Physical & Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood I. Physical Development The Growing Body Beginning at age 6 and continuing to age 12, these years are often referred to as the “school years.” Compared with the swift growth during the first five years, physical growth during middle childhood is slow but steady. School-aged children grow, on average, 2 to 3 inches per year. This is the only time during the life span when girls are, on average, taller than boys. I. Physical Development A. The Growing Body (cont.) Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average for a person of a given height and weight. 15% of all children are obese. This proportion has tripled since the 1960s. Obesity can caused by a combination of genetic and social characteristics. I. Physical Development (cont.) Motor Development Schooled-age children’s gross and fine motor skills develop substantially over middle childhood. An important improvement in gross motor skills is muscle coordination. I. Physical Development (cont.) Health During Middle Childhood More than 90% of children in middle childhood have at least one serious medical condition, although most are short-term illnesses. ASTHMA More than 15 million children in the U.S. suffer from this illness. Asthma attacks are triggered by a variety of factors. Respiratory infections Allergic reactions to airborne irritants Stress Exercise A sudden change in air temperature or humidity I. Physical Development (cont.) c. Increasing independence and mobility of school-age children lead to new safety issues. Children walking to school face dangers of being hit by cars and trucks due to inability to judge distance/speed. The most frequent source of injury to children is automobile accidents. Car crashes kill five out of every 100,000 children between ages 5 and 9 annually. Fires and burns, drowning, and gun-related deaths follow in frequency. d. The newest threat to the safety of school-aged children comes from the Internet or the World Wide Web. I. Physical Development (cont.) Psychological Disorders Childhood depression is often overlooked by teachers and parents. Approximately 5% of school-age children suffer from depression. 13% of school-age children suffer from anxiety disorders. The use of antidepressant drugs has become a popular treatment for childhood psychological disorders. In 2002 more than 10 million prescriptions were written for children under the age of 18. Little is known about the long-term effectiveness of antidepressants with children or the consequences of use of the developing brains of children. I. Physical Development (cont.) D. Children with Special Needs One student in a thousand requires special education services relating to VISUAL IMPAIRMENT. AUDITORY IMPAIRMENT, a special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing, which affects 1% to 2% of school-aged children. Three to 5% of school-age children have speech impa.

1. Physical & Cognitive Development
in Middle Childhood
I. Physical Development
The Growing Body
Beginning at age 6 and continuing to age 12, these years are
often referred to as the “school years.”
Compared with the swift growth during the first five years,
physical growth during middle childhood is slow but steady.
School-aged children grow, on average, 2 to 3 inches per year.
This is the only time during the life span when girls are, on
average, taller than boys.
I. Physical Development
A. The Growing Body (cont.)
Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above
the average for a person of a given height and weight.
15% of all children are obese.
This proportion has tripled since the 1960s.
Obesity can caused by a combination of genetic and social
characteristics.
I. Physical Development (cont.)
Motor Development
Schooled-age children’s gross and fine motor skills develop
substantially over middle childhood.
An important improvement in gross motor skills is muscle

2. coordination.
I. Physical Development (cont.)
Health During Middle Childhood
More than 90% of children in middle childhood have at least
one serious medical condition, although most are short-term
illnesses.
ASTHMA
More than 15 million children in the U.S. suffer from this
illness.
Asthma attacks are triggered by a variety of factors.
Respiratory infections
Allergic reactions to airborne irritants
Stress
Exercise
A sudden change in air temperature or humidity
I. Physical Development (cont.)
c. Increasing independence and mobility of school-age children
lead to new safety issues.
Children walking to school face dangers of being hit by cars and
trucks due to inability to judge distance/speed.
The most frequent source of injury to children is automobile
accidents.
Car crashes kill five out of every 100,000 children between ages
5 and 9 annually.
Fires and burns, drowning, and gun-related deaths follow in
frequency.
d. The newest threat to the safety of school-aged children
comes from the Internet or the World Wide Web.

3. I. Physical Development (cont.)
Psychological Disorders
Childhood depression is often overlooked by teachers and
parents.
Approximately 5% of school-age children suffer from
depression.
13% of school-age children suffer from anxiety disorders.
The use of antidepressant drugs has become a popular treatment
for childhood psychological disorders.
In 2002 more than 10 million prescriptions were written for
children under the age of 18.
Little is known about the long-term effectiveness of
antidepressants with children or the consequences of use of the
developing brains of children.
I. Physical Development (cont.)
D. Children with Special Needs
One student in a thousand requires special education services
relating to VISUAL IMPAIRMENT.
AUDITORY IMPAIRMENT, a special need that involves the
loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing, which affects 1% to
2% of school-aged children.
Three to 5% of school-age children have speech impairment.

