1. HELPING GUIDE FOR PHONETICS TEST
ARTICULATION
Articulation is the production of speech sounds by using the speech organs to modify the air
stream set in motion by the lungs.
Consonants are classified according to the place of articulation and manner of
articulation:
I. Point of Articulation:
Bilabial: Articulated by the lower lip against the upper lip.
/p/ /b/ /m/
Labio-dental: Articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth.
/v/ /f/
Dental: Articulated by the tongue tip against the upper teeth.
/ð/ /θ/
Alveolar: Articulated by the tongue blade or tip and blade against the alveolar ridge.
/t/ /d/ /n/ /l/ /s/ /z/
Post-Alveolar: Articulated by raising the tongue tip towards the rear of the alveolar
ridge. /r/
Palato-Alveolars: Articulated by the approaching of the front of the tongue to the hard
palate and the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge, usually accompanied by some
lip-rounding./tʃ/ /ʃ/ /dʒ/ /ʒ/
Palatal: Articulated by raising the front of the tongue towards the hard palate.
/j/
Velars: Articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palad.
/k/ /g/ /ŋ/
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2. Labio-Velar: Articulated by raising the back of the tongue towards the soft palate and
rounding lips. /w/
Glottal: The two vocal folds in the larynx approach each other to interfere with the air
stream
/h/
II. Manner of Articulation:
Plosives: Articulated by the complete obstruction of the mouth passage, entirely
blocking the air flows for a moment.
/p/ /b/ /k/ /g/ /t/ /d/
Fricatives: Articulated by narrowing the mouth passage so as to make the air flow
turbulent while allowing it pass continuously.
/s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /f/ /v/ /ð/ /θ/ /h/
Affricates: Articulated with first complete obstruction and then a narrowing of the mouth
passage.
/tʃ/ /dʒ/
Nasals: Articulated by complete obstruction of the mouth passage but allowing
the air to pass through the nose.
/m/ /n/ /ŋ/
Liquids: Articulated dividing or modifying the air flow in the mouth, but allowing it
pass continuously without turbulence.
/r/ /l/
Semivowels:Articulated like a vowel but functioning like consonants because they are not
syllabic. /w/ /j/
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3. It is also included in the categories of classification the position of the vocal folds. When the
vocal folds vibrate, it is said that they are voiced. In the other hand, if they do not vibrate, it is
said that they are voiceless.
I. Voiced Consonants
Ʒ
II. Voiceless Consonants
ALLOPHONES AND PHONEMES
In phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds that belong to the same
phoneme. A phoneme is an abstract unit of speech sound that can distinguish words: That is,
changing a phoneme in a word produces another word. Speakers of a particular language
perceive a phoneme as a distinctive sound in that language. An allophone is not distinctive,
but rather a variant of a phoneme; changing the allophone won't change the meaning of a
word, but the result may sound non-native, or be unintelligible.
Every time a speech sound is produced, it will be slightly different from other utterances.
Only some of the variation is significant (i.e., detectable or perceivable) to speakers. There
may be complementary allophones which are distributed regularly within speech according
to phonetic environment, as well as notable free variants, which are a matter of personal
features. Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones.
In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic
context and may be involved in a phonological process.
We are going to study some allophones:
a) Dark L [ ɫ]:
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4. It is an allophone of the phoneme /l/. We use it in complementary distribution (i.e. It is
determined by a phonological environment). We have got two phonological environments:
1) We use [ɫ] when followed by a consonant or a pause.
e.g. Pool Milk
/puːl/ /mɪlk/
[ɫ] [ɫ]
2) In G.A. it appears in all phonological environments.
b) Flap [ ɾ]:
Flap is an allophone of the phoneme /t/. It happens in Free Variation. There’s only one
phonological environment in R.P. :
1) We use [ɾ] in final position between vowels:
e.g. What a shame?
/wət ə ˈʃeɪm/
[ɾ]
c) Glottal Stop [ ʔ] :
Glottal stop is an allophone of /t/. It happens in Free Variation. It is used in the following
phonological environment:
1) When /t/ is syllable final and followed by a consonant or a pause and usually preceded
by a vowel.
e.g. What? Right Not now
/wɒt/ /raɪt/ /nɒt nau/
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5. [ʔ] [ʔ] [ʔ]
ALLOPHONIC VARIATION
1) Linking “r”:
In R.P. and other non rhotic accents orthographic “r” is not pronounced when it is followed by
a consonant or a pause:
Short Sure
/ʃɔːt/ /ʃɔː/#
But when “r” is in final position followed by a vowel, it is pronounced.
e.g. Sure it is...
