Anti Epilepsy Observational Study

Anti Epilepsy Observational Study
Epilepsy is a common medical condition characterized by repeated seizures due to a disorder of the brain cells. the data was limited regarding the
prescribing pattern and side effects of various anti epileptic drugs in various population. The aim of present study was to evaluate the effective use of
anti epileptic drugs in the management of various types of epileptic seizures over a period of six months. Materials and methods: A prospective
observational study was conducted among epileptic patients on follow up at neurology department of Guntur city hospital. During the six months study
period, epileptic patients who were prescribed with AED's (Anti Epileptic Drugs) were in this study. Data were collected through the hospital medical
records. Results:... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most common type of seizures diagnosed as generalised Tonic Clonic seizures 108 (72.0%) effected with GTC's, males 62 (57.40%), females 46
(42.59%) partial seizures 22 (14.66%). Mono therapy commonly used in the treatment of epilepsy 97 (64.66%), dual therapy 41 (27.33%) poly therapy
12 (8.0%). Among which new anti epileptic drugs levetiracetam was the most commonly utilised single drug and multiple anti epileptic drug followed
by Valproicacid, Carbamazepine, and Phenytoin. In this study 52 adverse drug reactions are identified. Conclusion: This study highlights the need of
drug utilization evaluation and therapeutic drug monitoring of epileptic patients. Improving the rational use of anti epileptic drugs like Levetiracetam,
Lamotrigine, Topiramate etc. Most of the ADR's are mild and predominant in females. Key words: Epilepsy, Adverse drug reactions, Rational drug use,
Drug utilization and
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Symptoms And Treatment Of Bipolar II
In this paper I will provide an overview of bipolar II disorder, a personal case history, and treatment plans using solution–focused therapy, cognitive
behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy to treat a client with bipolar II diagnosis. Bipolar II Disorder Bipolar II disorder is
primarily characterized by states of hypomania and depression, which often impair a person's ability to function in a social, work, or familial setting.
Depression is more often an impairment than hypomania, and is frequently the reason a person might seek counseling. Earlier renditions of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) considered bipolar II disorder a lighter form of bipolar I disorder, noting that mania can...
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133). Individuals with hypomania may truly enjoy the sensations of increased aptitude and regret hypomania's departure. Parker (2015) suggested
that individuals experience hypomania as an enhanced state versus impaired (p. 112). Rarely will a counselor see a client in his or her hypomanic
state. Depression is relentless and chronic for individuals diagnosed with bipolar II disorder. Parker (2015) stressed that the depression associated
with bipolar II disorder is anything but mild, which makes bipolar II disorder not a lighter form of bipolar I disorder, but equally serious (p. 113).
Although the DSM criteria for bipolar I and bipolar II depression is exactly the same, the depression associated with bipolar II disorder is often more
chronic (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 36) and has a higher risk of suicide (Parker, 2015, p. 118) than bipolar I disorder. American
Psychiatric Association (2013) claimed that increased suicide attempts can be attributed to impulsivity (p. 136). Additionally, depression can and does
impair the individual. Roberts, Sylvia, and Reilly–Harrington (2013) acknowledged that individuals diagnosed with bipolar II disorder will be
chronically gripped by a rise and fall of depression throughout their life (p. 43). Depression in a client with bipolar II disorder will often be
melancholic with the inability to complete tasks or enjoy interpersonal interactions. Bipolar II depression can include states of

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Bipolar Disorder
If you were told you are suffering from a Bipolar Disorder, would you know what that meant? Bipolar disorders affect about three million people a
year. Here is some background information on what it is, the different types of bipolar disorders, the possible symptoms, along with some
treatment options. While bipolar disorders are not curable, they are treatable. Steve Bressert states, "Bipolar Disorder is a mental disorder that is
characterized by constantly changing moods between depression and mania. The mood swings are significant, and the experiences of the highs
of mania and the lows of depression are usually extreme. (Bressert) " In other words, mood swings, forms of mania, and depression can be intense for a
person. A manic episode makes people have extreme happiness and no need for sleep. While a depressive episode makes you have extreme sadness, no
energy, and makes you feel hopeless. A person with a bipolar disorder can have three years of normal moods between a manic or depressive episode.
Going up and down between strong emotions can make someone feel like they cannot have a normal life. Cycling between emotions can be rapid or
happen slowly over time, and it can happen as often as multiple times a week. However, most people experience a high manic episode or a low
depressive episode over long periods of times. This does make it hard to lead a regular life. If you have experienced one manic episode, you will most
likely have future episodes. Directly before you

Who Is Martha For A Gastric Bypass Surgery?
1) Martha is potentially in her 60s, has a considerable lack of range of motion, substance abuse, is obese, and has type II diabetes; she had previously
opted for a gastric bypass surgery. She presents with one who displays symptoms of depression, experiences manic episodes, suffers from mood
swings, and experiences both auditory and visual hallucinations. At times, she quickly cycles between depressive and manic episodes. She is currently
financially destitute, lacks employment, and is in an unstable housing situation. Although Martha's ethnicity is unknown, she was brought up in a
working class family in D.C. and claims that her race is a factor in her issues. Since her parents have died, she does not have any family who will...
This is suspect; she has had weight issues all of her life. Regardless if her bipolar symptoms are thyroid/diabetes related, the DSM–5 no longer
supports a diagnosis of Personality Disorder–Not Otherwise Specified. Although the DSM–5 has a specifier named "Unspecified Disorder;" it is used
to enhance an existing disorder (not a personality disorder unto itself) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The only exception to this specifier is
when a person is in an emergency situation (e.g. emergency room), and the doctor cannot give the patient a specific mental diagnosis. In this case, a
doctor may give the patient the diagnosis of Unspecified Mental Disorder (APA, 2013). Therefore, PD NOS should be ruled out. Side note: On https:/
/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_disorder_not_otherwise_specified the author of this paper altered this webpage to reflect the current DSM–5.
Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) might be a diagnosis to consider; however, it is the opinion of the author of this paper that this diagnosis is
generally given to women who like sex, a lot. Men who generally act in this manner are not usually seen as having this issue. Furthermore, when the

Intractable Epilepsy Case Study
Description of intractable epilepsy –We call epilepsy intractable when the patient use all existent drugs and do not under control. –According to Gilman
et al, when we call intractable seizures that;the patient is resistant to first line of drugs as carbamazepine, phenytoin, Phenobarbital, sodium valporat,
clonazepam, primidone. When we use them in maximum dose and blood level. Probable causes of intractable epilepsy 1–Miss diagnosis 2–improper
ordering 3–Drug interference 4–Miss consumption of drugs 5–Back ground cause such as metabolic disorder and space Sol Misdiagnosis of epilepsy
Almost 20–30% of patients who treated as epilepsy have psoudosizure. In hysteric patients attach happen when relevant are present. Also often
misdiagnosis as... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epilepsy is not a disease but is a sign in various diseases then the treatment is the treatment of etiology. You must delete effective cause of beginning and
increasing severity of attacks such as light, voice or insomnia. Considering socio economic situation is important because when patient cannot provide
drugs, treatment is impossible. Patient occupation and education must be considered to use Drugs which don't cause behavioral disorder and disability,
behavioral disorder occurred in 10–40% of patients which must be cured. Some things which must be considered in patients with intractable epilepsy
Exact patient history about and beginning of attacks and par clinicprocedures, Such as CT,MRI,EEG,consumpteddrugs and their dosage and duration
and blood level, repeating evaluation about probability of misdiagnosis, cutting of excess drugs. Infantile seizure and special treatment Some of
epilepsies are retractable to treatment such as infantile spasm (Corticotherapy, Benzodiazepins, Sodiumvalporate, Vigabaterine,lamotrigine) Lenox
syndrome (Sodium Valporate, Corticotherapy, Benzodiazepins, Lamotrigine) In infantile intractable epilepsy, we can use immunoglobulin
steroids,IVIG and