4. I. Physical Development (cont.)
4. One in ten school-age children in the U.S. is officially
labeled as having LEARNING DISABILITIES.
Some suffer from dyslexia
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
(ADHD), is a learning disability marked by inattention,
impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a
great deal of inappropriate activity.
Three to 5% of school-age children are estimated to have
ADHD.
Common signs of ADHD include:
Persistent difficulty finishing task, following instructions, and
organizing work;
Inability to watch an entire television program;
Frequent interruption of others.
And a tendency to jump into a task before hearing all the
instructions.
I. Physical Development (cont.)
3. Ritalin or Dexadrine are stimulants used to reduce
hyperactivity levels in children with ADHD.
These drugs help increasing attention span and compliance,
however, the side effects are considerable.
Some studies suggest that after a few years children treated with
drugs do not perform any better academically than those
untreated.
Besides drugs, behavior therapy is often employed primarily
involving the use of rewards (verbal praise).
II. Intellectual Development
Piagetian Approaches to Cognitive Development

5. The school-age child enters the CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
STAGE, the period of cognitive development 7 and 12 years of
age, which is characterized by the active , and appropriate use
of logic.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood
Schooling Around the World
In the U.S. and most developed countries, a primary school
education is both a universal right and a legal requirement.
Children in other parts of the world are not so fortunate.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
Reading
Development of reading skill generally occurs in several broad
overlapping stages.
Stage 0, from birth to the start of 1st grade, where children
learn the essential prerequisites for reading, including
identification of the letters in the alphabet, writing their names,
and reading a few words.
Stage 1, first and second grade, is the first real reading, but it is
largely phonological decoding skill where children can sound
out words by sounding out and blending letters.
Stage 2, typically around second and third grades, it when
children learn to read aloud with fluency.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
d) Stage 3 extends from fourth to eighth grades and
is where reading becomes a means to an end and an enjoyable
way to learn.
e) Stage 4 is where the child understands reading in

6. terms of reflecting multiple points of view.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
Educational Trends
Schools in the U.S. are experiencing a return to educational
fundamentals –the three Rs – reading , writing and arithmetic.
Elementary schools today also stress accountability.
Home-schooling is a major educational phenomenon in which
students are taught, by their parents in their own homes.
Parents choose home-schooling for a variety of reasons:
Belief that their child(ren) will thrive on one—one attention.
Dissatisfaction with instruction and teachers in local schools.
Some parents engage in home-schooling for religious reasons.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
D. Developmental Diversity: Multicultural Education
Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values, and expectations
shared by members of a particular society.
Subcultural groups are particular racial, ethnic, religious,
socioeconomic, or gender groups with a given culture.
E. Intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with
challenges.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
Below and Above Intelligence Norms
In 1975, Public Law 94-142, called the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act, was enacted.
It ensured that children with special needs be put in the LEAST
RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT, the setting that is most
similar to that of children without special needs.

7. This act came to be called MAINSTREAMING, an educational
approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the
extent possible in the traditional educational system and are
provided with a broad range of educational alternatives.
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
MENTAL RETARDATION -
About 1% to 3% of the school-age population is mentally
retarded.
Most cases of mental retardation are classified as familial
retardation in the family).
Mental retardation is typically measured by IQ tests.
90% are classified as MILD RETARDATION, where IQ is in
the range of 50 or 55 to 70.
5 to 10% are classified as MODERATE RETARDATION, where
IQ is from 35 or 40 to 50 or 55.
Those with SEVERE RETARDATION, IQs ranging from 20 or
25 to 35 or 40, and PROFOUND RETARDATION, where IQ is
below 20 or 25 are the most limited.
No speech
Poor motor control
Need 24-hr care
III. Schooling: The Three Rs of Middle Childhood (cont.)
3. Three to 5% of school-age children are GIFTED AND
TALENTED.

8. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood
1
Physical Development
Physical Development and Senses
Motor Functioning
Eating, Nutrition, and Obesity
Physical Disabilities
Stress and Coping
2
Physical Development (cont.)
Motor Functioning
Most professional athletes are at their peak during early
adulthood.
No more than 10% of Americans exercise enough to keep
themselves in good physical shape.
There are many advantages to regular exercise.
Increases cardiovascular fitness
Lung capacity increases
Muscles become stronger
Physical development and maturation are complete by early
adulthood.
Most people are at the peak of their physical capabilities.
Certain parts of the body do not fully mature until early
adulthood.
The senses are as sharp as they will ever be.

