1. Lecture Notes - Week 10
Learning - Chapter 14
TYPES OF LEARNING
1) Perceptual learning – ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been
seen before
 Primary function is to identify and categorize objects and situations
 Changes within the sensory systems of the brain
2) Stimulus-response learning – ability to learn to perform a particular
behavior when a certain stimulus is present
 Establishment of connections between sensory systems and motor systems
 Classical conditioning – association between two stimuli
o Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR),
Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)
o Hebb rule – if a synapse repeatedly becomes active at about the same
time that the postsynaptic neuron fires, changes will take place in the
structure or chemistry of the synapse that will strengthen it (see Figure
14.1)
o Rabbit experiment – tone paired with puff of air
 Instrumental conditioning – association between a response and a stimulus;
allows an organism to adjust its behavior according to the consequences of that
behavior
o Reinforcement – positive and negative
o Punishment
3) Motor learning – establishment of changes within the motor system
4) Relational learning – involves connections between different areas of the
association cortex
5) Spatial learning – involves learning about the relations among many stimuli
6) Episodic learning – remembering sequences of events that we witness
7) Observational learning – learning by watching and imitation other people
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION

2.  long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input
caused by repeated high-frequency activity of that input
 hippocampal formation - specialized region of the limbic cortex located in the
temporal lobe. It contains:
o entorhinal cortex whose axons grow toward the dentate gyrus, forming
the perforant path
o dentate gyrus projects to pyramidal cells in CA3
o pyramidal cells project both to CA1 and to basal forebrain
 associative long-term potentiation - produced by association in time between
2 sets of synapses; weaker strengthens after being paired with stronger synapse
 series of pulses delivered at a high rate all in one burst will produce long-term
potentiation, but not the same number of pulses given at a slow rate
o there are aftereffects which serve to prime future pulses by depolarizing
the postsynaptic membrane
o long-term potentiation requires two events:
1. activation of synapses
1. depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron
 NMDA receptors - type of glutamate receptor, critical in long-term
potentiation
o found in hippocampus, mostly CA1
o controls a calcium ion channel which normally is blocked by a
magnesium ion
o even the channel is stimulated by glutamate, calcium ions can’t get past
the magnesium
o but, if the membrane is depolarized, then the magnesium is ejected and
the channel can admit calcium ions
o therefore, need both glutamate and depolarization to admit calcium
o calcium is critical for long-term potentiation - both necessary and
sufficient
 entry of calcium activates some calcium dependent enzymes
1) protein kinase C (PKC) - normally in
cytoplasm, activated by calcium to increase
synaptic transmission
2) CaM-KII - when activated by calcium it
remains active even after calcium is gone,
until deactivated by another enzyme

3. 3) tyrosine kinase - also plays a role in long-
term potentiation
o nitric oxide - soluble gas used as a messenger in various parts of the
body
 produced by nitric oxide synthase in postsynaptic cell,
communicates with presynaptic terminal buttons - retrograde
effect
o dendritic "spikes" - what are they? How do they happen? Why are they
significant?
AMPA receptors - control sodium channels - involved once long-term potentiation
has occurred
Long-term depression - low-frequency stimulation of the synaptic inputs to a cell
can decrease their strength; opposite of Hebb rule - weak synapses not associated with
strong ones become weaker
PERCEPTUAL LEARNING
 Involves learning about things, not what to do when they are present
 Simple perceptual learning, recognizing stimuli, takes place in appropriate
regions of sensory association cortex
1) Visual Learning
 inferior temporal cortex - necessary for visual pattern discrimination, receives
info from visual cortex
 ventral/dorsal streams - what and where
 delayed matching-to-sample task - requires that stimulus be remembered for
a period of time
o "remembering" the stimulus involves a neuronal circuit; it is the circuits,
not the individual neurons that recognize particular stimuli
o lesions of inferior temporal cortex disrupts an animal’s ability to
remember what it has just seen
o electrical stimulation of the inferior temporal cortex during the delay
causes forgetting
 responses of single neurons in inferior temporal cortex recorded when pairs of
stimuli shown
o found that when stimuli are paired, the neural circuits responsible for
recognizing them become linked together
o perception of either stimulus activates both circuits