Postpartum Depression: A Literature Review
Women are significantly more likely to be admitted to a psychiatric hospital within the first four weeks postpartum than any other time in her life;
roughly 75 percent of women experience a mild depression, or the "baby blues" (Perry et al., 2013, p. 593). Postpartum mood disorders can include
depression, anxiety, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and in rare cases, psychosis (Perry et al., 2013, p. 593). In this paper, the writers will focus solely
on postpartum depression (PPD), also known as perinatal mood disorder. Mothers will often experience sadness and mood swings (Perry et al., 2013,
p. 594). Some more severe symptoms include intense fears, anger, anxiety, and despondency, which often will not go away without intervention (Perry
et ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By using the aforementioned keywords and connecting to the databases, we were able to find multiple articles supporting the question we had
posed. We also took advantage of the sources we already had including our "Maternal Child Nursing Care in Canada" (Perry et al., 2013) textbook.
On the other hand, it was difficult to find research on the outcomes of pharmacological interventions. What we were able to find, was medications such
as lamotrigine and desvenlafaxine that were commonly used for overcoming PPD. The articles are specified: "Analysis of questions about use of drugs
in breastfeeding to Norwegian drug information centres" (Jahnsen, Widnes & Schjott, 2016) and "Overcoming functional impairment in postpartum
depressed or anxious women: a pilot trial of desvenlafaxine with flexible dosing" (Misiri, Swift, Abizadeh & Shankar, 2016). Through the hierarchy of
pre–appraised evidence, the above articles are classified as peer reviewed and are within the last five years; this ensured that the research was relevant
and up to

The Mental Status of a Mother While She Is Pregnant
PREGNANCY AND PSYCHIATRY
Introduction:
The mental status of the mother while she is pregnant and while she is postpartum is very important for the welfare of both child and the mother. In
this chapter we tend to discuss different psychiatric problems that mothers encounter during pregnancy and after delivery of the child. In the second
part we tend to list various psychotropic medications that can lead to fetal harm.
Diseases
POSTPARTUM PSYCHOSIS
Postpartum psychosis (or puerperal psychosis) is defined as symptom of psychosis which occurs suddenly flowing childbirth.
.
The episode of psychosis usually begins within 1 to 3 months of delivery of the child. EPIDEMIOLOGY
There is a world–wide prevalence.
Its incidence is less than 1 in 1000 deliveries.
It is more common in primi–gravid mothers.
CAUSES
Molecular genetic studies suggest a specific heritable factor. Evidence of linkage to chromosome 16 has been implicated.
SYMPTOMS
Manic symptoms: Euphoric Mood, loud clothing.
Disorganized speech, Delusions, Violence, irritability, Thought symptoms
auditory hallucinations
Mutism
extreme fear
negligence towards child
Harming attitude towards child
Prognosis
Deprived of treatment, these symptoms can last for several months but with treatment these symptoms usually improve within a few weeks.
Some women may have a relapse.
Mothers who suffer such episode have increased risk of developing other manic depressive episodes.

Suicide is rare and

Effects Of Lithium And Lamotrigine On Pregnant Bipolar Women
The Effects of Lithium and Lamotrigine on Pregnant Bipolar Women By: Jennifer Saebom Choe Introduction to Bipolar Disorder (BP) Bipolar
disorder (BD) or manic depression is a mental disorder that affects roughly 1–2% of the population. It is marked by severe mood swings between
depression and mania, periods of great delusions and overactivity. It is often treated with mood stabilizers, antipsychotics and antidepressants, and
sometimes benzodiazepines. Of the medications, lithium and lamotrigine are two medications of interest due to their long history of treatment. In the
following, we will explore the effects of lithium and lamotrigine (LTG) on pregnant bipolar women. Lithium and Lamotrigine (LTG) First of all,
lithium, or lithium carbonate, is a very effective mood stabilizer (a medication that treats moods extending days to weeks, not moments) first approved
by the FDA in the 1970's. (Google) It was the first mood stabilizer which treated both manic and depressive episodes. Other mood stabilizers include
anticonvulsants, medications originally developed to treat seizures (NIMH). This includes LTG. Mood stabilizers vary in their anti–manic and
antidepressant effects. Lithium is more effective in treating mania. Lamotrigine is more useful for depressive symptoms. Both medications are Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for the prophylactic (preventing disease) treatment of BD, and lamotrigine may be especially effective in
rapid–cycling BD. (Merriam Webster,

Symptoms And Treatments Of Manic Depression
For this assignment we were told to pick a single disorder from chapter 12, psychological disorders, and a therapy from chapter 13, psychological
therapies. For my disorder, I am picking a disorder that hits close to home for me, manic depression also known as bipolar depression. This mental
illness hits a very touchy spot for, because when I was 14 I was diagnosed with PTSD (post–traumatic stress disorder), as well as manic depression.
The form of therapy from chapter 13, I will be discussing is psychopharmacology also known as drug therapy. Manic depression and drug therapy
are closely related. Drug therapy is one of the most common treatments for manic depression. What is manic depression and how is it treated? I'll
explain exactly what it is and one of the most common treatment course. Manic depression is also known as bipolar disorder. Manic depression is
when you experience periods of time where you have lows and highs of depression. This refers to times where you are depressed. Highs and lows
can inflate and deflate dramatically. From a personal experience you can be depressed and a week later you can feel mania (Association, n.d.). What
is a mania? Mania is where have an overwhelming surge of energy, cheerfulness, and other emotions that resemble happiness. Manic depression
doesn't only have manic episode, you can also have depressive episode. When having a depressive episode, you will experience a period of time where
you feel overwhelming hopelessness, unhappy,

Drug Treatment: Lamotrigine
Drug Treatment: There are multiple different types of medications that have been used to help patients that face bipolar disorder, however the most
popular of these medications is lamotrigine or also known as lamictal. Lamotrigine, a chemically produced drug, is within the class of anticonvulsants
(drugs that are used for epileptic seizures), with its chemical name being 3,5–diamino–6–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)–as–triazine. Lamotrigine is described as
white or a cream colored powder that can be induced through oral or chewable tablets. These tablets can be taken with or without at the discretion of
the person (RxList., 2017). Lamotrigine use in bipolar disorder patients is in order to increase the periods of when they are not within mania or
depression,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Much more rare side effects is a serious rash called Stevens–Johnson Syndrome which may occur. There is an increased risk in patients under the age
of 16. Seizures may occur as well as part of the rare side effects. Severe side effects come in terms of suicidal thoughts which is quite common in
patients taking drugs such as lamotrigine. Aseptic meningitis is very uncommon but still possible, this condition being an inflammation within the
brain. Lamotrigine however has still not been seen to produce any long term side effects and is safe when taken as directed by the prescribed amount
(Parker, C.,

