The Neurons Behind Neurotransmission

The Neurons Behind Neurotransmission
The Neurons Behind Neuroscience and Neurotransmission.
Think about the little things you do daily, such as yawning, blinking and even answering your
phone. Without being aware, it is our neurons that help us to essentially accomplish these tasks.
Take the latter example of answering your phone, for instance. Consider the scenario that you are in
a psychology class and your phone is on the desk. Suddenly, music fills the room and there are loud
vibrations originating from your phone. Quickly, your senses kick in and your mind is full of
questions. Should I answer? Who is calling? Is it important? But like almost everyone, the natural
tendency to answer your phone presents itself and you reach for your phone and answer it, to stop
the distraction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This simple action is made possible by the functioning of many neurons that help to send
information to parts of the body. The ringing of the phone causes a change in the sound of the
environment. This change is called the stimulus and it directly causes the receptor organs to
respond. In this case, both your eyes and ears are receptors, since your eyes detect the light on your
phone's screen and the sound from the phone is detected by your ears. However, the ears play the
more important role in this scenario. The sound from the phone travels in sounds waves at a
frequency that is detectable by the ears. As the sound moves into the ear via the air canal, the
eardrum begins to move and vibrate. The vibrations pass the ossicles and causes the fluid in the
cochlea to move. These movements result in the bending of hair that initiates the transmission of
neural signals along the auditory nerve to the
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Informative Speech On Neurons
Topic: Neuron
General Purpose: To inform
Specific purpose: To enlighten the audience about the fundamentals on neurons
Thesis: With it being a prime interest in the neuroscientist field, the neuron has not ceased the title
of being a highly needed organism in our existence, and we have yet to unravel many unknown
questions about it.
Introduction:
A. attention getter: Your body comprises copious quantities of nervous system cells referred to as
neurons. This numerous supply of them can be up to trillions, where about 100 billion inhibit the
brain itself. "The number of ways information travels in the human brain is greater than the number
of stars in the universe" conveys faculty.washington.edu. Neurons are divergent from other ... Show
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Webspace.ship.edu mentions, " The action potential travels at a rate of 1.2 to 250 miles per hour!".
3. Vesicles emerge at the time the action potential comes to the axon ending, this causes tiny bubbles
of chemicals which are the vesicles themselves, these transpire so contents can be discharged into
the synaptic gap.
a. The bubbles of chemicals are neurotransmitters, that cruise through the synaptic gap to the
following neuron, locating a certain places on the cell membrane of the receptor sites or anticipating
neuron.
b. A passageway for ions opens when a neurotransmitter and receptor congregate, shifting the
balance of ions on the extrinsic and interior of the next neuron, and afterwards the entire process
initiates again.
c. Some neurotransmitters are exhilarating––they excite the following neuron––while others are the
antithetical or inhibitory neurotransmitters, because these opposites dwell, excitatory
neurotransmitters have an arduous time generating an effect.

Transition: You know how it all works now so let's go to the gap in this explanation and see what
this neuron is next to your other classic

Neuron Synthesis
The papers Integrating the molecular and cellular basis of odor coding in the Drosophila antenna
and The receptors and coding logic for bitter taste try to understand how sensory neurons interacting
with chemicals produce the sensation of smell or taste in the brain. With chemosensation, a
chemical molecule binds to a receptor neuron, where transduction occurs. An action potential can be
generated which can travel along interneurons until it reaches the brain, which can process the
information and perceive a specific smell or taste. While all the steps from reception to perception
are important, both papers focus on receptor neurons and their role in chemosensation. Integrating
the molecular and cellular basis of odor coding in the Drosophila antenna looks at mapping the
olfactory system using Drosophila as a model organism. Or genes encode olfactory receptor neurons
(ORNs) which map to a neuron class. The neuron projects to a specific glomerulus, and the signal
eventually gets to the brain. This paper demonstrates three methods of mapping a receptor to a
neuron and odor and uses them to show that Or22a receptor maps to the ab3A neuron and that
Or47a receptor maps to the ab5B neuron. Dobritsa et al. also found ... Show more content on
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Beyond that, however, these papers are not explicit in describing the importance and application of
chemosensation research, especially the paper using Drosophila. In most cases, animal models are
used to understand processes within humans, but
Dobritsa et al. acknowledge two important differences between human and Drosophila olfactory
systems – that axonal pathfinding of ORNs to glomeruli occur at different life cycle stages and that
the number of ORNs in glomeruli differ by more than an order of magnitude. Question arise about
how much of the insight gained from these papers can be extended to humans as well as other
sensory

Neuron Communication In The Brain
The brain contains billions of neurons (cells) that carry out communication throughout the nervous
system in order to function. Each neuron also produces neurotransmitters (messenger molecules)
that are released by the neuron and may affect the adjacent neurons. When a nerve cell is activated,
this produces an impulse which starts in the body, passes along the axon, and ends in the terminal
bouton. This causes the release of the neurotransmitters into the synapse, therefore a 'message' has
been released into the synapse creating 'communication.' Keeping this basic information in mind,
many things can go wrong at the cellular level during this process.
Production of neurotransmitters are inhibited causing a 'neural malfunction'. In an Alzheimer's

Early Childhood Neuron Essay
The development of the brain during infancy and toddlerhood is rapid and critical to the brain's
ultimate functioning level.
The cells that make up the nervous system and most of the brain are neurons. They are responsible
for sending messages and information throughout the entire body. As the embryo develops, neurons
begin forming in the neural tube, and ultimately branch out to create the foundation of the brain.
Neurons differ from other types of body cells because they don't bond with or touch each other.
Instead, they are separated by gaps named synapses. In these gaps, neurotransmitters are released,
which are the chemicals that are responsible for the delivery of a message to the next neuron. (Berk,
2014).
In the prenatal period, neurons and synapses are mass–produced, more than necessary for brain
function. In infancy, the brain begins to consider stimulation in deciding which neurons stay and go.
Both programmed cell death, which is when existing neurons die to make room for the emerging
ones, and synaptic pruning, when neuron synapses become inactive after lack of use, are examples
of these brain adaptations. (Berk, 2014).
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This region is responsible for several skills that infants acquire as they age. Various parts of the
cortex begin to grow as these skills develop, and become more refined. The cerebral cortex is
divided into two hemispheres, and both have specific roles and functions, a concept called
lateralization. For example, the right hemisphere is most often associated with more hostile
emotions and visual abilities, while the left hemisphere is more commonly associated with positive
emotions and verbal recognition. The brain is also very flexible and receptive to learning, making it
a very plastic organ. Brain plasticity measures the brain's ability to not only be open to learning, but
also to take on tasks that injured brain parts can no longer perform. (Berk,