4.  visual long-term memory involves the establishment of new circuits in the
inferior temporal cortex by means of synaptic changes
2) Auditory Learning
 auditory learning tasks modify response characteristics of neurons in various
parts of the auditory system
o study pairing tones with shock
 pretraining, neuron responds best to 9.5 Hz tone
 CS is 9-Hz tone, paired with shock
 after training, neuron now responds best to 9-Hz tone, and less to
9.5 Hz
 medial division of the medial geniculate nucleus (MGm) - important for
classically conditioned emotional responses
o receives info from auditory and somatosensory systems
o directly connected to the central nucleus of the amygdala
o which activates the nucleus basalis
o nucleus basalis contains acetylcholine neurons which innervate auditory
cortex, telling it to pay particular attention to the ventral division of the
medial geniculate nucleus (conveys auditory information)
S-R LEARNING
1) Classical Conditioning
 central nucleus of the amygdala involved in classically-conditioned emotional
responses
 see figure 14.29 -MGm eceives auditory and somatosensory info
 pairing of tone and footshock increases responses to CS
 extinction - somehow, NMDA receptors again involved - most likely due to
long-term depression
2) Instrumental Conditioning and Motor Learning
 2 pathways exist between sensory association cortex and motor association
cortex:
1) direct trascortical connections - short-term memory, and with
hippocampus involved in episodic memory
2) via basal ganglia and thalamus - used once no longer "new" learning;
Parkinson's example

5.  premotor cortex - monkeys raising arms for food; humans learning motor task
 reinforcement:
 reinforcing brain stimulation discovered by Olds and Milner in 1954
 medial forebrain bundle - best place for self-stimulation; also involved in
natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or sex
 dopamine - likely serves as a neuromodulator, involved in reinforcement -
receptors in nucleus accumbens
o conditioned place preference - animals prefer to be where they have
encountered a reinforcing stimulus
o this process used to test influence of dopamine on reinforcement
o if given dopamine antagonist during place training, don’t develop
conditioned place preference
o also involved in negative reinforcement - dopamine antagonists prevent
avoidance learning
o amphetamine is a dopamine agonist - animals will work to get injections
of it
 drug discrimination procedure - train animals to press a certain
lever to receive food after it has been given a drug and to press
another lever after it has been given saline
 found that rats would press drug lever only if amphetamine put
directly into nucleus accumbens, rather than other brain structure
 they pushed the saline lever if they also had been given a
dopamine receptor blocker with the amphetamine into the nucleus
accumbens
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM
 must be able to first detect and then respond to reinforcement opportunities
 ventral tegmentum area - reinforcing stimuli activate neurons here, which
they stimulate release of dopamine in other systems
o neurons activated by both natural and conditioned reinforcers
o information received from 3 sites:
1) amygdala - involved in detection of CS for
reinforcement - if monkeys trained that food follows a
visual stimulus, then amygdala lesioned, the monkey
forgets the association
2) lateral hypothalamus - neurons become active when
monkeys see food, but only when hungry - neurons show
sensory-specific satiety; activity related to presence of
reinforcing stimuli