Benefits Of Lamotrigine
Lamotrigine is an anticonvulsant drug that has been approved by the FDA; it is used for the treatment of epilepsies and for the maintenance treatment
of bipolar disorder. Unlike other conventional antidepressants, lamotrigine can be used for treatment of major depression without inducing mania (17,
59). Lamotrigine is less effective in the treatment of acute mania or acute depression, however it is found to be effective in delaying the onset of mania
(60). Several studies has shown that lamotrigine in combination with conventional –26– antidepressants such as SSRI'S, have greater efficacy than that
of SSRI'S monotherapy as well as faster onset of action (62). In addition, two randomized control studies in bipolar patients showed that lamotrigine...
The use of lamotrigine is associated with several adverse effects such as headaches, nausea, fatigue, ataxia, fever, aseptic meningitis, diplopia, blurred
vision, insomnia, nightmares, xerostomia, abdominal pain, painful mouth sores , muscle pain, yellowing of the skin and eyes, restlessness, weight loss,
suicidal ideation and mood alternation (22,65,68). However, the most serious adverse effect associated with lamotrigine is a life threating skin rash
including Steven–Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis (17,22,66,67). Lamotrigine is categorized as class C drug according to the
pregnancy safety category (42)With overall risk for major congenital malformation estimated to be 2–3% based on registry based studies of pregnant
women with epilepsy (30,44,69). Data obtained from the international lamotrigine pregnancy registry have shown that combination of lamotrigine with
valproate has much higher rates for congenital malformations (10.7%) compared with lamotrigine monotherapy

Narcissistic Personality Disorder Case Study
Narcissistic Personality Disorder Definition Narcissistic personality disorder appears as someone who is preoccupied with themselves, has a high
sense of self importance, and doesn't have empathy for others. They also have a persistent need for admiration. This is a cluster B disorder. Causes
Low self–esteem Insensitive parenting Risk factors Teenagers and early adulthood affected more often Males develop more often Signs and Symptoms
Physical Aggressive behavior Suicidal ideation Behavioral Grandiose self importance Fantasies of success, power, brilliance, beauty, or idealized love
Need for admiration Entitlement Exploits interpersonal relationships Lacks empathy Believes others are envious or envious of others... Show more
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The client should become more considerate of others and not see themselves as superior. Nursing Interventions Assess for suicidal thoughts Rational:
low self esteem is typically seen Determine cause of disorder Rational: if the cause can be directly addressed treatment may be more effective
Evaluate verbal and nonverbal cues for agitation or aggression Rational: may become hostile if they feel they are being demeaned by not getting
attention Explore client's beliefs about treatment and cause of disorder Rational: they may think that problems are caused by others and not their own
actions Administer Lithium as ordered Rational: reduces symptoms of mania o Assess mental status Rational: may cause suicidal thoughts o
Determine if client has history of seizures Rational: one adverse effect is seizures o Obtain serum lithium levels Rational: blood levels determine the
necessary dose, lithium toxicity can occur Assist the client to view themselves from different perspectives Rational: can help the client realize their
behaviors are the problem Implement measures that will increase the client's self esteem Rational: an increase in self esteem could help decrease the
severity of

The Treatment Of Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder that comprises of both maniac episode and ordinarily one or more depressing episodes. The disorder has a lifetime
occurrence of 1–2%. Psychological factors such as family environment, life events social support and cognitive style play an integral role on the onset,
course, and the whole expression of the ailment. Pharmacology of the disorder is multifarious and speedily evolving field. The development of new
methods of treatment has greatly assisted refine concepts of the disorder subtypes and generated significant new management choices. Although mood
stabilizers in conjunction with antipsychotics may arguably be the traditional medical options for bipolar disorder, other alternative ... Show more
However, the difficulty of administering mood stabilizers for instance, due to the differential efficacy spectra across disorder phases and differential
drug interaction is perhaps as challenging with antipsychotics.
Lithium
Lithium is generally well absorbed, with a bioavailability that nears 100%. It has a reasonable volume of distribution of approximately 1 L/kg and
half–life of roughly24 hours. Maintained–release formulations can reduce peak serum concentrations and commonly have clinically significant
pharmacokinetic interactions with lithium (Su, Ryder, Li, Wu, Fox, and Solenberg 2004).
First identified in 1940 by John Cade, an Australian researcher, earlier experiments with lithium showed it to have almost miraculous results on a group
of individuals with established mania. Some of these individuals had spent several years in mental institutions. After lithium initiation, the symptoms
disappeared and they were discharged. Despite its success, it was not until 1970 that the drug received FDA approval to be employed in the treatment
of the disorder. Lithium is widely available in both sugar–free liquid forms and pill (Su, et al., 2004).
Benefits
In psychiatry, Lithium may as well be the well–studied medication. It has been documented to be effective in

Stereotypes Of Autism In Children
Many people don't know, or understand what Autism truly is. Autism is defined as, according to (What is Autism?) "Autism, or autism spectrum
disorder, refers to a range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication, as
well as by unique strengths and differences. We now know that there is not oneautism but many types, caused by different combinations of genetic and
environmental influences."
Many researchers have agreed that children are not born with Autism. Autism's most–obvious signs according to, (Autism Spectrum Overview) " Tend
to appear between 2 and 3 years of age. In some cases, it can be diagnosed as early as 18 months. Some developmental delays associated ... Show more
Seizures are also highly common as a symptom.
Seizures are found 1 in 4 children with autism, usually in those who have low IQ or are mute. Some Stereotyped symptoms of autism are hand
flipping, finger flicking, coin spinning, lining up objects, and other repeated actions. The reason these are considered stereotyped is because you can
find them in many different diseases or disorders. (What is Autism?)
Medication is often used to treat behavioral problems such as, aggression, self–injurious behavior, and severe tantrums, that keep the person with an
autism disorder from functioning more effectively at home, or school. The most common medication used is Fluoxetine (Prozac), this medicine is so
commonly used because it has been approved for children 7 and under. Haloperidol (Haldol), found most effective in more than one study.
Haloperidol can however have adverse side effects, such as sedation, muscle stiffness, and abnormal movements. Seizures are usually treated with one
of the following, Carbamazepine, Lamotrigine, Topiramate, and valproic acid. The level of medication in blood should be monitored, the least
amount possible is used to be effective. Left untreated, many autistic children will not develop effective social skills and may not learn to talk or
behave appropriately. If treated it can help the children and help them develop social skills efficiently, but will not cure autism. (What is