Describe The Role Of Neurons In The Brain
2.0 Introduction
The human nervous system consists of highly specialised cells called neurons. They transmit signals
via chemical substances named neurotransmitters from one location to another across neuronal
synapses (1–3). Neurotransmitters are stored in a vesicle prior to their release into synaptic cleft to
activate the next population of neurons. Individual vesicle is capable of releasing neurotransmitter
that exceeds the amount needed by the post–synaptic receptor (1). There are two main classes of
neurotransmitters, named excitatory and inhibitory depending on their activity on the neurons.
Neurons in the brain can be directly or indirectly influenced by each neurotransmitter, thus affecting
behavioural response of an individual. One ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A number of literature has covered the biomedical applications of CPs as neural interface (29, 36,
39–49) and neural prosthetic (50–58). CPs are characterised by their alternating single and double
bonds along the polymer backbone. They can be synthesised via chemical method or
electrochemical polymerisation using anions. During oxidation, electron is removed from the
polymer. This will cause the polymer to be electron–deficient and left with a positive charge.
Negatively–charged immobilised counter–ions are incorporated into the polymer to compensate the
charge and to make the polymer

Model Neurons
Have you ever wondered why we're able to flex our muscles? Or maybe, how to we have the ability
to memorize information? These questions can be answered simply, neurons. Neurons are special
cells that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscles or gland cells. Neurons take up, process,
and transmit information through electrical and chemical signals. The basic neuron is made up of
three parts, the cell body, axons, and dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus in which all
genetic material and organelles (golgi body, mitochondria, etc.) is carried. Dendrites are short
branched extensions that come out from the cell body. Theses branches bring in electrical signals
into the body. Axons are long and thread like, they take info away ... Show more content on
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A group of neurological disorders that destroy motor neurons are called Motor Neuron Diseases
(MND). One MND you might recognize is Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or
Lou Gehrig's disease). ALS is caused by the death of neurons; the nerve cells break down which
reduces the ability to function. Because the motor neuron has died, the brain cannot initiate and
control the muscles. With voluntary muscle action progressively affected, people may lose the
ability to speak, eat, move and breathe. There are many more MNDs like primary lateral sclerosis,
progressive muscular atrophy, progressive bulbar palsy, and pseudobulbar

Nervous System: A Neuron Study
My project had explained detail in Nervous system and also part of brain .Already i mentioned the
title NS because of related with daily life .Neuron science is the field of science that focuses on the
study of the Nervous system. Nervous system consists of Brain ,spinal cord ,sensory organs, and all
of the nerves that connect the organs with the rest of the body. Together these organs are responsible
for the control of the body and communication among its parts .The brain and spinal cord form the
control part known as CNS , when information evaluated and made decision. Nervous system has
two components. A.CNS B. (peripheral nervous systems) CNS–is a part of Nervous system made up
of Brain and Spinal Cord. Peripheral nervous system – Is a part ... Show more content on
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and heat message to the brain. The brain sends message through the spinal cord and nervous of the
peripheral nervous system to control the movement of the muscle and the function of internal organ
.The function of the brain to extent level of centralized of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the
body generating patterns of muscle activity and dividing the secreat of chemical called hormones.
This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated response to change environment . Cerebrum
Cerebrum is a largest part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex of the two cerebral hemisphere
called Lobes. The frontal lobe,parietal lobe, Occipital lobe and Temporal lobe as well as several sub
cortical structure including the Hippocampus ,Basal ganglia and Olfactory bulb. Cerebrum is a large
,folded mass of nervous tissue that makes up the majority of the human brain. Each cerebral
hemisphere is farther subdivided in to 4 lobes that are identify for the covering bones of the
cranium. Frontal lobe is most anterior region of the cerebrum that extends posterior to the central
sulcus

Motor Neuron Muscle Force
A motor unit is made up of a motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it supplies depending on its
size. The motor neuron controls the amount of force that is exerted by muscle fibers. There are two
principles that control the relationship between motor neuron and muscle force, the size principle
and rate coding. The size principle decides which motor units are recruited first. For example,
recruitment is seen in larger muscles that have mixed fiber types such as the latissimus dorsi. Rate
coding, which is also referred as motor unit firing rate, allows muscles to generate greater tension
forces by producing high frequencies at which the signals are sent to the muscles telling them to
contract. As the intensity of stimulus increases, the firing

Causes And Function Of Neuron
Neurons are highly polarized cells with specific morphology linked to their func–tional role. The
long, single axon, multiple short dendrites and the tiny neurites that decorate their surface
collectively give the neuron its distinctive shape. These regions of the neuron serve as sub–cellular
compartments with local regulation that accounts for important neural phenomena like learning and
memory formation. The dynamic nature of neuronal morphology makes it one of the aspects of
neuronal function that can be tuned by modulators of synaptic activity.
The sciatic nerve injury model has been used extensively to study the role of various factors in
promoting axonogenesis after injury. Using a conditional knockout of Dicer, earlier it has ... Show
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Acute loss of miR–132, engineered through the use of steriotactic injection of cre–expressing
retrovirus in the mouse brain, resulted in reduced dendrite length, branching, and spine density
(Magill et al., 2010).
Neurites include both axons and dendrites, especially in the undifferentiated stage.
Dendrites are covered with bulb–like membranous projections, of distinct shapes like stubby,
mushroom and thin. These structures segregate a region of the cytoplasm with the necessary factors
for local translation of mRNAs. Some microRNAs are found in the spine while some others alter the
dendritic spine density on over–expression or down–regulation. The activity of these miRNAs then
leads to the stabilization or eviction of mRNAs that are critical to the strengthening of synapses and
eventually modify the connectivity of the neuron. One of the earliest miRNAs reported to affect
dendritic spine density is miR–134. Schratt et al. showed that miR–134 was localized to the
dendritic spine. Neurons over–expressing miR–134 had thinner, smaller spines, with less volume
(Fiore et al., 2008; Schratt et al., 2006). Using brain–derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to
increase the spine density and volume, it has been shown that sev–eral mRNAs gets translationally
modulated during dendritogenesis. Amongst these, the Lim–domain–containing protein kinase 1
(Limk1) which regulates actin

