
OOrraall rreecceeppttiivvee ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
 Preoccupied with eating/drinking.
Reduce tension through oral activity.
 eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails
 Passive and needy; sensitive to rejection.
OOrraall aaggggrreessssiivvee ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
Hostile and verbally abusive to others.

71. +
(2) Anal stage of development:
 Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age.
 Erogenous zone is the anus.
Conflict surrounds toilet training.
 AAnnaall ffiixxaattiioonn has two possible outcomes.
 AAnnaall rreetteennttiivvee ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy.
 Stingy, compulsive orderliness, stubborn,
perfectionistic.
 AAnnaall eexxppuullssiivvee ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy.
 Lack of self control, messy, careless.

72. +
(3) Phallic stage of development:
 Time period: 3 to 6 years.
 Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the
genitals produces pleasure.
 At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children
experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict
(girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with
the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent
as possible.
OOeeddiippuuss ccoommpplleexx ((bbooyyss)) vvss EElleeccttrraa ccoommpplleexx ((ggiirrllss))
Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and
wishes to replace the same sex parent.

73. +
(3) Phallic stage of development:
 Oedipus complex ((lliittttllee bbooyyss))::
CCaassttrraattiioonn aannxxiieettyy::
 Son believes father knows about his desire for mom.
 Fears dad will castrate him.
Represses his desire and defensively iiddeennttiiffiieess with
dad.

74. +
(3) Phallic stage (continued):
 Electra ccoommpplleexx ((lliittttllee ggiirrllss))::
 PPeenniiss eennvvyy::
Daughter is initially attached to mom.
 Shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a
penis.
 She desires dad whom she sees as a means to obtain aa
ppeenniiss ssuubbssttiittuuttee ((aa cchhiilldd)).
Represses her desire for dad.
 incorporates the values of her mother
 accepts her inherent “inferiority” in society

75. +
(4) Latency Period:
During the latency period, little girls and little boys try
to socialize only with members of their own gender.
 Freud posits that children do this so as to help
minimize the awareness of “sexuality.”
 Thus, they continue the process of sexual repression
that began in the previous stage (for those who
successfully made it through the Oedipal
Complex/Electra Complex).

76. +
(5) Genital Stage:
 When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the 5th stage of
psychosexual development.
 They develop secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic
hair).
 The onset of the physical sexual characteristics “re-awakens”
people sexual urges, and thus they are no longer able to
successfully repress their sexual desires, impulses, and
urges.
 They begin searching for a marital mate, with whom they can
share sex and intimacy.

77. +
Summary of Freud (on personality):
 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a number of
criticisms.
• a lack of supportive scientific data;
• the theory’s inadequacy in making predictions; and
• its limitations owing to the restricted population on which
it is based.
 Still, the theory remains popular.
• For instance, the neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists
built upon Freud’s work, although they placed greater
emphasis on the role of the ego and paid greater
attention to social factors in determining behavior.

78. + Psychoanalysis:
Freud and Personality
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic
Perspective
Were Freud’s theories
the “best of his time”
or were they simply
incorrect?
Current research
contradicts
many of Freud’s
specific ideas
Development does not
stop in childhood
Dreams may not be
unconscious
drives and wishes
Slips of the tongue are
likely competing
“nodes” in memory network

79. + Summary:
Freud and Personality
Freud’s Ideas as Scientific Theory
Theories must explain observations
and offer testable hypotheses
Few Objective OObbsseerrvvaattiioonnss FFeeww HHyyppootthheesseess
((FFrreeuudd’’ss tthheeoorriieess bbaasseedd oonn hhiiss rreeccoolllleeccttiioonnss &&
iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonnss ooff ppaattiieennttss’’ ffrreeee aassssoocciiaattiioonnss,,
ddrreeaammss && sslliippss oo’’ tthhee ttoonngguuee))
DDooeess NNoott PPRREEDDIICCTT BBeehhaavviioorr oorr TTrraaiittss

80. + 4 Types of Personality Theories:
((11)).. PPssyycchhooddyynnaammiicc approaches
to personality.
((22)).. HHuummaanniissttiicc approaches
to personality.
((33)).. TTrraaiitt approaches to personality.
((44)).. SSoocciiaall CCooggnniittiivvee approaches
to personality.