Essay On Bipolar
Ever felt joyful one second and the next upset with all surroundings? Imagine living with this illness throughout your life, and having little to no control
over it. Bipolar is known as a disease that involves unpredictable profound mood swings, that can affect anyone with severe symptoms which is
determined through diagnosis and observed precisely through possible causes, medications and therapies can provide help to stabilize the illness, and
experts continue to research ways to treat the disease.
Symptoms of bipolar range from maniac to depressive states, in which a person deals with mood swings which make them vulnerable in dealing with
intense emotional episodes. Mood swings that can lead to harm to the person cognitively, emotionally ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Medication that have been used to stabilize or help reduce mood swings that provoke a person to have an episode outburst can include valproate,
Carbamazepine, Oxcarbazepine, Lamotrigine, Quetiapine, Risperidone, Risperidone long–acting injection, Aripiprazole, Ziprasidone, Olanzapine,
Asenapine, Paliperidone, Clozapine and Haloperidol (Kristal 85) these medications do little to no improvement for the individual and can include side
effects that harm the person ability to function. For maniac or depressive episodes one of the most effective medication is the use of Lithium, this
treatment stabilizes the patient and is shown to reduce suicide (Kristal 83). Therapies of either the individual or the individual and there family are
also very common and can help a person learn to control their episode outburst and figure out what triggers them. Although Therapies can be proven
to help the person medications are always encouraged to be taken. Bipolar disease is a chronic disease which requires effective control by medication
if no medications is provided then the risk of suicide, social prejudice and low adherence to treatment can occur (Astres

The Imperfect Science Of Diagnosing And Treating Bipolar...
Shaylee Sigler Professor Dahl English 2 The Imperfect Science of Diagnosing and Treating Bipolar Disorder "Importance of Individuality" Bipolar
disorder, also known as manic–depressive illness, is a life long and potentially fatal illness caused by mood swings of depressive and manic episodes.
Bipolar disorder, if not properly treated, could interfere with relationships, a career or school performance, and is the cause in every 1 of 5 suicide
deaths. Physicians, as well as the patients, are not seriously acknowledging the severity of this illness. Patients are being misdiagnosed and commonly
treated without the recognition of their individuality. Treatment should be based on what works best and better suits the... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Some patients with BD are misdiagnosed, and in others the diagnosis changes during the course of their illness. Prevalence estimates of misdiagnosed
BD among those treated for unipolar depression are about 10%," although, in several studies, these numbers are much higher–18% to 45% in studies in
France, '^ the United States, '^ and Italy". This quote is suggesting that Bipolar disorder is commonly misdiagnosed and is treated improperly. I
believe that part of the reason for the excessive overdiagnoses and improper treatment is caused by the aggressive marketing to doctors by companies
that produce the drugs used to treat bipolar disorder. In my opinion; we live in a world where selfish greed and wealth defeats everything, including
the well–being of our own kind. The severity of the condition also factors upon how soon the disease is recognized and treated. The sooner "BPD"
can be treated ; the more likely someone with this disease can live a relatively normal life. When people are not treated or treated properly for BPD
they become a harm to themselves, as well as others. As further explained, "The mood swings of bipolar disorder can be profoundly destructive.
Depression can make you isolate yourself from friends and loved ones; and in manic periods, you may be reckless and volatile". " If BPD progresses
untreated, a response to treatment becomes less likely, and

Organizing Pneumonia Associated With Anticonvulsant...
Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia associated with anticonvulsant hypersensitivity syndrome induced by Lamotrigine Case Summary: A
14–year–old–girl known to have seizure disorder on Lamotrigine treatment admitted to the hospital with history of rash, fever and cough. Her condition
deteriorated initially with typical clinical features of anticonvulsant hypersensitivity syndrome (ACHS) complicated with bronchiolitis obliterans
organizing pneumonia (BOOP). Her chest computed tomography showed multifocal parenchymal opacities and the lung biopsy was typical for
BOOP. The Lamotrigine was discontinued when she first developed the skin rash and she was treated with high dose of corticosteroid. She improved
clinically and her repeated chest computed tomography showed marked resolution of the lesions. In the initial presentation she was treated for
pneumonia with antibiotics which may have delayed the diagnosis. This case illustrates the possible occurrence of BOOP as a complication of ACHS
secondary to Lamotrigine treatment. Background: BOOP is a rare lung condition in which the small airways (bronchioles and alveoli) become
inflamed with connective tissue. BOOP can be secondary to infections, various drugs, and other medical conditions. In many cases, the underlying
cause of BOOP is unknown. Anticonvulsant medications are widely used in pediatrics for different seizure disorders. ACHS is characterized by fever,
rash and internal organ involvement. It is a rare, but

Bipolar Disorder : A Mental Illness Caused By A Person 's...
Bipolar disorder is a mental illness caused by a chemical imbalance in a person's brain. Bipolar disorder can causes mood swings that can be both
manic and or hypomanic, changes in sleep patterns, energy and overall behavior of a person. An individual's environment can either hinder or aid in
coping with the diagnosis of bipolar disorder. A manic episode lasts for at least one week and consist of increased goal–oriented energy, along with
overly confident and excited feelings. These feelings may cause reckless or impulsive decisions. Many people experiencing manic episodes are known
to have delusions or hallucinations. Manic episodes, mood changes include an overly happy or outgoing mood, a period of feeling 'high' and extreme...
The three types of bipolar disorder are Bipolar I, Bipolar II and Cyclothymic. Bipolar I is at least one manic episodes that lasted at least seven days,
usually requiring immediate hospitalization. The manic episode may be followed by major depressive or hypomanic episodes. Bipolar II is at
least one major depressive episode that last at least two weeks, followed by at least one hypomanic episode lasting at least four days. The erratic
mood swings and behavior cause difficulty in areas of a person 's life. The Cyclothymic disorder, is when a person has experienced numerous
periods of hypomania linked with periods of depressive symptoms, in at least two years. Symptoms appear half the time and will be present for two
months. Bipolar disorder is not easily diagnosed and can go without detection for years. Signs of bipolar disorder often appear in mid to late teens or
early adult years. Many symptoms such as mood swings can lead to poor performance in a job or school, damaging relationship and even suicide if not
treated. When treated with the correct balance of medications and psychotherapy, people with bipolar disorder can control their mood swings and other
symptoms. Finding the correct medication is difficult. Many people with bipolar

Literature Review Of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome ( SJS )
Bipolar disorder is a complex mental health disorder that is characterized by recurrent episodes of elevated or irritable mood with variable states of
depression (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Patients suffering from bipolar disorder not taking any maintenance medications have been
shown to have relapse rates of approximately 61%, leading to significant impairments in functioning and quality of life (Goodwin et al., 2004).
Anticonvulsants used as mood stabilizers have become the main therapy for preventing relapse of mood episodes (Stahl, 2013). A major concern that
has risen from the use of anticonvulsants as mood stabilizers is the propensity to develop a major dermatologic emergency: Stevens–Johnson syndrome
(SJS). A seven–year study completed by Devi et al. (2005) concluded that anticonvulsants were the cause implicated most in SJS, especially in the first
eight weeks of treatment, and the main drug responsible (more than 80%) was carbamazepine. Providers involved in the initial and maintenance
prescription of anticonvulsants as mood stabilizers, or for any other designated use, should be knowledgeable of the risk for SJS associated with these
medications, and the benefit of using these medications as indicated. Literature Review Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS)
is a febrile mucocutaneous drug reaction mostly associated with adverse medication reactions (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS],
2017). SJS is a medical