Neurons
The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell–the neuron (sometimes
called "neurone" or "nerve cell"). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of
ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via synapses,
which are membrane–to–membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid
transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess an axon, a
protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic
contacts. Axons frequently travel through the body in bundles called nerves.
Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of
neurons ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the human brain, it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of
neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas. Among the most important functions
of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to
insulate neurons electrically; to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons; and to provide
guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets.
A very important type of glial cell (oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, and Schwann
cells in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called myelin that wraps
around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials
much more rapidly and efficiently. The nervous system of vertebrate animals (including humans) is
divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The
spinal cavity contains the spinal cord, while the head contains the brain. The CNS is enclosed and
protected by meninges, a three–layered system of membranes, including a tough, leathery outer
layer called the dura mater. The brain is also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord by the

Presynaptic Neuron Research Paper
Neurotransmission also known as synaptic transmission is a process of communication between the
neurons in the nervous system. It is a process in which signaling molecules like neurotransmitters
are released by neurons. Neurons are connected to one another. They receive information from other
neurons through synapses and process this information and then send it as an output to other
neurons. This is called a neural network, a group of neurons through which information flows from
one neuron to other neuron. There are two types of neurons, the presynaptic neuron and the
postsynaptic neuron. Presynaptic neuron is the neuron that lies before the synapse and transmits the
information across the synapse to another neuron. The neuron that receives the information from
presynaptic neuron is known as postsynaptic neuron. The process of this transmission between
neighboring synapses is very well organized, but it is quite different for transmission that is
mediated by neuropeptides and nitric oxide. Before knowing the process behind ... Show more
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In the figure, glutamate is released from presynaptic neuron and it binds to a receptor on the
postsynaptic neuron. This process causes the opening of Ca2+ influx, which leads to the activation
of nitric oxide synthase. When NO is released it diffuses into the environment and interacts with
presynaptic membrane. NOS production is dependent on Ca2+ influx. It is also dependent on
cofactors such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), flavin adenine
mononucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN). These cofactors are essential in the
process of transfer of electrons that produce NO. Due to NO's short lifetime it is very difficult to
measure the production directly. However, it can be measured indirectly though the correlation
between Ca2+ and NOS. The details of NO's role in modulating cellular process in the nervous
system are ignorant and need future

Motor Neuron Disease
Motor neuron disease This week I chose an article about motor neuron disease because this disease
is not a common disease. However, it can severely affect the well–being of our bodies. A motor
neuron disease is the deterioration of motor neurons. This disease can be occasional or hereditary; it
can affect two types of motors, the Upper motor neurons the Lower motor neurons located in our
brain. Moreover, the signs and the symptoms of a motor neuron disease depend on the kind of motor
neuron disease a person has. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is one of the most contracted types of
neurons disease. Furthermore, there are three types of Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis including
Sporadic, Familial, and Western Pacific. Among these three types

Motor Unit Of A Single Motor Neuron
Motor unit consists of a single motor neuron together with skeletal muscle fibres that are innervated
by the motor neuron. Alpha motor neurons are the lower motor neurons of the brainstem and spinal
cord that predominate within motor pools and innervate muscle fibres that cause muscle contraction.
A single alpha motor neuron can innervate a large number of skeletal muscle fibres since motor
neuron (approximately 420,000) are outnumbered by muscle fibres (approximately 200 million).
This is achieved by the branching of a single motor axon in the muscle to synapse on numerous
distinct fibres that are well spread over a large area within the muscle so the contractile force would
scatter uniformly.
Motor units are sorted according to speed of contractions, amount of tension generated and fatigue
resistance. In human, there is one slow–twitch fibre and two types of fast–twitch fibres. Therefore,
the three principal types of motor units are slow (S, type–I) motor units, fast fatigable (FF, type–IIB)
motor units and fast fatigue–resistant (FR, type–IIA) motor units.
'Red' muscles are innervated by small motor neuron of the S type and the muscles slowly contract
producing fairly minute force compared to the fast–twitch fibres because S has small and few
contractile filaments. S motor unit has large amount of mitochondria and sufficient blood supply to
maintain aerobic metabolism because of extensive network of capillaries. Moreover, they are rich of
myoglobin that stores oxygen

Physics of Neurons Essay
The human nervous system is divided into two parts, the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system, CNS, is just the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system, PNS, includes the nerves and neurons that extend outwards from CNS, to transmit
information to your limbs and organs for example. Communication between your cells is extremely
important, neurons are the messengers that relay information to and from your brain.
Nerve cells generate electrical signals to transmit information. Neurons are not necessarily
intrinsically great electrical conductors, however, they have evolved specialized mechanisms for
propagating signals based on the flow of ions across their membranes.
In their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dendrites are the primary target for synaptic input from other neurons and compose the "extensive
branching." The complexity of the dentritic branching is directly related to the number of inputs a
neuron can recieve. So neurons with lots of dendrites are able to process information at a greater
rate than neurons with fewer dendrites.
Most neurons do not make direct connections with surrounding neurons, signals (molecules) must
make the transition from the presynaptic (upstream) neuron to the postsynaptic (downstream)
neuron. This transition space is called the synaptic cleft. The exchange of information from the pre–
to postsynaptic neuron is called a synapse.
Information conveyed by the synapses on the dendrites is processed and projected from the axon.
The axon is extraordinary, it is specialized for signal conduction to the next neuron. Axons vary in
length, the ones in your brain are relatively short in comparison to the axons that run from your
spinal cord down to your foot (about a meter long).
The electrical event that projects the signal along these distances is known as an action potential.
The action potential runs from the axon hillock to the end of the axon where more synaptic contacts
are made. Target cells of neurons include nerve cells in your brain, spinal cord, cells of your muscles
and various glands.
Axons are like wires in

The Communication Between Two Presynaptic Neurons
A synapse is a small space at the end of a neuron. The synapses purpose is to pass information from
one neuron to another. Synapses are composed of three parts; the presynaptic end that contains
neurotransmitters, the synaptic cleft between two nerve cells and the postsynaptic ending that
contains receptors.
The communication between neurons advances through a series of steps. First, the presynaptic
neuron delivers an action potential down its axon until it loses its myelin sheath and divides into
many branches called buttons or synaptic knobs. (Zillmer, 2008, p. 105) Between the two neurons is
a space called the synaptic cleft. This is the space where neurotransmitters are sent before being
received by the postsynaptic neuron.
A neurotransmitter