6. 3) prefrontal cortex - secretes excitatory glutamate, which
triggers bursts of dopamine to be released from neurons in
the ventral tegmental area into the nucleus accumbens; may
serve as monitor for reinforcement-seeking activity
 a reinforcement system is required by instrumental conditioning
1) discriminative stimulus activates weak synapse
2) circumstance that causes animal to press lever activates a strong
synapse
3) if behavior is reinforced, then neurotransmitter/neuromodulator
released (dopamine), causing synaptic changes, strengthening weak
synapses
DOMAINS OF LEARNINGS
Cognitive Domain
Cognitive Domain - This domain includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing intellectual abilities and
skills. There are six major categories, starting from the simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex
(Evaluation). The University of Washington's Geography Department website Major Categories in the
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives has a detailed explanation of Bloom's Six Levels of Cognitive
Development (more info)
Affective Domain
Affective Domain- How does one approach learning? With confidence, a can do attitude. The Affective
domain includes feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The University of
Dayton, School of Law Affective Domain website describes each catagory in the domain and provides
illustrative examples and keywords for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Psychomotor Domain
Psychomotor Domain- The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. For a more detailed treatment of this domain see the Penn
State Teaching and Learning with Technology websitePsychomotor Domain Taxonomy (more info)
Connecting Learning and Assessment
To see how assessments are built from these domains of learning and to learn how to
build effective assessments go to the Hallmarks of Effective Assessment page.
Resources

7. Bloom Benjamin S. and David R. Krathwohl. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners.
Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York, Longmans, Green, 1956.
Ang morpolohiya ay ang sangay ng linggwistika na nag-aaral ng morpema (morpheme) o ang
pinakamaliit na yunit ng tunog na may kahuluguhan. Pinag-aaralan dito ang sistema ng
pagsasalansan ng mga morpema upang makabuo ng salita na may payak o kumplikadong
kahulugan. Ang mga morpema ay maaaring isang buong salita, panlapi, artikulo, o metalinggwistikal
na yunit ng kahulugan tulad ng intonasyon at stress o diin.
Kayarian ng salita
May apat na kayarian ng mga salita. Ito ang mga sumusunod:
1. payak - salitang-ugat
2. maylapi - salitang-ugat at may panlapi
3. inuulit - kapag ang salitang-ugat ay inuulit
4. tambalang-salita - dalawang magkaibang salitang pinagsama upang makabuo ng bagong
kahulugan
Mga halimbawa ng tambalang salita at mga kahulugan nito
1. Taingang-kawali- taong nagbibingi-bingihan
2. Ingat-yaman - tresyurera o tresyurero, tagapag-ingat ng salapi o ari-arian ng isang tao o
organisasyon
3. Matapobre - mapagmataas, malupit, mapangmata sa mga mahihirap
4. Patay-gutom - timawa, palaging gutom, matakaw
5. Hampaslupa - mahirap, pobre, pulubi
6. Akyat-bahay - magnanakaw, mang-uumit sa bahay ng iba
7. Boses-palaka - pangit kumanta, sintunado o wala sa tono
8. Ningas-kugon - sinisimulan ang isang Gawain ngunit hindi tinatapos
9. Nakaw-tingin - pag-sulyap sa isang tao na hindi niya nalalaman
10.Agaw-pansin - madaling makakuha ng pansin o atensiyon, takaw-pansin, agaw-eksena
11.Sirang-plaka - paulit-ulit ang sinasabi
12.Takip-silim - mag-gagabi, pagitan ng hapon at gabi
13.Bukang-liwayway - mag-uumaga, pagitan ng ng umaga at madaling-araw