Myoclonic Astatic Epilepsy
Epilepsy with Myoclonic–Astatic Seizures (Doose Syndrome):
The Prevalence of this type is ~1% to 2% of all childhood epilepsies. Age at onset is 7 months to 6 years with peak at 2 to 4 years. Both sexes are
affected, with a male predominance (ratio 2:1). Neurological and mental state is normal prior to the onset of seizures. The idiopathic form is
genetically determined (high incidence of seizures and/or genetic EEG patterns in relatives) and probably linked with GEFS+.
Cryptogenic and symptomatic myoclonic–astatic seizures are common but they are not part of Doose syndrome. Myoclonic–astatic seizures are the
defining symptoms (100%), manifesting with symmetrical myoclonic jerks immediately followed by loss of muscle tone (atonic component). ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It typically occurs in otherwise healthy adolescents and is characterized by the triad of myoclonic jerks, generalized tonic–clonic seizures (GTCS), and
absence seizures (also called petit mal). Seizures characteristically occur upon awakening or in association with sleep deprivation, and patients
generally respond quickly and completely to standard antiseizure drugs. Seizure frequency often lessens in adulthood but most patients require
life–long antiseizure drug therapy. The underlying cause of JME is not known and there are likely complex underlying genetic defects. JME accounts
for 25 to 30 percent of the idiopathic generalized epilepsies and up to 10 percent of all cases of epilepsy. The gender ratio in JME is generally
considered to be equal, but several studies have reported a female preponderance of up to 2.9:1. The mean age of onset is 15 years, with a range of 5 to
34 years. The majority of patients are diagnosed between the ages of 12 and 18 years. (Christian M Korff, 2016)

Oxycodone Research Paper
Oxycodone is an opioid pain medication. An opioid is sometimes called a narcotic. Acetaminophen is a less potent pain reliever that increases the
effects of oxycodone. Acetaminophen and oxycodone is a combination medicine used to relieve moderate to severe pain. Acetaminophen and
oxycodone may also be used for purposes not listed in this medication guide. Uses This combination medication is used to help relieve moderate to
severe pain. It contains a narcotic pain reliever (oxycodone) and a non–narcotic pain reliever (acetaminophen). Oxycodone works in the brain to change
how your body feels and responds to pain. Acetaminophen can also reduce a fever. Dosage Dosage should be adjusted according to the severity of the
pain and the response of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A total of 838 drugs (4486 brand and generic names) are known to interact with Primlev (acetaminophen / oxycodone). Alprazolam Ambien CR
(zolpidem) amlodipine / benazepril carisoprodol Ecotrin (aspirin) Fentora (fentanyl) fexofenadine Lamictal (lamotrigine) Lyrica (pregabalin)
Metoprolol mirtazapine Nucynta (tapentadol) Nuvigil (armodafinil) omeprazole OxyContin (oxycodone) Paroxetine Promethazine Trazodone Vytorin
(ezetimibe / simvastatin) Zanaflex

Trigeminal Neuralgia
Trigeminal neuralgia is one of the most unfortunate and psychologically devastating medical conditions known to men. This chronic pain disorder is
characterized by recurrent episodes of lacinating pain in one side of the face – often around the jaw or teeth. Episode can last seconds, minutes or even
hours, and repeat several times per day. Patients generally describe the pain as an electric shock, stabbing or burning sensation on the face. Trigeminal
neuralgia is one of the most painful conditions documented in medical literature, and victims frequently endure frustatingly long struggles before the
disease is correctly diagnosed. The disorder is also colloquially known as the 'suicide disease'. Current drug–based treatments (anticonvulsants, muscle
relaxants or antipsychotics) bring some relief to most patients, but at the price of potentially dangerous side effects. A new drug developed by
researchers at the University of Zurich promises a better compromise for patients.
Selective inhibition of sodium channel 1.7
The new drug called BIIB074 underwent a phase 2 trial across multiple ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The new drug blocks the sodium channel 1.7 according to the channel's level of activity – the more active the channel is the stronger will be the drugs
hampering effect. Current drugs, in comparison, block the sodium channels without accounting for the activity level, which results in unecessary side
effects. Sodium channels are located in nerve cell membranes. Their activation triggers the sensation of pain, the severity of which is proportional to
the channels' activity level. According to the Zurich researchers, trigeminal neuralgia is believed to stem from a nerve deficiency or damage at the
base of the skull. Given that local injections cannot reach this region, drugs are the first line of defense against the

Essay on Review of Differences in Adolescent Bipoar
PSYC101 Journal Article Review Assignment– Part 2
Article Analysis, Connection, and Reflection
Due: 11:55pm ET Sunday at the end of Week 6 of the 8–week course term
You may work on this assignment ahead of its deadline but may not submit it prior to Week 6.
Points Possible: 140
OVERVIEW: For Part I of this two–part assignment you identified and summarized elements of a published scholarly article selected from the
classroom Resources Folder. For Part 2, which is due by the end of Week 6, you will analyze, connect, and reflect on aspects of your selected article.
Note that the words "succinct" and "thorough" repeat regularly in the instructions below. They will serve as reminders that this is a formal assignment
and sentence ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The type of approach that the researchers in the article I chose was a case study which provides in depth information on individuals and promotes a
good source of hypothesis.(Wade p.27) The issue I see with this type of study is in their choice of participants which only represented the Caucasian
population. I would have used a correlational study because the whole point of the research was to compare and contrast bipolar disorder in
adolescence. According to Wade on page 28, the down side to this would be in how this type of study doesn't permit identification of cause and effect.
This is okay with me because the subjects are being compared so the cause isn't all that important.
2. Write a succinct and thorough paragraph in the space below describing a research method other than the one noted in your selected article that the
article author(s) could have used to conduct the same study and explain why it would be suitable as an alternative method. NOTE: The alternative
research method you select must be suited for the article's study so you will want to review the assigned course readings on the various types of
methods. Include in the body of your writing appropriately placed and formatted source citations for both the article and the course textbook. Another
alternative method to comparing the effects of bipolar in

Symptoms And Treatment Of Bipolar Disorder
Discussion In conclusion, Ben Tang was diagnosed with bipolar II disorder indicated by DSM–5 at age 47. He experienced symptoms such as feeling
depressed, suicidal thoughts, and worthlessness in depressive episodes. He experienced symptoms such as racing mind, trouble falling asleep, and
committing reckless behaviors in hypomanic episodes. It can be challenging to live with bipolar disorder because the symptoms can be hard to deal
with. There are several ways to manage bipolar disorder, include medications, support group, and persistent meetings with psychological and
pharmacological professionals with treatment options. It is very difficult to find the perfect treatment at the early stage of disorder. It takes time to find
the treatment... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He was seen by many specialized professionals and led him to understand more about his disorder. He is no longer embarrassed by the fact that he
has bipolar disorder and keeping a positive attitude. A lot of people with mental disorder symptoms refuse to get treated because of the social stigma.
It is not a good trend and people should be educated with a positive attitude toward any kind of disorders. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013) is most commonly used by clinicians and health professionals for the
classification of mental disorders. The DSM–5 defines bipolar disorder as a mix of different mental disorders, which may include manic episode,
hypomanic episode, major depressive episode, and mixed episode (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The DSM–5 defines manic episode is a
distant period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased goal–directed activity or
energy that last at least one week. The symptoms in a manic episode include inflated self–esteem, decreased need for sleep, more talkative than usual,
racing ideas, distractibility, increase in goal–directed activity, excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential for painful consequences.
The symptoms in a hypomanic episode are similar to the symptoms of manic episode, except with less duration and intensity.