81. +(1) Psychodynamic Personality
Theories:
 Source of information aabboouutt ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
• Obtained from expert analyst from people in therapy.
CCaauussee ooff bbeehhaavviioorr,, tthhoouugghhttss,, aanndd ffeeeelliinnggss:
• unconscious internal conflict associated with childhood
experiences.
• Also, unconscious conflicts between pleasure-seeking
impulses and social restraints.
OOuuttllooookk oonn hhuummaannss:
• negative.
CCoommpprreehheennssiivveenneessss ooff tthheeoorryy:
• very comprehensive.

82. + Psychodynamic (Psychoanalytic)
Theories:
Many are called NNeeoo--FFrreeuuddiiaannss. All place lleessss emphasis on sex.
CCaarrll JJuunngg:
Personal vs. CCoolllleeccttiivvee UUnnccoonnsscciioouuss.
Balance between iinnttrroovveerrssiioonn and eexxttrroovveerrssiioonn.
 AAllffrreedd AAddlleerr:
SSttrriivviinngg ffoorr ssuuppeerriioorriittyy = motivation to master
environment.
Notion of an IInnffeerriioorriittyy CCoommpplleexx.
 KKaarreenn HHoorrnneeyy:
Personality is CCuullttuurraall rraatthheerr tthhaann bbiioollooggiiccaall.

83. +(2) Humanistic Personality
Theories:
 Source of information aabboouutt ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
• obtained from self-reports from the general
population and people in therapy.
 CCaauussee ooff bbeehhaavviioorr,, tthhoouugghhttss,, aanndd ffeeeelliinnggss:
• self concepts,
• self-actualizing tendencies.
• conscious feelings about oneself (based on one’s
previous experiences).
 OOuuttllooookk oonn hhuummaannss:
• positive.
 CCoommpprreehheennssiivveenneessss ooff tthheeoorryy:
• fairly comprehensive.

84. The Humanistic Perspective
MMaassllooww’’ss
SSeellff--AAccttuuaalliizziinngg
PPeerrssoonn
RRooggeerr’’ss
PPeerrssoonn--CCeenntteerreedd
PPeerrssppeeccttiivvee
“Healthy” rather than “Sick”
Individual as greater than the sum of test scores

85. + Humanistic Personality Theories:
Maslow and Rogers
Humanistic approach (Third Force):
Rejected Freud’s pessimistic view of personality.
Rejected Behaviorist’s mechanistic view.
More optimistic/positive about human nature.
Humans are free and basically good.
Humans are inner-directed.
 Everyone has the potential for healthy growth.
Health growth involves Self actualization:
 “Be all you can be.”
Given the right environmental conditions,
we can reach our full potential.

86. Roger’s Person-Centered Perspective
People are basically good
with actualizing tendencies.
Given the right environmental
conditions, we will develop
to our full potentials
Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy
SSeellff CCoonncceepptt: central feature
of personality (+ or -)

87. + Humanistic Personality Theories:
Carl Rogers
 SSeellff--ccoonncceepptt: our image or perception of ourselves
((RReeaall SSeellff versus IIddeeaall SSeellff)).
We have a need for ppoossiittiivvee rreeggaarrdd/aapppprroovvaall from others.
Conditions of worth or conditional positive regard.
 The conditions under which other people will approve of
us.
We change our behavior to obtain approval.
What we need is: UUnnccoonnddiittiioonnaall ppoossiittiivvee rreeggaarrdd.
 Anxiety signifies that we are not being true to our ideal self.
Well-adjusted persons: self-concept & experience.
 Poorly adjusted person: self-concept & experience.

88. + Maslow’s Hierarchy of human motives:
one must satisfy lower needs before one
satisfies higher needs.

89. + Humanistic Personality Theories:
Abraham Maslow
 SSeellff--aaccttuuaalliizzaattiioonn is the culmination of a lifetime of inner-directed
growth and improvement:
• Challenging ourselves to the fullest.
• Can you identify a self-actualized individual?
• Characteristics of tthhee sseellff--aaccttuuaalliizzeedd ppeerrssoonn:
Creative and open to new experiences.
Committed to a cause or a higher goal.
 Trusting and caring of others, yet not dependent.
Have the courage to act on their convictions.