/ʃɔː ɪt ɪz/
/ʃɔːr ɪt ɪz/
If we want to speak R.P. properly, we MUST use linking “r”.
2) Yod Coalescence:
Yod is the name of the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet – it stands for the vowel /i:/
or the semi-vowel /j/. In English phonetics Yod coalescence is a form of assimilation, a
phenomenon which takes place when /j/ is preceded by certain consonants most commonly /
t / and /d/:
[dj] [dʒ]
Could you help me?
/kʊd ju help mi:/
/kʊdʒu help mi:/
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6. [tj] [tʃ]
What you need
/wɒt ju ni:d/
/wɒtʃu ni:d/
In a similar way /s/ + /j/, and /z/ + /j/ can sometimes be pronounced as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/
respectively, but this is less common and not of great interest to the foreign student of
English at this stage.
[sj] [ʃ]
[zj] [ʒ]
Yod coalescence is common in colloquial speech and is becoming ever more so. Note that it
can occur within words (e.g. tube /tju:b/ = /tʃu:b/) and between word boundaries.
3) Devoicing:
Devoicing is a phonological process whereby a consonant that is normally voiced becomes
devoiced (i.e. unvoiced) due to the influence of a phonological element in its phonological
environment.
Those consonants are:
° Voiced Plosives: /b/ /g/ d/
° Voiced Fricatives: /z/ /ʒ//v//ð/
° Voiced Affricates: /dʒ/
When those consonants are followed by a voiceless consonant or a pause, they devoice.
…beans.
/biːnz#/ [biːnz]
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7. …cheese sandwich.
/tʃiːz sænwɪtʃ/ [tʃiːz sænwɪtʃ]
…traveled.
/ trævəld#/ [trævəld]
This process is different from the concept of a consonant being voiceless. The difference is
that voiceless consonants are always voiceless, whereas a devoiced consonant is one that is
usually voiced, but which becomes unvoiced under very specific circumstances.
4) Assimilation:
Sounds adapt to what comes after. In particular Alveolar plosives and nasals (/t/ /d/ /n/)
change their points of articulation, when followed by a bilabial or velar (/p/ /b/ /m/ /k/
/g/), adopting the point of articulation of the following consonant.
e.g.
I. /n/ > [m]
When followed by a bilabial (/p/ /b/ /m/)
…in Paris, in Berlin and in Madrid.
/np/ /nb/ /nm/
[mp] [mb] [mm]
II. /n/ > [ ŋ ]
When followed by /k/ and /g/
…in Cuba, in Greece.
/nk/ /ng/
[ŋk] [ŋg]
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8. III. /t/ > [ p ]
When followed by a bilabial sound
What play, Great boy, Not many.
/tp/ /tb/ /tm/
[pp] [pb] [pm]
IV. /t/ > [ k ]
When followed by a velar consonant.
Great king. Great guy.
/tk/ /tg/
[kk] [kg]
V. /d/ > [b]
When followed by a bilabial.
Good place. Good bye. Good man.
/dp/ /db/ /dm/
[bp] [bb] [bm]
VI. /d/ > [g]
When followed by a velar sound.
Mad queen. Mad guy.
/dk/ /dg/
[gk] [gg]
5) Coarticulation: [ ]
Any plosive followed by a homorganic consonant (same point of articulation); There’s no
separate release but the plosive is released through the following sound
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9. Mad queen. Mad guy.
/dk/ /dg/
[gk] [gg]
6) Types of release
Plosives have oral release, but in some contexts, plosives, can release in a nasal, lateral,
inaudible and no-separate way.
i. Nasal release:
n
Plosives have nasal release [ ], before a homorganic nasal.
/p, b/ + /m/ = [pn, bn]
e.g.
Topmost. Cheap meat.
n
[tɒp məʊst tʃiːpn miːt]
/t, d/ + /n/ = [tn, dn]
e.g.
Cotton. Not now.
n n
[kɑ:t n nɒt nau]
/k, g/ + / ŋ / = [kn, gn]
ii. Lateral release:
l
Alveolar plosives /t,d/ have lateral release [ ] when followed by a homorganic lateral /l/.
e.g.
Little. Saddle
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10. [lɪtll] [sædll]
iii. No audible release:
When plosives are followed by a pause or a heterorganic plosive (Different point of
articulation), it will take a no audible release. [¬]
e.g.