Grand Mal Seizure Research Paper
Our brain is susceptible to many diseases that disrupt normal function, like the disease known as Grand Mal Seizures. Normally, electrical charges
are produced by ions in the brain(sodium, potassium, or calcium) and they are released on a regular basis. When released, nerve cells are able to
effectively communicate with each other. When a seizure occurs it's due to this process being disturbed. The Ions are damaged cause chemical
imbalances which leads to misfired nerve signals. Grand Mal seizures are characterized by three stages. These stages include the Pre–Ictal stage, the
Ictal stage(where the seizure occurs), and the Postictal stage. In the first stage, a patient is likely to see a hallucination or some sort of warning sign
before the

Borderline Personality Disorder (NPD)
Borderline personality disorder Both of these disorders share the ongoing need for diligence, emotional instability, and doubtful behavior. Narcissistic
individuals have a higher sense of grandness than a person with BPD. A person with BPD shows self–destructive behaviors and doesn't care about
themselves unlike a person with NPD (Ambardar, 2016b).
Antisocial personality disorder Both ASPD and NPD share the same qualities when it comes to not showing any empathy and disregarding the needs
and feelings for others. The difference between the two is the ASPD patients shows physical aggressiveness, transgressions with the law, and
misconduct during childhood and these are not seen in individuals with NPD. Narcissistic people are more arrogant ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It all determines if the NPD patient has an Axis I diagnosis of major depression or any depressive symptoms relative to egotistic pathology that will
influence the lengthen the course of treatment. Different types of SSRI's are Celexa, Lexapro, Prozac, Luvox CR, and many others. Celexa, or
Citalopram, can enhance the serotonin activity in the neuronal membrane. Lexapro, or Escitalopram, is used to treat depression in NPD patients and
relief of depression can occur faster with this antidepressant better than any other antidepressant. Prozac, or Fluoxetine, inhibits presynaptic serotonin
with little to no effect on the reuptake of norepinephrine or dopamine. Luvox CR, or Fluvoxamine, has fewer adverse effects than tricyclic
antidepressants (Ambardar,

Bipolar Disorder Analysis
Bipolar disorder is an illness associated with mood swings ranging from high (manic) to low (depressive) (Sinacola & Peters–Strickland, 2012). Bipolar
disorder is understood to originate biologically; however, in some cases environmental factors may trigger the illness. In addition, there are many
types of bipolar disorders, such as type 1 and 2, cyclothymia, and rapid cycling. Bipolar Disorder Type presents symptoms such as manic, depressive, or
mixed. Bipolar Disorder Type 2 is similar; yet, the mania is limited to hypomania. Meaning the high moods never come to a full–on manic episode.
Cyclothymia is a milder form of the illness, where rapid cycling consists of four or more manic or depressive episodes. Furthermore, high rates of ...
Anticonvulsants main domains consist of treating seizures and bipolar disorder. Many researchers believe that anticonvulsants increase concentration
of the neurotransmitter GABBA. Valproate, Carbamazepine, Lamotrigine, and Gabapentin are the main anticonvulsants used to treat the disorder.
Valproate. Valproate is a common anticonvulsant drug and mood stabilizer used to treat bipolar disorder (Atmaca, 2009). It is now becoming the
first line of defense when treating bipolar disorder as well as being approved by the FDA. It is useful for patients who suffer from atypical and
mixed mood phases. Like Lithium, Valproate does come with side effects. Valproate side effects include hair loss, rashes, weight gain, and tremors.
However, these side effects are reduced by monitoring serum levels (Dreifuss & Langer, 1988). Additionally, similar to lithium, testing is also
required with Valproate. Carbamazepine. Carbamazepine is another anticonvulsant drug that is widely used as a mood stabilizer; however, it is not
approved by the FDA as a mood stabilizer (Sinacola & Peters–Strickland, 2012). Common side effects of Carbamazepine include rashes, dizziness, and
fatigue. In addition to the other drugs mentioned, carbamazepine also requires testing with its use because it may increase the risk of agranulocytosis.
However, it is rare with proper monitoring by the

Post Lumbar Discontinue: A Case Study
Discontinue, but gradual weaning is advised.
The claimant presented with chronic left lower limb radicular symptoms status post lumbar surgery complicated by postoperative arachnoiditis. She
had an ambulatory dysfunction secondary to a left foot drop. Her physical examination revealed weakness, lower limb numbness, and a positive straight
leg raise test on the left. The claimant has been taking Topiramate since 2013. It was noted that the symptoms failed to improve with Duloxetine.
However, a significant improvement of neurological symptoms from the prior use of Topiramate was also not mentioned in the submitted report.
Therefore, the continued use of this drug is no longer supported. Gradual weaning is advised prior to discontinuation to avoid possible severe
withdrawal symptoms. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The claimant presented with chronic left lower limb radicular symptoms status post lumbar surgery complicated by postoperative arachnoiditis. She
had an ambulatory dysfunction secondary to a left foot drop. It was also mentioned that the claimant had depression. Her physical examination revealed
weakness, lower limb numbness, and a positive straight leg raise test on the left.
However, a significant improvement in radicular pain was not documented. Furthermore, according to NCBI, more placebo–controlled trials would be
required for the complete confirmation of the efficacy of lamotrigine, an antiepileptic mood stabilizer in the treatment of depression.
The continued use of this drug is not supported.
The injured worker is prescribed a total of 450 mg MEDs per day.
As such, Methadone was decreased to 2.5 mg.
Yes. The claimant has signed an opioid treatment agreement.
There was a mention that the claimant underwent random urine drug screening. However, the official report was not submitted for

Ftir History
History of the FTIR
The FTIR came from the IR (infrared) spectrum that was found in the 1800s. IR spectrum was discovered by Sir William Herschel. A scientist named
Peter Fellget had obtained the first IR spectrum by using the FTIR in 1949.
The FTIR stands for Fourier Transfrom Infrared Spectroscopy. More FTIRs were being used by the 1960s. When matter and energy interact it
produces wavelengths that can be seen by the FTIR. Basically, all FT are waveforms that are just the sum of simply sinusoids of different frequencies.
It uses a mathematical tool that show how to deconstruct the waveform of the sinusoid components. The FTIR analyzes the absorption of certain
wavelengths by a solid or liquid sample. "FT–IR Spectrometers are often ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It concluded that most of the components in the lamotrigine was Breyer's yeast. It also contained 4–Bromopyridine HCL and 3,4–diamino–5–pyrazolol
sulfate. However, based on research, it should have yielded 3,5–diamino–6–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)–as–triazine as being a component in the Lamotrigine.
Lamotrigine's chemical name is 3,5–diamino–6–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)–as–triazine (http://www.rxlist.com/lamictal–drug.htm). Each tablet contains the
labeled amount of lamotrigine and the following inactive ingredients: lactose; magnesium stearate; microcrystalline cellulose; povidone; sodium starch
glycolate; FD&C Yellow No. 6 Lake (100–mg tablet only) (http://www.rxlist.com/lamictal–drug.htm).
The second type of medicine that I used in my experimentation was Hydrocodone. This medicine is used to help deal with pain after surgery was
performed. I had crushed the Hydrocodone tablet into powdered form, so it can be placed on the handheld HazMatID FTIR sensor. Once it was in
powdered form, I had took the handheld HazMatID FTIR, selected the identify button, and then sterilized the sensor on the FTIR with a alcohol pad.
After sterilizing the sensor, I placed the powder form of Hydrocodone onto the handheld HazMatID FTIR