Neurons And Its Effects On The Nervous System Essay
Neurons communicate with one another along a synapse. Neurons are excitable cells that are
activated via electrical or chemical signals. Nerve cells are an integral part of the nervous system.
Neurons are made up of three distinct parts. The three integral parts of the neuron are the cell body,
the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body is the middle portion of the neuron and contains the
nucleus. It also contains the organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria.
An action potential journeys down the axon of the presynaptic neuron; once the action potential
reaches the axon terminal synaptic vesicles migrate toward the synapse. They then release
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters travel through the synaptic cleft and
bind to ligand–gated ion channels on the postsynaptic neuron membrane. The channels open and
allow chemicals to enter the cell (i.e. sodium). Positively charged sodium entering the cell causes
the cell to depolarize. The depolarization spreads down the axon and an action potential is
generated. The process then starts over at the axon terminals.
Neurons can fire efficiently or it can also work too hard or too little. These patterns can in turn
because issues based on whether the neurotransmitters are working too much or too little. For
example, when too much dopamine is being created it is commonly associated with schizophrenia.
On the opposite spectrum, when too little is produced it is associated

Sensory System Vs Neurons
The structures of the PNS are mentioned to as ganglia and nerves, which can be viewed as
unmistakable structures. The comparable structures in the CNS are not clear from this general point
of view and are best inspected in arranged tissue under the magnifying lens.
Sensory tissue, introduce in both the CNS and PNS, contains two essential sorts of cells: neurons
and glial cells. A glial cellis one of an assortment of cells that give a structure of tissue that backings
the neurons and their exercises. The neuronis the all the more practically essential of the two,
regarding the informative capacity of the sensory system. To depict the utilitarian divisions of the
sensory system, it is critical to comprehend the structure of a neuron. Neurons are cells and along
these lines have a soma, or cell body, however they likewise have augmentations of the cell; every
expansion is by and large alluded to as a procedure. There is one imperative process that each
neuron has called an axon, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Yet, white matter is white since a lipid–rich substance called myelin protects axons. Lipids can show
up as white ("greasy") material, much like the fat on a crude bit of chicken or meat. Really, dim
matter may have that shading attributed to it on the grounds that beside the white matter, it is quite
recently darker thus, gray.
The distinction between dark matter and white matter is regularly connected to focal sensory tissue,
which has vast locales that can be seen with the unaided eye. When taking a gander at fringe
structures, regularly a magnifying lens is utilized and the tissue is recolored with simulated hues.
This shouldn't imply that that focal sensory tissue can't be recolored and seen under a magnifying
instrument, yet unstained tissue is no doubt from the CNS–for instance, a frontal segment of the
cerebrum or cross area of the spinal

The Neuron Nerve Net Controversy
Seeing is believing: we often need to see something before we can accept that it really exists or
occurs, and this has been especially pertinent to neuroanatomy. When what we see is limited and
incomplete, various interpretations of what was seen arises which are followed by various possible
explanations of the mechanism that account for them. A case in point is the neuron–nerve net
controversy in the late 19th century, which was not resolved until detailed observations of axonal
terminations in close contact but not in continuity with other neurons were made by Cajal and others
(Clarke and O 'Malley, 1968). While it is obvious that how well we see a neuron (which is a
function of our microscopical techniques) directly influences our ... Show more content on
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This is no different with nerve cells. When the early greeks examined body structure without the aid
of microscopes, although they were able to discern nerve tracts in the body, they mistakenly thought
that these were hollow canals that allowed passage of a spirituous substance (Finger, 1994). With
the aid of a compound microscope, Leeuwenhoek discovered that the nerve tract was in fact
composed of many filaments and importantly, was not hollow (Clarke and O 'Malley, 1968).
Subsequently, the invention of the achromatic compound microscope, an improvement on the
simple compound microscope which has its resolving power limited by chromatic aberrations,
allowed Purkinje to observe (the presence and absence of) myelination in nerve fibres and the
morphology of the eponymous Purkinje cells in the cerebellum (among other things)(Clarke and O
'Malley, 1968).
Finally, the advent of electron microscopy allowed us to visualise anatomical details at the nano
scale. It confirmed the synaptic gap that Sherrington theorised exists, provided incontrovertible
validation of the neuron theory, and became a crucial element in many neuroanatomical research
that followed (Shepherd, 1991). From these developments, it is hard to deny that the understanding
of the anatomy of the neuron and its

Comparing The Autonomic Nervous System And Neurons
The autonomic nervous system controls cardiac, smooth muscle and the glandular tissue. It is vital
in emergency and nonemergency (rest /digest). It is responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle
movements as well as for processing sensory information that arrives via external stimuli including
hearing, touch, and sight. The autonomic nervous system contains 2 subdivisions which are the
sympathetic and parasympathetic. The general action of the sympathetic nervous system is to
mobilise the body's first or flight response (how the body reacts to perceive danger) by preparing the
body to put out energy and to protect it from effects of injury. However, the parasympathetic
nervous system restores the body a state of calm. It is a slow system and ... Show more content on
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Neurons communicate at structures called synapses. Typical neuron consists of a large number of
extension called dendrites that ties neurotransmitter chemical migrating across the synaptic gaps
separating neuron. There are usually like a spikes extending out from cell body. Cell body (soma)
contains Nucleus, cytoplasm organelles and is the metabolic centre of the cell, Brings information to
the neuron. One extension is different from all the others, and is called the axon. The purpose of the
axon is to transit an electro chemical signal to other neurons. The longer axons are covered with a
myelin sheath, the purpose of myelin sheath is to protect and insulate axons, and enhance their
transmission of electrical impulses. At the end of the axon is terminal buttons, it releases
neurotransmitters (Appendix, Fig1). Neurotransmitters play a role in the way human behave, learn
and sleep and some pay in mental illness.When they are released from the neurotransmitter vesicles
of the presynaptic membrane, the normal movement of molecules is directed to receptor sites
situated on the postsynaptic membrane. However, in some disease, the flow of the neurotransmitter
is imperfect. Neurotransmitters are: Acetylcholine and norepinephrine (excitatory
neurotransmitters); dopamine, serotonin and gamma amino butyric