90. (+3) Trait Personality Theories:
 SSoouurrccee ooff iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aabboouutt ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
• obtained from observation of behavior and questionnaire
responses from the general population as well as from
people in therapy.
CCaauussee ooff bbeehhaavviioorr,, tthhoouugghhttss,, aanndd ffeeeelliinnggss:
• stable internal characteristics;
• some emphasize genetic basis.
OOuuttllooookk oonn hhuummaannss:
• neutral - neither positive nor negative.
CCoommpprreehheennssiivveenneessss ooff tthheeoorryy:
• not very comprehensive.

91. + (3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
 TTrraaiitt aapppprrooaacchheess hhaavvee ttrriieedd ttoo iiddeennttiiffyy tthhee mmoosstt bbaassiicc
aanndd rreellaattiivveellyy eenndduurriinngg ddiimmeennssiioonnss aalloonngg wwhhiicchh ppeeooppllee
ddiiffffeerr ffrroomm oonnee aannootthheerr----ddiimmeennssiioonnss kknnoowwnn aass ttrraaiittss..
HHooww mmaannyy ttrraaiitt ddiimmeennssiioonnss aarree tthheerree??
HHooww ccaann wwee mmeeaassuurree tthheessee ttrraaiitt ddiimmeennssiioonnss??
WWhheerree ddoo tthheessee ttrraaiitt ddiimmeennssiioonnss oorriiggiinnaattee??

92. + (3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Allport
 AAllllppoorrtt: Most important personality traits are those that
reflect our values.
 AAllllppoorrtt suggested that there are 3 kinds of traits:
• ccaarrddiinnaall: a single personality trait that directs most of a
person’s activities (e.g., greed, lust, kindness).
• cceennttrraall: a set of major characteristics that make up the
core of a person’s personality.
• sseeccoonnddaarryy: less important personality traits that do not
affect behavior as much as central and cardinal traits
do.

93. (3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Eysenck
 HHaannss EEyysseenncckk::
found two (2) major
trait dimensions:
• iinnttrroovveerrssiioonn
vveerrssuuss
eexxttrroovveerrssiioonn
(quiet versus
sociable).
• NNeeuurroottiicciissmm
vveerrssuuss
eemmoottiioonnaall ssttaabbiilliittyy
(moody versus calm).

94. +(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Cattell’s Theory of Personality:
CCaatttteellll’’ss Trait Theory:
Distinguished 3 types of traits:
DDyynnaammiicc..
 AAbbiilliittyy..
 TTeemmppeerraammeenntt..
 Also:
 Surface Traits: Less important to personality.
 Source Traits: More important basic underlying
traits.
CCaatttteellll identified 16 basic traits.
• He developed the 16PF to measure these traits.

95. +(3) Trait Personality Theories (cont):
Recently personality theorists have begun to converge on the
view that there are 5 basic personality dimensions:
 1: emotional stability vveerrssuuss nneeuurroottiicciissmm::
 calm, secure, self-satisfied VS anxious, insecure, self-pitying.
 2: eexxttrraavveerrssiioonn vveerrssuuss iinnttrroovveerrssiioonn::
 sociable, fun-loving, affectionate VS retiring, sober, reserved.
 3: ooppeennnneessss vveerrssuuss cclloossee--mmiinnddeeddnneessss::
 imaginative, independent VS practical, conforming.
 4: aaggrreeeeaabblleenneessss vveerrssuuss ddiissaaggrreeeeaabblleenneessss::
 kind, trusting, helpful VS ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative.
 5: ccoonnsscciieennttiioouussnneessss vveerrssuuss uunnddeeppeennddaabbllee::
 organized, careful, disciplined VS disorganized, careless,
impulsive.