Anti Epilepsy Research Paper
Epilepsy is a chronic neurologic disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, brought on by excessive excitability of neurons in the brain. A seizure is
divided into two broad categories: partial and generalized. Symptoms can range from brief periods of unconsciousness to violent convulsions. Epilepsy
is initiated by synchronous, high–frequency discharge from a group of hyperexcitable neurons called a focus. A focus may result from several causes,
including congenital defects, hypoxia at birth, head trauma, brain infection, stroke, cancer, and genetic disorders. The Anti–epileptic drugs can suppress
mania and/or depression and stabilize mood in a patient with BPD. Drugs including, divalproes sodium, carbamazepine, and lamotrigine ... Show more
Suppression of Calcium influx: In the axon terminal influx of calcium through voltage–gated calcium channels promotes transmitter release; hence,
drugs that block these calcium channels can suppress transmission. Several AEDs calcium channels can suppress transmission. Several AEDs including
valproic acid and ethosuximide, act by this mechanism. 3. Promotion of potassium influx: Drug (ezogabine ) act on voltage–gates potassium channels
to facilitate potassium influx. – underlie the drug's ability to slow repetitive neuronal firing thereby provide seizure control
4. Antagonism of Glutamate: is the primary excitatory transmitter in the CNS. This work through two receptors' NMDA receptors
(N–menthel–D–aspartate receptors) and AMPA receptors (Apha_amino–3–hydroxy–5–methyl_4– isoxazole propionic acidrereceptors), – This action
suppress neuronal excitation
5. Potentiation of GABA: AEDs potentiate the action of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is widely distributed through the brain. by
augmenting the action of GABA, these drugs decrease neuronal excitability, thus suppress seizure activity
The drugs produce side effects in most people, but there is a lack of evidence for most of the drugs in most types of neuropathic pain and fibromyalgia.
Drugs such as lacosamide, lamotrigine, carbamazepam, clonazepam, phynytam have shown at least 50% pain intensity reduction over

Compare And Contrast The Discovery Of Phenytoin And Later...
The discovery of phenytoin and later trimethadione by using standard animal seizure models gave impetus to thousands of candidate drugs for the
treatment of seizures. Between 1945 and 1950, several investigators conducted tests with a variety of seizures models, but failed to find one in
which all drugs were active. In 1953 carbamazepine was synthesized by Schindler at the Geigy laboratories in Switzerland [26]. In 1960 a
succinimide derivative ethosuximide was discovered for the treatment of epilepsy. Initially in 1962, it was used to treat trigeminal neuralgia, and later
in 1963, it was used clinically to treat epileptic seizures. Interestingly all antiepileptic drug developments from 1912 to 1960 were based on a simple
heterocyclic ring structure.

Essay on bipolar disorder
Bipolar Disorder also known as Manic Depressive Illness involves outstanding mood swings. The individual has periods of depression, and periods
when they feel either unusually good or pressured and irritable. It affects 1–2% of the population. Genetics plays a significant role. About 15% of
children with one bipolar parent develop the disorder.
Treatments include medication, supportive psychotherapy and occasionally ECT. Medications includelithium, anticonvulsant drugs (carbamazepine
(Tegretol), valproate (Depakote), gabapentin (Neurontin) and lamotrigine Lamictal), antidepressants (such as bupropion (Wellbutrin)or sertraline
(Zoloft)), neuroleptics (e.g. haloperidol) and benzodiazepines (e.g. lorazepam) Treatment choices depend on the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It is most often used when medication doesn't work or is unsafe.
Lithium is a top choice for acute mania and for maintenance in 'classic' bipolar disorder. Because of its narrow therapeutic range, blood levels must be
monitored; also heart and kidney function (EKG, blood and urine tests). Medications such as diuretics, that block its excretion require caution.
Anticonvulsants have an edge with rapid–cycling and mixed mood states (e.g. depression with racing thoughts). Except for gabapentin (Neurontin)
and lamotrigine (Lamictal), they require blood tests. Carbamazepine (Tegretol) is monitored with blood levels; also CBC, platelets and liver function
tests. Valproate (Depakote) requires CBC, platelet count and liver function tests; blood levels may be helpful. Lamotrigine (Lamictal) requires caution
because of its association with a rare but dangerous skin rash (exfoliative dermatitis); risk can be minimized by starting with low doses and increasing
gradually. Use lower doses with medications that slow lamotrigine metabolism (e.g. valproate). Gabapentin is generally safe and does not require blood
tests.
It is not unusual for patients to need more than one mood stabilizing medication for best results.
Because bipolar disorders are generally recurrent, maintenance treatment is usually needed. This is especially true when there have been multiple
episodes, a clear family history of bipolar disorder or symptom onset before age 18. Effective maintenance

Beta Poptit Analysis
Two auxiliary beta subunits, together with a central alpha subunit make up a typical voltage–gated sodium channel (3). Anchoring of the channel to the
membrane as well as traffic regulation in maintained by the beta subunit, whereas the alpha subunit provides the channel with stability to work as
functional channel (1). The alpha subunit is compromised of four homologous domains (D1–D4)(1) and each domain consists of six alpha helical
transmembrane segments (S1–S6)(3). The channel can be selective because of the poor loops between S5–S6 present in each domain. The
transmembrane segment S4, in each domain, is able to act as a voltage sensor by holding amino acids that are positively charged (3). The diagram
below shows a voltage gated sodium... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using rat models of neuropathic pain, Nav 1.7 selective blockers have been seen to be successful in inhibiting Nav 1.7 activity (4).
In vivo in a rat peripheral axotomy model, complete inhibitions of spontaneous neuronal firing were seen by researchers at Merck who were able to
develop Nav 1.7 blockers using benzodiazepine (4). In addition to this, related compounds were developed which were successful in rat models.
However, poor pharmacokinetics were established with these benzazepinone–based Nav 1.7 blockers (4)
Pro–TX II, tarantula venom inhibits Nav 1.7, by targeting the voltage–sensors of Nav 1.7. The venom causes a depolarising shift. However, the
limitation to ProTx II being used therapeutically in pain is that it cannot cross the blood–nerve barrier and therefore is unsuccessful in decreasing
inflammatory and short term pain

Medical Case Study: Cesar Sanchez
Cesar Sanchez is a 61 year old Hispanic male that was admitted to RGSC on 07/12/1982. He has speech and gait disturbance, hearing and vision
impairment; he is non–verbal but appears to understand English. He can communicate his needs with body gestures and pointing to items. He is
dependent for all ADL's and ambulation he is at high risk for falls; his adaptive equipment consist of Lift vest to assist with ambulation; wears an
elastic knee brace and AFO brace to left leg, shower chair, bed sensor, chair sensor and wheelchair for long distances.; Cesar has history of patellar
(left) and L2 fractures. Cesar had 2 seizures episodes during this year with no serious injuries as a result of those seizures. Keppra was added to his
seizure management