Somatic Motor Neurons
The human body can relate to many items that are used everybody by many. One of those items can
be a vending machine. Yes, it is indeed true that a vending machine can in fact be related to the
human body, especially motor neurons. When one wants to buy a snack, and have the convenience
of a vending machine it acts in the way just as a motor neuron. A motor neuron is a type of neuron
that transfers impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) to either a muscle or gland. There are
three types of motor neurons, one of them being somatic motor neurons, special visceral motor
neurons, and general visceral motor neurons. In our case, we are dealing with somatic motor
neurons because the neuron not only begins from the central nervous system, ... Show more content
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Billy loves skittles and has his mind set on them, the second he sees them. As soon as Billy finds out
which number is for skittles he presses the button, and before you know it, he is devouring them.
Motor neurons play into this very well. When little Billy presses the button to select the skittles he is
sending an impulse throughout the machine that not only the item being selected is skittles, but the
impulse goes all the way to the skittles section specifically. That impulse is sent all the way to the
prong or "muscle" that then pushes the candy all the way out so it falls down to the bottom of the
machine. The message the motor neuron is carrying is to get a pack of skittles to fall to the bottom
of the vending machine. This whole process starts with the dollar that soon sets the rest of the
process off.
In the end, many everyday objects can be used to describe somatic motor neurons, some may say a
kid picking up a baseball and throwing it, but none of them will get the overall concept like a
vending machine. A vending machine will clearly display not only how the motor neuron sends an
impulse, but also when the impulse's reaction reaches the muscle, or prong. As well as being a great
example, you can get even better

Neuron Neurons Chapter Summaries
Chapter two begins to go in depth about how the brain works and what makes a human tick . It
amazes me that an average person could have up to one hundred billion neurons. Chapter two gives
insight on the early discoveries of neurons, and the doubt that the brain is composed of individual
cells. The discovery was made by Santiago Ramón y Cajal using a newly developed staining
technique to show that a small gap separates the tips of one neuron's fibers from the surface of the
next neuron thus proving that the brain is similar to the rest of the body in that is contains individual
cells. Neurons share common characteristics with animal cells but more look like a spider web
network all interlinking, keeping in mind there are around one hundred ... Show more content on
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The blood–brain barrier uses a special mechanism to get these chemicals (the non–harmful ones)
across the barrier. The only chemical that crosses this barrier is glucose. Discussing the functions of
axons and the nerve impulses, the axons are well adapted to the exact needs for information transfer
in the nervous system. Neurons are usually in the state of resting potential so that the neuron can
have a rapid response if disturbed, for example the book mentions the posed bow and arrow: An
archer pulls the bow in advance and then waits is ready to fire at the appropriate moment . Messages
sent by axons are called action potentials, this is what happens when the resting potential is
disturbed. The chemical events behind the action potential follow suit of the resting potential and
goes as these principles: (1) At the start, sodium ions are mostly outside the neuron and potassium
ions are mostly inside, (2) When the membrane is depolarized, sodium and potassium channels in
the membrane open, (3) At the peak of the action potential, the sodium channels close. Axons
operate under the all–or–none law in that the amplitude and velocity of an action potential are
independent of the intensity of the stimulus that initiated it, provided that the stimulus reached the

Dendrite Vs Neuron
In our human brains, there are about one billion nerve cells, called neurons. They transport
information from one part of the brain to the other part of the brain. Which mean neurons are
passing signals to other neurons. Because of this system, we are able to have thoughts, memories
and moods. Neurons have numerous branches, called dendrite. There are branching–like fibers helps
to receive information and pass it to other cells. Then on to the axon. Comparing to dendrite, axon is
a lot longer and it takes the information away from the cell body. Each neuron has only one axon but
like dendrite, it has a lot of branches. At the end of the axon, there are small outgrowths, called
terminal buttons. They store neurotransmitters and release it during ... Show more content on
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The synaptic gap or the synaptic cleft is where the axon is sending chemical substances to dendrite.
Pre–synaptic neuron is transmitting neurotransmitter and post–synaptic neuron receives
neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter can affect or mental abilities and there are different types of
them. Like; Acetylcholine (ACh), Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Gamma–aminobutyric
acid (GABA), Glutamate. Acetylcholine helps work the muscles. And also, learning and memory.
When the brain not producing ACh the way they should be; this is how Alzheimer's disease develop.
Dopamine plays the role of moods, motivation, learning, and movement. Malfunctions of this
neurotransmitter is Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Parkinson's happens when the brain is
undersupplying of dopamine and schizophrenia is overproducing. Serotonin have an impact on
mood, appetite, regulate sleep, and arousal. When the brain is undersupply of serotonin, mental
disease like, depression are developed. This is why in antidepressant, it helps raise the levels of
serotonin. Norepinephine have the ability to regulate alertness and arousal. Similar to serotonin,
depression occur when there is a low amount levels of norepinephine. GABA is a very major
neurotransmitter, it controls and regulate sleep, relaxation and anxiety. Seizures, tremors, and
insomnia involves when the brain is low with GABA. Glutamate have similar ability to the

Essay on What is a Neuron?
What is a Neuron? Human brain consists of billions of cells interconnected together, with each
performing its separate functions. It consists of two explicit categories of nerves: neurons and glia
cells. Neuron is a single nerve cell in the entire nervous system; which is electrically excitable cell
that carries information after being processed via chemical or electrical signals. One of its key
characteristics is that it does not undergo cell division. In addition, it maintains a voltage gradient
for all the neurons across its membranes. Glia cells, on the other hand, its functionality is to
maintain homeostasis.
Different Components of a Neuron Neuron cell is made from numerous components: soma,
dendrites, axon, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Whenever the balance is altered, the process of transmitting electrical signals, which is called action
potential initiates by carrying information across a neuron's axon; which is called resting membrane
potential. This process occurs as uneven ions distribution flow across cell membrane, creating
electrical potential. As a result, the duration of active potential can be as fast as 1 ms. Similarly, the
average resting membrane is between –40 mV and –80 mV. Since the membrane from inside is
more negatively charged than the outside, it reflected on the negative average voltage readings of
the resting membrane. As soon as the electrical signal reaches the end of the axon, mechanism of
chemical alteration initiates. First, calcium ion spurt into the axon terminal, leading to the release of
neurotransmitters "molecules released neurons which carries information to the adjacent cell". Next,
inside the axon terminal, neurotransmitter molecules are stored inside a membrane sac called
vesicle. Finally, the neurotransmitter molecule is then discharged in synapse space to be delivered to
post synaptic neuron.
Chemical Transmission – Graded Potential Graded potential is one of the methods of transmission
of chemical information from one neuron to another. It occurs in specific regions in neural cell, such
as: post–synaptic plasma membrane "dendrite or soma" or regions of sensory stimuli reception.
Difference in levels of chemical concentration causes