8. 14.Madaling-araw - pagitan ng hatinggabi at bukang-liwayway
15.Hatinggabi - eksaktong alas dose ng gabi, pagitan ng gabi at madaling-araw
16.Tanghaling-tapat - eksaktong alas dose ng umaga, pagitan ng umaga at hapon
17.Balat-sibuyas - maramdamin, madaling masaktan
18.Likas-yaman - pinagkukunang yaman na nanggagaling sa kalikasan
19.Tubig-alat - tubig na nanggagaling sa dagat o karagatan
20.Tubig-tabang - tubig na nanggagaling sa mga ilog, lawa at ibang maliit na bahagi ng tubig
21.Hanap-buhay - trabahong kailangan ng mga tao.
Ang Morpolohiya at ang Morpema
MORPOLOHIYA
Ang morpolohiya ay ang pag-aaral ng mga morpema ng isang wika at ngpagsasama-sama ng
mga ito upang makabuo ng salita. Anupa’t kung ang ponolohiya ay tungkol sa pag-aaral ng set ng
mga tunog na bumubuo ng mga salita sa isang wika, ang morpolohiya ay ang pag-aaral sa pagbuo
ng mga salita sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang morpema.
Katuturan ng Morpema
Galing ang salitang morpema sa katagang morpheme sa Ingles na kinuha naman sa salitang
Griyego – morph (anyo o yunit) + eme (kahulugan). Sa payak na kahulugan, ay ang pinakamaliit na
yunit ng isang salita na nagtataglay ng kahulugan. Ang ibig sabihin ng pinakamaliit na yunit ay
yunit na hindi na maaari pang mahati nang hindi masisira ang kahulugan nito. Ang morpema ay
maaaring isang salitang-ugat o isang panlapi. Ang lahat ng mga morpemang mababanggit ay dapat
na ikulong sa { }.
Ang salitang makahoy, halimbawa ay may dalawang morpema: (1) ang unlaping {ma-} at ang
salitang-ugat na {kahoy}. Taglay ng unlaping {ma-} ang kahulugang “marami ng isinasaad ng
salitang-ugat”. Sa halimbawang salitang makahoy, maaaring masabing ang ibig sabihin nito’y
“maraming kahoy”. Ang salitang ugat na kahoy ay nagtataglay rin ng sariling kahulugan. Ito ay
hindi na mahahati pa sa lalong maliliit na yunit namay kahulugan. Ang ka at hoy, ay mga pantig

9. lamang na walang kahulugan. May pantig na panghalip na ka sa Filipino, gayundin naman ng
pantawag na hoy, ngunit malayo na ang kahulugan ng mga ito sa salitang kahoy.
Samantala, pansinin ang salitang babae, bagamat may tatlo ring pantig na tulad ng mabait, ay
binubuo lamang ng iisang morpema. Hindi na ito mahahati pa sa maliit na yunit o bahagi nang
hindi masisira ang kahulugan. Hindi morpema ang mga sumusunod na maaaring makuha sa babae:
be, e, baba, bae, bab, aba, abab, at ab. Maaaring maibigay tayong kahulugan sa baba at aba
ngunitgaya ng naipaliwanag na, malayo na ang kahulugan ng mga ito sa babae.
Uri ng Morpema
May dalawang uri ng morpema ayon sa kahulugan. Makikita ito sa halimbawang
pangungusap sa ibaba.
Magaling sumayaw si Rik kaya siya ay nanalo sa dance olympic.
1. Mga morpemang may kahulugang leksikal. Ito ang mga morpemang tinatawag ding pangnilalaman
pagkat may kahulugan sa ganang sarili. Ito ay nangangahulugan na ang morpema ay nakakatayo ng
mag-isa sapagkat may angkin siyang kahulugan na hindi na nangangailangan ng iba pang salita.
Halimbawa sa pangungusap sa itaas, ang mga salitang magaling, sumayaw, Rik, siya, nanalo, dance
at olympic ay nakakatayo nang mag-isa dahil nauunawaan kung ano ang kanilang mga kahulugan.
Kabilang sa uring ito ang mga salitang pangngalan, pandiwa, pang-uri at mga pang-abay. Tulad ng
mga sumusunod:
Pangngalan: Rik, dance, olympic, aso, tao, paaralan, kompyuter
Panghalip: siya, kayo, tayo, sila, ako, ikaw, atin, amin, ko, mo
Pandiwa: sumayaw, nanalo, mag-aral, kumakanta, naglinis
Pang-uri: banal, maligaya, palaaway, balat-sibuyas, marami
Pang-abay: magaling, kahapon, kanina, totoong maganda, doon