Shut up !!!
¬
[ʃʌt ʌp ]
Smog.
[smɒg¬]
Drink too much.
[k¬ t]
iv. No separate release:
Check Coarticulation.
7) Aspiration
The audible puff of breath between the release of a voiceless plosive and the onset of a
following vowel, represented by [h] in transcription.
/p,t,k/ when they are in initial position and stressed.
Pity Tidy Keep.
[ˈphɪti ˈthaɪdi ˈkhiːp]
They are not aspirated after /s/
8) Syllabic Consonants
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11. In phonetics, a syllable is a group of sounds that are pronounced together. Each syllable
contains exactly one vowel.
Most syllables contain an obvious vowel sound. Sometimes, though, a syllable consists
phonetically only of a consonant or consonants. If so, this consonant is a nasal or a liquid.
For example, in the usual pronunciation of SUDDENLY the second syllable consists of /n/
alone. Such a consonant is a syllabic consonant.
['sʌdn̩li]
It is graphically expressed [ˌ]
9) Dentalization
When alveolars /t, d , l , n/ are followed by /ð θ/.
Although.
ɫð
п
PRACTICING
I. Transcribe the following texts using all the phonological phenomena studied. Do
not forget using weak forms too.
Text 1.
“…There is ′no good in my ′going to see ′little ′Hans as ′long as the ′snow lasts,
the ′Miller used to ′ say to his ′wife, for when ′people are in ′trouble they should
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12. be ′left a′lone, and ′not be ′bothered by ′visitors. ′That at ′least is my i′dea
about ′friendship, and I am ′sure I am ′right. So I shall ′wait till the spring ′comes,
and ′then I shall ′pay him a ′visit, and he will be ′able to ′give me a ′large basket
of ′primroses and ′that will ′make him ′so happy.
You are ′certainly very ′thoughtful about ′others, ′answered the ′Wife, as she ′sat
in her ′comfortable ′armchair by the ′big pinewood ′fire; ′very thoughtful in′deed. It
is ′quite a ′treat to hear you ′talk about ′friendship. I am ′sure the ′clergyman him
′self could ′not say such ′beautiful things as you ′do, though he ′does live in a
′three-storied ′house, and ′wear a ′gold ring on his ′little ′finger….”
Oscar Wilde, The
Devoted Friend.
Text 2
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13. ′Certainly he had ′loved her ′madly, and to the ′ruin, many ′thought, of
his ′country, then at ′war with ′England for the po′ssession of the
′empire of the ′New World. He had hardly ′ever per′mitted her to be
′out of his ′sight; for ′her, he had for′gotten, or ′seemed to have
for′gotten, ′all grave ′affairs of ′State; ′and, with that ′terrible
′blindness that ′passion brings upon its ′servants, he had ′failed to
′notice that the ′elaborate ′ceremonies by which he ′sought to ′please
her did but ′aggravate the ′strange ′malady from which she ′suffered.
When she ′died he ′was, for a ′time, like one be′reft of ′reason.
In′deed, there is ′no doubt but that he would have ′formally ′abdicated
and re′tired to the ′great Trappist ′monastery at Gra′nada, of which he
was al′ready titular ′Prior, had he ′not been ′afraid to ′leave the
little In′fanta at the ′mercy of his ′brother, whose ′cruelty, ′even in
′Spain, was no′torious, and who was sus′pected by ′many of having
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14. ′caused the Queen's ′death by means of a ′pair of ′poisoned ′gloves that
he had pre′sented to her on the o′ccasion of her ′visiting his ′castle
in ′Aragon. Even ′after the expi′ration of the ′three years of ′public
′mourning that he had or′dained throughout his ′whole do′minions by
′royal ′edict, he would ′never suffer his ′ministers to ′speak about ′any
new a′lliance, and when the ′Emperor him′self ′sent to him, and ′offered
him the ′hand of the ′lovely Arch′duchess of Bo′hemia, his ′niece, in
′marriage, he ′bade the am′bassadors ′tell their ′master that the ′King
of ′Spain was al′ready ′wedded to ′Sorrow, and that though she was but
a ′barren ′bride he ′loved her ′better than ′Beauty; an ′answer that ′cost
his ′crown the ′rich ′provinces of the ′Netherlands, which ′soon ′after,
at the ′Emperor's insti′gation, ′revolted a′gainst him under the
′leadership of some fa′natics of the Re′formed ′Church.
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