Neuron Research Paper
Neuron
Anything we do as humans such as thinking, feeling, and hearing would not happen without the
neuron. The neuron sends messages throughout the body when the body is in trouble or pain. The
neuron is a part of the nervous system which makes the body move. There are only three structures
to the neuron; cell body, dendrite, and the axon. With these structures come functions to help the
body think, feel, and hear. When these functions don't work they can cause diseases in which the
body needs to be healthy to work. These are the reasons the neuron is important.
The neuron cell is a part of the nervous system. The nervous system is what makes the body think,
move, or feel pain. Functions within the nervous system are that it receives information, responds to
information, and maintains homeostasis. Homeostasis is when the body is stable. Through the
nervous system the body will receive information like what happens around the environment and it
will check what's going on inside the body. " The Stimulus is any change or signal in the
environment that can make an organism react like when somebody scares you"(Hall 177). The
nervous system will analyze this stimulus which will cause a response. When the nervous system
gets this response it ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of these diseases are life long and the body can not get rid of. Parkinson's disease is when
cells in the brain causes symptoms. Another disease is Multiple Sclerosis where the immune system
will eat the myelin sheath which protects the nerves. One syndrome is Tourette's syndrome which is
when movements are not in one's control. A cancer is brain cancer when growth is not normal and
causes a tumor. According to (Life and Death of a neuron) it says " Huntington's disease is a genetic
mutation which causes over production of a neurotransmitter." as an effect people will twist
uncontrollably. There are many malfunctions to the neuron but all the body needs to do is to be

Neuron Observation Report
Introduction
Our neurons consist of a cell body, with one or multiple dendritic branched structures and a long,
axon, fiber–like extension. The dendrites primarily receive signals from sensory organs and other
neurons. The axon communicates the signal to the dendrites or adjacent nerve cells via the tiny gaps
of synapses. The communication across these gaps is enabled by neurotransmitters. In particularly,
there are three broad mechanisms in which neural plasticity can occur. These include the anatomical
alterations that involve physical changes to neurons, such as axonal sprouting, where axons produce
new nerve endings that connect to other pathways in the nervous system; neurochemical changes
that can involve the increase or decrease in the production of neurotransmitters; and the metabolic
changes which can involve the variation in the rate of nutrients consumed by areas in the brain.
Plasticity can also include the removal of connections, such ... Show more content on
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Motor learning changes the perceptual function and sensory circuits of brain pathways. Here, we
propose to demonstrate the concept of neuronal plasticity within somatosensory and visual
perceptual changes in the observance of human arm movement and accompanying sensorimotor
adaptation.
Materials
The materials used in this experiment include four numbered bean bags, a measuring tape, a target
board with a hole in the center, and masking tape to mark a distance of both 10 feet and 15 feet from
the target area. Materials also include 1 pair of prism goggles, which are graded on the magnitude of
visual shift, are 30–diopter lens that is recommended to shift light 15 degrees. The diopters of
displacement is where one diopter is approximately 0.5 degrees of displacement.
Methods
Experiment 1 (10

Chapter 4 : Neurons, Hormones, And The Brain
Patrick Beninga
Professor Hanretty
PSY 202 Section 16
7 October 2015
Chapter 4: Neurons, Hormones, and the Brain
The Nervous System: A Basic Blueprint
The Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System
The par of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord interprets information
about the senses ex: Touch, Taste, Sound, Smell.
Spinal Cord
A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of
the back, protected by a column of bones (the spinal column) acts as a bridge between the brain and
the rest of the body spinal reflexes are subconscious
Because the brain and spinal cord are connected, reflexes can be influenced by thoughts and
emotions example: increased heart rate when nervous
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
All portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; it includes sensory and motor
nerves
Sensory Nerves
Carry messages from special receptors in the skin, muscles, and other internal and external sense
organs to the spinal cord, which sends them to the brain
Motor Nerves
Carry orders from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and internal organs
Somatic Nervous System the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects to sensory
receptors and to skeletal muscles; sometimes called the skeletal nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internal organs and glands
Sympathetic

Neurons: Part of the Nervous System
Neuron (Greek.. Νεῦρον = fiber nerve) is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system,
obtain to an important class of highly specialized cells , able to receive, absorb, process, transfer and
respond information using electromagnetic signals (nerve impulses). Neuron as the basic unit of the
nervous tissue was described in 1835 by Jan Evangelista Purkynije, the term neuron was established
by Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer and the concept of neurons as the basic structural functional unit of
the nervous system has been developed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal in the early 20th century. Y
Cajal suggested that neurons are cells which communicate with one another (neuron doctrine). They
communicate with nerves, muscles, or gland. Depending on these impulses they can be classified as
afferent=sensitive neurons (bring impulses from receptors to the appropriate centers in the CNS) ,
efferent=motor neurons (lead to excitation of CNS effectors such as muscles and interneurons),
associative neurons (located in the CNS, they integrate the data provided by the sensory neurons and
send them to motor neurons) .This cell has a cell body, soma (center of cell metabolism, receives
impulses , integrates and transmits information, contains protoplasm (cytoplasm, nucleus and
organelles (ESR active ribosomes , Golgi apparatus )), one axon (usually long process of a neuron ,
adapted for the excitation and the information from the cell body) and many dendrites (short,
branched processes of