96. +
Five Factor Model of Traits

97. +
Five FactoTrh Me Bodige Fl iovfe Traits
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
• Calm/Anxious
• Secure/Insecure
• Sociable/Retiring
• Fun Loving/Sober
• Imaginative/Practical
• Independent/Conforming
• Soft-Hearted/Ruthless
• Trusting/Suspicious
• Organized/Disorganized
• Careful/Careless

98. + Trait Theories of Personality:
Summary
 TTrraaiittss:
Characteristics or typical ways of acting:
Consistency:
 across situations, over time.
Distinctiveness:
 each personality is unique.
 Explain why individuals behave in certain ways.
How many traits are there, and what are they?
Not easy to answer; little consensus.

99. + Assessing Personality Traits
How can we assess traits?
(aim to simplify a person’s behavior patterns)
Personality IInnvveennttoorriieess
MMMMPPII::
• most widely used personality inventory.
• assess psychological disorders
(not normal traits).
• empirically derived - test items selected based
upon how well they discriminate between
groups of traits.

100. + Do traits exist?
The Trait-Situation  WWaalltteerr MMiisscchheell (1968) argued that: Debate
 Behavior is not consistent across time or situation.
 If no consistency, not much point in arguing for “personality.”
 Thus, “personality” is an illusion.
 SSiittuuaattiioonniissmm::
 Mischel believed that behavior is influenced more by the ssiittuuaattiioonn than
any internal “trait.”
 PPeerrssoonn xx ssiittuuaattiioonn iinntteerraaccttiioonniissmm::
BBootthh (a) internal traits and (b) the situation we are in are important
determinants of behavior.

101. + (4) Social-Cognitive (Learning)
Approaches to
 Source of information aabboouutt ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy:
Personality Theories:
Obtained from experiments, observations of behavior,
and questionnaire responses from the general
population.
 CCaauussee ooff bbeehhaavviioorr,, tthhoouugghhttss,, aanndd ffeeeelliinnggss:
•reciprocal influence between people (cognitions and
behavior) and their environmental situations, colored by
their perceptions of control.
 OOuuttllooookk oonn hhuummaannss:
•neutral: neither positive nor negative.
 CCoommpprreehheennssiivveenneessss ooff tthheeoorryy:
•not very comprehensive.

102. + Social-Cognitive-Learning
Perspective
Behavior learned through
conditioning and observation
What we think about our situation
affects our behavior
Interaction of
Environment and Intellect

103. + Social-Cognitive Personality
Theories:
Social Learning Theory
BBaanndduurraa: Theoretical origins in behaviorism.
Emphasizes the role of learning in personality.
Classical Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning .
Modeling.
 Instead of studying what’s going on inside the person (traits),
study what is going on outside the person (environment).
How does the environment shape personality?

104. + Social-Cognitive Personality
Theories:
Social Learning Theory
 BBaanndduurraa also emphasized the importance of cognition in
personality development.
 People develop a sense of sseellff--eeffffiiccaaccyy:
Our beliefs about our ability to achieve goals.
 Individuals with hhiigghheerr self-efficacy:
 accept greater challenges.
 try harder to meet challenges.
 Bandura also discusses the notion of RReecciipprrooccaall
DDeetteerrmmiinniissmm:
 The individual and the environment continually
influence one another.

105. + Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Reciprocal Determination
PPeerrssoonnaall//
CCooggnniittiivvee
FFaaccttoorrss
BBeehhaavviioorr Environment
FFaaccttoorrss
IInntteerrnnaall WWoorrlldd ++ EExxtteerrnnaall WWoorrlldd == UUss

106. + Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Reciprocal Determination

107. + Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Personal Control
IInntteerrnnaall LLooccuuss ooff CCoonnttrrooll::
You pretty much control your own destiny
EExxtteerrnnaall LLooccuuss ooff CCoonnttrrooll::
Luck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny.
MMeetthhooddss ooff SSttuuddyy::
• CCoorrrreellaattee ffeeeelliinnggss ooff ccoonnttrrooll wwiitthh bbeehhaavviioorr..
• EExxppeerriimmeenntt bbyy rraaiissiinngg//lloowweerriinngg ppeeooppllee’’ss sseennssee ooff
ccoonnttrrooll aanndd nnoottiinngg tthhee ccoonnsseeqquueenncceess aanndd eeffffeeccttss..