Epilepsy: A Case Study
Rationale: Fast alpha variant is a rare benign activity seen in EEG with an incidence of <1% in the general population.1 It appears as a fast rhythmic
activity (16–20 Hz) during the awake state with twice the frequency of waking background alpha frequency. It is thought to be a benign variant of
unknown clinical significance and does not predict an increased convulsive tendency. High incidence of the fast alpha variant has been reported in
patients with psychoneurosis and idiopathic generalized epilepsy.2 We present a case of idiopathic generalized absence epilepsy where fast alpha
rhythm potentiate epileptiform discharges and clinical seizures. Methods: Retrospective chart review Results: A 20–year–old female with a known
diagnosis of idiopathic generalized childhood absence epilepsy (CAE) was admitted to our epilepsy monitoring unit for prolonged video EEG to
characterize the events of staring and medication efficaciousness. She was diagnosed with CAE at age of 7 years and failed multiple seizure
medications. Most recently she is taking lamotrigine. Her EEG showed a background of 8–9 Hz alpha frequency with frequent periods of a rhythmic
posterior predominant fast beta frequency of 16–20 Hz lasting 2–4 seconds, consistent with the fast alpha variant. No change in clinical activity was
noted during these intervals. Interictally occasional burst of high amplitude right frontal and generalized frontal predominant 3 Hz spike and polyspike
wave discharges were noted. Interestingly fast alpha variant if lasting в‰Ґ 3 seconds, was followed by right frontal and generalized 3 Hz spike and
wave discharges. Clinically during these intervals, patient had eye blinking, consistent with... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fast alpha variant, though benign if present longer than 3 seconds can potentiate intrinsic epileptogenesis and induce clinical

Idiopathic Epilepsy Phenotypes
Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurological disorders affecting about 50 million people worldwide (Leach and Abassi., 2013). The
incidence of epilepsy in childhood is more than twice that in the adult population (Salomon JA et al., 2012). Majority of epilepsy phenotypes result
from interaction between genes and environmental factors. Only 1–2% idiopathic epilepsies seem to be monogenic; whereas most of them are believed
to be polygenic (Weber YG et al., 2008). More recently copy number variation and whole exome sequencing studies on larger populations have
provided modern added evidence for the role of genetics in epilepsy (Mefford HC .,2014).Whereas the role of genetic factors in idiopathic epilepsies
has long been suspected, the role of these factors in cryptogenic and symptomatic epilepsies has been demonstrated in a number of other studies
(Peljto AL et al., 2014). It is now thought that genetic factors account for about 40% of the etiologic causes of epilepsy (Guerrini R and Noebels J.,
2014).... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Inherited forms of idiopathic epilepsies indicate that ''channelopathies'' represent frequent functional pathways of paroxysmal network synchronization
and epileptogenesis (Bockenhauer D et al., 2009). Оі Amino butyric acid (GABA) is the most important inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Structurally Gama amino butyric acid (GABAA) receptors are pentameric chloride ion channels formed from various combinations of proteins encoded
by subunit gene families. The О±1ОІ2 Оі2 subunit combination of GABAA receptor is most abundant in almost all regions of the brain (Reid et
al.,2009).Mutations in the О±1subunit have been identified in patients suffering from early infantile epileptic encephalopathy, juvenile myoclonic
epilepsy, and other types of seizures disorders (Carvill et al.,

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Bipolar Disorder Essay
If you were told you suffered from a Bipolar Disorder, would you know what that meant? Bipolar disorders affect about three million people a
year. Here is some background information on the different types of bipolar disorders, the possible symptoms, along with some treatment options.
While bipolar disorders are not curable, they are treatable. Steve Bressert states, "Bipolar Disorder is a mental disorder that is characterized by
constantly changing moods between depression and mania. The mood swings are significant, and the experiences of the highs of mania and the
lows of depression are usually extreme. (Bressert) " In other words, mood swings, forms of mania and depression can be felt intensely by a person. A
manic episode makes people have extreme happiness and no need for sleep. While a depressive episode makes you have extreme sadness, no energy,
and make you feel hopeless. A person with a bipolar disorder can have three years of normal moods between manic or depressive episodes. Gong up
and down between strong emotions can make someone feel like they cannot have a normal life. Cycling between emotions can be rapid or happen
slowly over time. It can be as often as multiple times a week. However, most people experience a high manic episode or a low depressive episode over
long periods of times. This does make it hard to lead a regular life. If you have experienced one manic episode, you will most likely have future
episodes. Directly before you have a depressive

Bipolar Disorder Research Paper
Bipolar disorder What is bipolar disorder? Bipolar disorder is a psychiatric condition characterized by episodes of mania, hypomania, or depression.
The condition is most commonly seen in individuals age 18–20. Depression is typically the mood at onset of the disorder. Major depression is
characterized by low mood, impaired sleep, changes in appetite, weight changes, low, energy, and abnormal concentration. Mania is normally described
as episodes of heightened or elevated mood, grandiose thoughts, nights with little sleep, pressured speech, and participation in risky behaviors.
Hypomania is a milder form of mania. A significant portion of patients with bipolar disorder have another underlying psychiatric diagnosis such as drug
dependence... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They may go several nights without getting significant sleep – they often participate in risky behaviors during this time such as gambling or
prostitution. Hypomania is a milder form of mania that has no psychotic features and does not require hospitalization. How is bipolar disorder
diagnosed? The diagnosis of bipolar disorder based on symptoms and physical examination findings. Your doctor may order laboratory tests to rule
out metabolic disorders that could mimic bipolar disease. Commonly ordered blood tests include a CMP (comprehensive metabolic panel), CBC
(complete blood cell count), and thyroid function (TSH, free T4). Your doctor may also obtain a urine drug screen. Certain criteria must typically be
met according to the guidelines of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Bipolar disorder
is categorized into two subtypes: bipolar I and bipolar II. Bipolar I results in manic episodes and is almost always associated with major depression and
hypomania. Bipolar II disorder is characterized by either hypomanic or major depressive episodes, but mania is typically

Lamotrigine: A Case Study
Lamotrigine, like any anticonvulsant drug, has withdrawal symptoms when stopped abruptly. Although lamotrigine has not shown to be a
habit–forming or addictive drug, there is still the possibility of withdrawal symptoms when inappropriately discontinuing the drug. Most common
cases of withdrawal symptoms are returns of bipolar episodes, headaches, depression, and irrational thinking. Discontinuation of lamotrigine is best
done in small increments over several weeks, with the advice of a doctor. This is done in order to reduce the withdrawal symptoms and to allow a safe
change in medications (Parker, C., 2016).
Empirical article – Lamotrigine:
The empirical article on lamotrigine is a case study by Case Western Reserve University and their... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, with any trail and article, possible issues arise that must be questioned. For example, the article states that the trials ran for a 48 week
period, which in my opinion was too short of a period to show the effectiveness of this drug. Drugs such as lamotrigine should be studied for several
years in order to assess the long term effects of the drug on the brain, activity and overall effects on the patients bipolar condition. There could be a
possibility that several long term effects could be produced in the long run but were unfortunately not done in trails to see these effects. Secondly, the
article states that the trail was done as an open–trail. Open–trail's unfortunately open the situation of bias as both the patients and the doctors have
knowledge of the drug in use. The experiment should have involved the use of placebos so that the possibility of patient bias could be reduced and
therefore making the overall trail much more successful. The possibility of bias can definitely make this trail untrustworthy and must definitely be seen
with a grain of

Anti Epilepsy Observational Study

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