Functions And Functions Of Neurons
1. Neurons are not all alike structurally. Draw the following neurons. Describe where each type of
neuron is found. a. multipolar neurons: Multipolar neurons are the most common type of neurons in
the human body.(1) It usually has three or more processes, one of the process is axon and the rest of
the processes are dendrites. Multipolar neurons are found in the central nervous system.(1) b.
bipolar neurons: bipolar neurons has 2 processes; one axon and one dendrite.(1) The axon and the
dendrite of bipolar neurons extends from the opposite of the cell body.(1) They are located mostly in
some sense organs, for example some neurons are located in the retina of the eye and in the
olfactory mucosa.(1) c. unipolar ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lack of oxygen during brain development can cause serious damage to the fetus.(2,3) Other than
that any type of traumatic injury that disrupt the brain development of a fetus can also be a cause of
this disability.(2,3) A disruption of blood supply to the fetus brain, any type of infections that can
affect the fetus can also be cause of cerebral palsy.(2,3) A mutation affecting the brain development
could also be a possible reason.(2,3) This disorder can not be cured, but a long term treatment may
be required.(2,3) Therapies such as occupational therapy, speech therapy, physical therapy can be
given. Drugs can be given to control seizures, to ease pain. Surgeries can be done to correct any
anatomical abnormalities.(2,3) Essential tremor: Essential tremor is a disorder where the
uncontrollable shaking occurs in different parts of the body.(4) Some common areas of body are
hands, arms, larynx, and chins, this shaking rarely occurs on the lower body(4,5). It is usually not a
life threatening disorder. Symptoms of this disability includes shaking of voices, nodding heads,
shaking during writing, holding cups or using any kind of tools(5). This type of disability can
worsen with age(4,5). Other factors such as caffeine, stress may affect the tremor(4,5). Usually the
tremor does occur same way on both side of the body (5). There is not one cause to say why

Comparing Two Different Types Of Neurons
1a. Neurons, also called nerve cells, are specialized cells tasked with carrying signals or messages
throughout the body. These messages are sent and received with neurons through an electrochemical
process using their specialized parts axons and dendrites.
1b. On average, our brains contain about 100 billion neurons.
1c. Dendrites are what receive the electrical and chemical messages such as neurotransmitters, and
the axons send information and release neurotransmitters. Dendrites are attached to the cell body,
and the axon could be seen as a long tail extending from the cell body.
1d. While each person is different, the average weight of the adult human's brain is between 1,300–
1,400g (approximately 3 lbs), as opposed to a newborn human which weights at about 350–400g. ...
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Because there are different types of neurons, their length can vary. These lengths are measured in
microns which 1 micron is equal to one thousandth of a millimeter. The smallest recorded neurons'
cell bodies are 4 microns, while the largest neurons' cell bodies are 100 microns wide. An example
of some of the longest neurons could be those that extend from the motor cortex to the spinal cord
which are also called corticospinal neurons. These can be several feet in length.
1f. You could compare the size of the brain to the rest of the body by it's weight. If we are assuming
that the average person weighs 150lbs and the average brain weight is 3lbs, then the brain is 2% of
the total body weight.
1g. The speed that information travels within the body depends on the type of neuron. These
transmissions have been recorded as slow as 0.5 meters/sec or as fast as 120 meters/sec. The latter is
compared to going as fast as 268

Comparison Of Neurons And The Peripheral Nervous System
Inside human brains contain around 100 billion neurons, which primarily connect to other neurons
in order to communicate. Nevertheless, neurons help us perform simple, everyday tasks like
answering your telephone or opening a door. With the help of many different structures, neurons, for
the most part, let us communicate efficiently. (cite,book)
The nervous system is made up of two sections, the Central Nervous System, which is composed of
the brain, cerebellum, and the spinal cord. Whereas, the Peripheral Nervous System contains nerves
that allows your body to move, also known as sensory and motor nerves.
Similar to other cells, neurons inhabit a cell body, called the soma, which includes a nucleus.
(cite,neuron) The neuron also features

What Is Neuron Signaling?
There are about one hundred billion neurons in our brain, each firing away constantly to process
thought, emotion, and mood (Cacioppo 134). These cells are elongated and responsible for
transmitting important information via electrical and chemical signaling; the neuron is able to send
an electrical signal through the body of the cell and then convert that electrical impulse into a
chemical signal by stimulating neurotransmitters, chemical messengers, to cross a physical gap, the
synapse, between adjacent neurons. Once they cross the synapse, these neurotransmitters bind to a
receptor of other neurons and stimulate a further cascade of reactions that result in the repetition of
the prior process. The neuron is made up of four main parts: the ... Show more content on
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The electrical begins as neurotransmitters stimulate a cascade of reaction that lead to the
depolarization and repolarization of the axon. The neuron is not processing a signal, it is in a state
known as resting potential; the resting potential is a net charge of the cell based on the ion gradient
established in the intracellular and extracellular matrix (~70 mV). The interior of the cell is
negatively charged at rest, while the exterior of the cell is positively charged. When a neuron
receives a signal from another neuron, it begins its action potential, causing a depolarization of the
cell. This process is said to be "all or none" because once the cell reaches are certain level of
depolarization, the action potential is inevitable. So, as a neuron receives a signal and reaches it
threshold of depolarization (~65 mV), sodium begins to enter the cell through sodium channels,
causing the cell to quickly depolarize until it reaches a maximum (~40 mV). Once the cell reaches
the maximum depolarization, potassium begins to leave the cell, causing the neuron to repolarize. A
refractory period occurs after this repolarization in which the cell becomes less than 70 mV in
charge and is unable to transmit another action potential. This entire process occurs in less than 2
milliseconds. Several action potentials occur down the length of the axon until the chemical
signaling is activated. Myelin, a type of axon insulator, is able to transmit action potential over a
longer length of the axon, making this process occur more quickly; the spaces between myelinated
cells where the action potential occurs are called nodes of Ranvier. Once the action potential reaches
the axon

Essay On Neurons And Synaptic Connections
(ii) Development of Neurons and Synaptic connections
In a study, published from the Journal of the American Medical Association, scientists found an
overgrowth in the development of brain cells in autistic brains. During the brain development,
250000 neurons are added every minute, which shows that a child in the age of two years, the brain
is about 80% the size of an adult brain. In an autistic brain, the development of an autistic brain
reaches an overgrowth, which means the brain of a two–year–old child suffering from autism has
already 67% more neurons than a child with a normal brain. This all happens in the prefrontal cortex
which is linked to the social, emotional and communication area. In addition, autistic brains weight
also ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition to this, it is unknown whether a deviation in body growth, such as length and weight,
have an impact in a deviation in head growth.
Yet, it is established that the typical head growth takes places in an autistic child's first year of life,
whereas people without this disease have a slower process as it usually takes until there second year.
This rapid growth in a shorter amount of time often attributes to brain overgrowth. [12]
Autistic patients have, usually caused by a head overgrowth, a higher volume (up to 90%). This
influences the volume of grey and white matter, which are increasing by 12%, and 39% and an
increased cerebral by 18% in the age of 3 years. However, the minimised growth starts in the age of
around 9 to 12, where the volume tends to go back to an increase by only 1% (grey matter) and 14%
(white matter).
Experiment
„Early growth patterns in children with autism"
The data for this experiment is used from the article "Early growth patterns in children with autism",
by the US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. [12]
Background
Long term case–control studies with the focus on the development of autistic brains have reported a
rise in head growth during the first year in children suffering from autism. In early childhood, the
growth of the head is tightly linked to the brain growth, which has shown an overgrowth in an
autistic brain.
Scientists found, with the assistance of a