108. + Social-Cognitive Personality Theories:
Outcomes of Personal Control
LLeeaarrnneedd HHeellpplleessssnneessss::
Uncontrollable
bad events
Perceived
lack of control
Generalized
helpless behavior
IImmppoorrttaanntt IIssssuueess::
• Nursing Homes
• Prisons
•Colleges

109. +
Comparison of Personality
Theories

110. +
Personality Assessment
 Personality aasssseessssmmeenntt involves the techniques for
systematically gathering information about a person in
order to understand and predict behavior.
GGooaall ooff ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy aasssseessssmmeenntt: to obtain reliable,
valid measures of individual differences that will
permit the accurate prediction of behavior.

111. +
How do we measure “Personality”?
 ((11)) IInntteerrvviieeww:
 Ask the person about themselves.
Obtain information that reveals personality.
 ((22)) BBeehhaavviioorraall OObbsseerrvvaattiioonn:
Watch the individual’s behavior in an actual or simulated
situation.
 PPeerrssoonnaalliittyy TTeessttss:
 ((33)) OObbjjeeccttiivvee tests (questionnaire tests).
 ((44)) PPrroojjeeccttiivvee tests.

112. +
How do we measure personality?
(2) Behavioral assessment
 Behavioral aasssseessssmmeenntt is based on the principles of
learning theory.
BBeehhaavviioorraall aasssseessssmmeenntt employs direct measurement
of behavior to determine the characteristics related to
personality.

113. + How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment
 Objective ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy tteessttss (self-report
questionnaires) present the test taker with a number
of specific items to which she is asked to respond,
either on paper or on a computer screen.
 SSeellff--rreeppoorrtt mmeeaassuurreess ask people about a sample
range of their behaviors.
 These reports are used to infer the presence of
particular personality characteristics.

114. +
How do we measure personality?
(3) Objective Test Assessment
 Examples of objective ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy mmeeaassuurreess::
 the MMPI (the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory).
 the 16 PF (the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire).
 the NEO-PI (the NEO Personality Inventory).
 The most commonly used self-report measure is the
MMiinnnneessoottaa MMuullttiipphhaassiicc PPeerrssoonnaalliittyy IInnvveennttoorryy ((MMMMPPII--
22)), designed to differentiate people with specific
sorts of psychological difficulties from normal
individuals.

115. + Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI-2)
Most widely used personality instrument.
Used in clinical and employment settings.
MMPI-2 Has several different scales ((mmuullttiipphhaassiicc))..
MMPI sample items:
 ‘I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting
(FALSE) = Depression.
 ‘I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear’
(TRUE) = Schizophrenia.
Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest
a problem:
 Extreme suspiciousness may indicate paranoia.

116. + How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment
 A projective ppeerrssoonnaalliittyy tteesstt is one in which the subject
is given an ambiguous stimulus and asked to respond
spontaneously.
 pictures or inkblots.
No clear answer.
 The ambiguous stimulus allows test takers to project
their own needs, dreams, feelings into their response.
 The observer’s responses to the stimulus are then used
to infer information about the observer’s personality.

117. +
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment (continued)
 All pprroojjeeccttiivvee tteessttss are based on the projective hypothesis
which states that the individual's response to an
ambiguous stimulus represents a projection of his or her
own inner, often unconscious, feelings and needs.
 Indirect method of personality assessment:
 Based on ppssyycchhooaannaallyyttiicc aassssuummppttiioonnss:
 Personality is mostly unconscious.
 People are unaware of contents of unconscious.

118. +
How do we measure personality?
(4) Projective Test Assessment (continued):
 The 2 most frequently used projective tests are:
• the RRoorrsscchhaacchh: reactions to inkblots are employed to
classify personality types.
• the TThheemmaattiicc AAppppeerrcceeppttiioonn TTeesstt ((TTAATT)): stories about
ambiguous pictures are used to draw inferences about
the storyteller’s personality.

119. +
Rorschach Inkblot Test
 Most popular projective technique.
Respond to inkblot: ““WWhhaatt ccoouulldd tthhiiss bbee??””

120. +
THE END