10. 2. Mga Morpemang may kahulugang pangkayarian. Ito ang mga morpemang walang kahulugan sa
ganang sarili at kailangang makita sa isang kayarian o konteksto upang maging makahulugan. Ito
ang mga salitang nangangailangan ng iba pang mga salita upang mabuo ang kanilang gamit sa
pangungusap. Tulad ng halimbawang pangungusap sa itaas, ang mga salitang si, kaya, ay at sa ay
hindi makikita ang kahulugan at gamit nito sa pangungusap kung wala pang ibang salitang kasama.
Ngunit ang mga salitang ito ay malaking papel na ginagampanan dahil ang mga ito ay
nagpapalinaw sa kahulugan ng pangungusap. Hindi naman maaaring sabihing,Magaling sumayaw
Rik siya nanalo dance olympic. Kasama sa uring ito ang mga sumusunod:
Pang-angkop: na, -ng
Pangatnig: kaya, at, o saka, pati
Pang-ukol: sa, tungkol sa/kay, ayon sa/kay
Pananda: ay, si, ang, ng, sina, ni/nina, kay/kina
Anyo ng Morpema
May tatlong anyo ang morpema. Makikilala ang mga morpemang ito batay sa kanyang anyo
o porma. Ito ay maaaring ayon sa mga sumusunod:
1. Morpemang ponema. Ito ay ang paggamit ng makahulugang tunog o ponema sa Filipino na
nagpapakilala ng gender o kasarian. Oo, isang ponema lamang ang binabanggit ngunit malaking
faktor ito upang mabago ang kahulugan ng isang salita. Halimbawa ng salitang propesor at
propesora. Nakikilala ang pagkakaibang ito sa pamamagitan ng {-a} sa pusisyong pinal ng
ikalawang salita. Ang ponemang /a/ ay makahulugang yunit na nagbibigay ng kahulugang
“kasariang pambabae.” Samakatwid, ito ay isang morpema. Ang salitang propesora ay binubuo ng
dalawang morpema: {propesor} at {-a}. Iba pang halimbawa:
Doktora - {doktor} at {-a}
Senyora - {senyor} at {-a}
Plantsadora - {plantsador} at {-a}
Kargadora - {kargador} at {-a}

11. Senadora - {senador} at {-a}
Ngunit hindi lahat ng mga salitang may inaakalang morpemang {-a} na ikinakabit ay may
morpema na. Tulad ng salitang maestro na naging maestra. Ang mga salitang ito ay binubuo
lamang ng tig-iisang morpema, {maestro} at {maestra}. Ang mga ponemang {-o} at {-a} na ikinakabit
ay hindi mga morpema. Dahil wala naman tayong mga salitang {maestr} at sasabihing morpemang
{-o} at {-a} ang ikinakabit dahil nagpapakilala ng kasariang panlalaki at ganoon din sa pambabae.
Tulad din ng sumusunod na mga salita na may iisang morpema lamang:
bombero - na hindi {bomber} at {-o} o {-a}
kusinero - na hindi {kusiner} at {-o} o {-a}
abugado - na hindi {abugad} at (-o} o {-a}
Lito - na hindi {lit} at {-o} o {-a}
Mario - na hindi {mari} at {-o} at {-a}
2. Morpemang salitang-ugat (su). Ang mga morpemang binubuo ng salitang-ugat ay mga salitang
payak, mga salitang walang panlapi. Tulad nito:
tao silya druga payong jet
pagod tuwa pula liit taas
basa laro aral kain sulat
3. Morpemang Panlapi. Ito ang mga morpemang ikinakabit sa salitang-ugat. Ang mga panlapi ay may
kahulugang taglay, kaya’t bawat isa ay isang morpema. Halimbawa, ang panlaping {um-}/{-um-} ay
may kahulugan “pagganap sa kilos na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat. Sa pandiwang umaawit, ang {um-
} ay nangangahulugang “gawin o ginawa ang kilos ng pag-awit. Tulad ng mga sumusunod:
mag-ina - {mag-} at {ina}
maganda - {ma-} at {ganda}
magbasa - {mag-} at {basa}

12. bumasa - {-um-} at {basa}
aklatan - {-an} at {aklat}
pagsumikapan - {pag-, -um-, -an} at {sikap}