Neuron Research Paper
Trevor Entwisle
Psychology 1003
Instructor: Ryan Hjelle
9/17/2015
Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system. These specialized cells are the
information–processing units for the brain and are responsible for receiving and transmitting
information. Each specific part of the neuron plays a role in the communication throughout the body
of information. First, the Dendrites are treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help
increase the surface area of the cell body. These tiny protrusions receive information from other
neurons and transmit electrical stimulation to the soma. The soma is where the signals from the
dendrites are joined and then passed on. The nucleus and the soma do not play a role in the
transmission of the neural signal. Instead, these two structures ... Show more content on
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Next, the axon hillock, which is located at the end of the soma; controls the firing of the neurons. If
the total strength of the signal exceeds the threshold limit of the axon hillock, the structure will fire
a signal down the axon. The axon is the elongated fiber that extends from the cell body to the
terminal endings and passes on the neural signal. The faster the information moves, the larger the
axon is. Lastly, the terminal buttons, which are located at the end of the neuron are responsible for
delivering the signal on to other neurons. At the end of the terminal button is a gap known as a
synapse. The All–Or–None Law means that a neuron either fires or it doesn't, depending upon the
number of excitatory and inhibitory inputs it gets. Each time it fires it does so with the same level of
intensity; it has the possibility to fire more often, such as in signaling a tight squeeze from your head
basketball coach, or less often, such as in signaling a gentle touch from a significant figure in you
life. No matter the neuron, each time the action potential will be

Understanding The Structure And Function Of A Neuron
Running head: UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A NEURON 1
UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE OF A NEURON AND EXAMINING THE
INTERCOMMUNICATION OF NEURONS
Natasha Melendez
Nova Southeastern University UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE AND COMMUNICATION
OF A NEURON 2
The proper functioning of the cells allow us to act, think, learn, remember and control complex
behaviors. In order to understand how the brain performs these essential functions we must first
understand the different components of the cells; such as the function of neurons and their
supporting cells in the nervous system. The communication from neuron to neuron, the processes
involved in the production of an action potential, how an action potential is conducted along a
myelinated axon; and the process of synaptic transmission will be discussed and examined.
According to Carlson (YEAR), neuron (nerve cell) is defined as," the information–processing and
information–transmitting element of the nervous system". The shape and variety will depend on the
specialized job they perform. The majority of neurons have in common in one form or another, the
four structures or regions: the cell body or soma, axon, dendrites; and terminal buttons. The soma or
the cell body contains the nucleus which regulates all cell activity. Dendrites is derived from the
Greek work Dendron, for tree, because they resemble trees. The dendrite is attached to the cell body
of the neuron which receives information and

Major Primary Components Of Neurons
1. Name and describe (4) major primary components of a neuron and their functions (4 points).
Neurons are made up of four parts which are the dendrites, the soma, the axon and the myelin.
Dendrites are the branches of the neuron which receive messages and are attached to the soma. The
soma contains the nucleus and is mainly responsible for keeping the cell alive and running. Axon is
the message carrier of the neuron and it does so as a fiber attached to soma. Lastly, the myelin is a
fatty substance made by glial cells that serves as a protecting sheath around the axons. It also speeds
up the neural message traveling down the axon.
2. How do neurons communicate with each other and the rest of the body (4 points)
The end of the axon spread into some shorter fibers that have swellings on the ends called synaptic
knobs. The synaptic knob has a number of little saclike structures in it called synaptic vesicles.
Inside the synaptic vesicles are chemicals hung in fluid, which are molecules of substances called
neurotransmitters which are inside a neuron and are going to transmit a message. Neurotransmitter
are released into the synapse from synaptic vesicles. The neurotransmitter molecules bind to
receptor sites on the releasing neuron and the second neuron or glands or even muscles causing a
reaction.
3. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Describe the differences between the functions of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system (3 Points)
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain takes information from
the senses and processes it and it also makes decision sand sends commands to the body. The spinal
cord carries information to and from away the brain. The peripheral system, on the other hand, is the
system that allows communication between the central nervous system with the sensory systems. It
also makes it possible for the brain and spinal cord to control muscles and

Neuron Function
When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is at rest. When a neuron is at rest, the inside of the neuron
is negative relative to the outside. At rest, potassium ions are at higher concentration inside the
neuron. While there's a higher concentration of chloride ions and sodium ions outside of the neuron.
There's also negatively charged protein molecules inside the neuron, which cannot cross the
membrane. When the neuron is at rest, it has a resting membrane potential, voltage between the two
layers, is –70mV. When the dendrite of the neuron receives a stimulus, and when the stimulus
depolarizes the cell to its action potential threshold of –55mV an action potential will occur. If the
neuron does not reach this threshold level, then no action

Optogenetic Activation and/or Inhibition of Neurons
Optogenetic Activation and/or Inhibition of Neurons
The topic of optogenetics is one of vast and exciting proportions. In short, it is an emerging
science that combines both genetics and optics to affect neuron action. By using light to activate
certain neurons, we can see the kind of behavior they normally exhibit and thereby assess their
impact on brain processing. Conversely inhibition of these same neurons can inform us of what the
neurons are necessary for. This ability to activate or inactivate certain neurons at the flick of a
switch (no pun intended) in different locations of the brain is a super powerful tool that can be used
to determine the functions of cell types in circuits of different regions of the brain like the basal
ganglia or cerebellum.
The process of optogenetics cannot even begin without an understanding of basic neurophysiology
and knowledge of ion channels and their basic functionality (preferably from NEU330). Next, one
should know performing optogenetic experiments can take a rather long time and is a very tedious
process that follows a strict protocol. Luckily this complicated process as a whole can be broken
down into several subdivisions. Although the technique has been refined (and will continue to be
refined) greatly over the past 5 years the basic steps are the same. Before taking a look at the steps,
knowledge of the two main types of proteins (ion channels) that are used in optogenetic experiments
is key. They are:

 Channelrhodopsin2

The Neurons Behind Neurotransmission

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