9. Physical Development (cont.)
a) There are many advantages to regular exercise (cont.)
8) Body becomes more flexible and maneuverable
9) Decreases stress, anxiety, and depression
10) Increases sense of control and feelings of accomplishment
b) Young adults are less susceptible to colds and illnesses.
Physical Development (cont.)
Health
The leading causes of death among young adults are:
Accidents
AIDS
Cancer
Heart disease
Suicide
d) Lifestyle choices – use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and
drugs or engaging in unprotected sex.
e) Men are more apt to die from accidents than women, and
African Americans have twice the death rate of Caucasians.
f) The murder rate in the U.S. is significantly higher than in
any other developed country.
Physical Development (cont.)
Eating, Nutrition, and Obesity
Thirty-one percent of the adult population is classified as
overweight.
Twelve percent of those age 18 to 29 are obese – defined as a

10. body weight that is 20% or more above the average weight for a
person of given height.
Physical Disabilities
Over 50 million American s are physically challenged- or
disabled – condition that substantially limits a major life
activity such as walking or vision.
Physical Development (cont.)
Stress and Coping
Stress is the response to events that threaten or challenge an
individuals.
Our lives are filled with events and circumstances known as
stressors, that causes threats to our well-being.
Cognitive Development
William Perry – examined the way students grew intellectually
and morally during college.
Student entering college tended to use dualistic thinking,
something is right or wrong, good or bad, others are for them or
against them.
As they encountered new ideas and points of view, they began
to hold multiple perspectives on issue- multiple thinking.
Finally, they began to show relativistic thinking, rather than
believing that there are absolute standards and value, they begin
to see that different cultures, societies, and individuals can have
different standards and values, all of them equally valid.
8

11. Cognitive Development (con.)
K. Warner Schaie suggests that adults’ thinking follows a set
patterns of stages:
Acquisitive stage - encompasses all of childhood and
adolescence, and the main developmental task is to acquire
information.
Achieving stage – is the point reached by young adults in which
intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the
attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and
societal contribution.
9
Cognitive Development (cont.)
Responsible stage – is the stage where the major concerns of
middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including
protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers,
Executive stage – is the period in middle adulthood when people
take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns
about the world.
Reintegrative stage – is the period of late adulthood during
which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning.
10
Cognitive Development (cont.)
Robert Stenberg, in his TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE suggests that intelligence is made up of three
major components.
Componential intelligence – relates to the mental components

12. involved in analyzing data and solving problems.
Experiential Intelligence – refers to the relationships among
intelligence, people’s prior experience, and their ability to cope
with new situations.
Contextual intelligence – involves the degree of success people
demonstrate in facing the demands of their everyday, real –
world environments.
11
Life Events and Cognitive Development
Some research suggests that major life events, such as
marriage, birth of a child, starting a first job, or buying a house,
may lead to cognitive growth.
The ups and downs of life events may lead young adults to think
about the world in novel, more complex, sophisticated, and
often less rigid ways.
Applying postformal thought allows them to deal more
effectively with the complex social world.
College: Pursing Higher Education
College student are primarily white and middle class.
Minority students are an increasingly larger proportion of the
college population.
More women enrolled than men.
A college degree is important for obtaining a job, for learning
new skills, and for the joy of intellectual stimulation.

13. 13
College: Pursing Higher Education (cont.)
Many student experience difficulties adjusting to their 1st year
Prejudice and discrimination directed at women is still a fact of
college life.
Classes in education and the social sciences have larger
proportion of women than men.
Classes in engineering, the physical sciences, and mathematics
tend to have more men than women.
College: Pursing Higher Education (cont.)
Six years after starting college, only 63% have graduated
College is expensive.
Marriage, children, or death of parents requires students to drop
out
Academic difficulties
Some students need time off to mature.
Development in Infancy
*

14. A. Growth and Stability – Physical GrowthBy age 5 months, the
average infant’s birthweight has doubled to about 15 lbs.By age
1, the infant’s birthweight has tripped to approximately 22
lbs.By the end of the second year, the average child weighs four
times it birthweight.By age 1, the average baby stands 30 inches
tall.By the end of the second year, the average child is 3 feet
tall.
B. The Nervous System and BrainThe nervous system comprises
the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body.Infants
are born with between 100 to 200 billion NEURONS, the nerve
cells of the nervous system.As the infant’s experience in the
world increase, neurons that do not become interconnected
become unnecessary and die of- a process called SYNAPTIC
PRUNING.
C. Integrating the Bodily System: The Life Cycles of
InfancyBehavior becomes integrated through the development
of various body RHYTHMS, which are repetitive, cyclical
patterns of behavior.An infant’s STATE is the degree of
awareness it displays to both internal and external stimulation.
C. Integrating the Bodily System: The Life Cycles of Infancy
(cont.)The major state occupying in infant is sleep.On average,
newborn sleep 16 -17 hours daily, ranging from 10 to 20 hrs a
day.Sleep stages are fitful and “out of sync” during early
infancy.By the end of the first year most infants are sleeping
through the night for a total of about 15 hrs.SUDDEN INFANT

15. DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS)Is a disorder in which seemingly
healthy infants die in their sleep.
Motor DevelopmentReflexesSwimming reflexEye blink
reflexGross motor skills crawling (8 - 10 months)walking (9
months - 1 year)Fine motor skillscoordinate movement of limbs
(3 months)grasping (11 months)
*
NutritionAssists in physical developmentMalnutrition produces
adverse resultsSlower growthSusceptibility to diseaseLower IQ
scoresUndernutrition - deficiency in the dietBreast-feeding70%
of mothers in US breastfeedbest food sourceInfant obesity20%
above the average for a given weight
*
Development of the SensesVisual perceptionAuditory
perceptionability to hear begins prenatallysound
localizationSmell & TasteSensitivity to pain & touchborn with
the capacity to feel paintouch is most highly developed sense in
newborns

16. *
Cognitive Development
*
Piaget’s ApproachKnowledge is the product of motor
behaviorAll children pass through universal stagesContent &
quality of knowledge increaseMovement depends on physical
maturation & experience with the environment.
*
Piaget’s Approach (cont.)Two principles underlie the growth in
children’s schemes:AssimilationIs when people understand an
experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive
development and way of thinking AccommodationIs change in
existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters
with new stimuli or events
Sensorimotor Stage (birth -2)Simple reflexes – (substage 1)First
month of lifeVarious reflexes determine the infant’s interaction
with world.First habits & primary circular reactions (substage

17. 2)One to 4 months of ageCoordination of actionsPrimary
circular reactions Are the infant’s repeating of interesting or
enjoyable actions on his or her own body.
*
Sensorimotor Stage (birth -2)Secondary circular reactions –
(substage 3)Four to 8 months of ageBegins to act on world (e.g.,
rattle rattler)Vocalization increases and imitation
begins.Coordination of secondary circular reactions
(substage 4)Eight to 12 months of ageEmploy GOAL-
DIRECTED BEHAVIORDevelopment of OBJECT
PERMANCEThe realization that people and object exist even
when they cannot be seen.
(
Sensorimotor Stage (birth -2)Tertiary circular reactions –
(substage 5)Twelve to 18 monthsAre the deliberate variation of
actions to bring desirable consequences.Beginning of thought –
(substage 6)Eighteen to 24 months of age
LanguageCharacteristicsPhonology
Refers to the basic sounds of language, that can be combined to
produce words and sentences.Morphemes

18. Are the smallest language unit that has meaning.Semantics
Are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences.
*
Origins of LanguageLinked to the way infants think & how they
understand the worldComprehension precedes productionInfants
show prelinquistic communicationFirst words spoken 10 - 14
months18 months - linking words in sentences
Origins of Language (cont.)Learning TheoryReinforcement &
conditioningShapingNativist ApproachGenetically
determinedInfant-Directed SpeechShort, simple
*
Development in Adolescence

19. 1
Puberty
Dramatic changes in height & weight
Sexual organs mature
Sex hormones increase to adult levels
For girls:
Begins early for girls, starting at around age 11 or 12.
However, some girls begin as early as 7 or 8 or as late as age
16.
One of the first signs and most obvious for puberty for girls is
onset of menstruation/cycle/period.
Changes in vagina & uterus
Growth of breasts & pubic hair
2
Puberty (cont.)
For boys:
Begins about age 13 or 14
Penis & scrotum increase in size
A boy’s first ejaculation, usually occurs around age 13
Spermarche
Secondary sex characteristics develop.
Public hair begins to grow around age 12,
Growth of underarm and facial hair
The voice begins to deepen, the vocal cords become longer and
larger

20. Early Maturation
For boys:
More successful in sports
More popular = positive self-concept
More likely to have school problems
More involved in delinquency & substance abuse
For girls:
More popular = more potential dates
Discomfort around peers
4
Late Maturation
For boys:
Boys who are smaller and lighter tend to be considered less
attractive.
They are at a disadvantage in sports activities
They may also suffer socially, because they are expected to be
taller than their dates
Could diminish a boy’s self-concept, and could extend well into
adulthood

21. 5
Late Maturation (cont.)
For girls:
Late maturation can have a somewhat of a positive aspect.
However, they may be overlooked in dating and other mixed-sex
activities during junior and high school and may low social
status.
They may suffer fewer emotional problems.
Nutrition
Increase in food consumption
For girls the av. requires some 2,200 calories a day
For boys the av. Requires some 2,800 calories a day
Key nutrients
calcium and iron
Milk and certain vegetables provides calcium for bones growth
and calcium my prevent the tinning of the bones – that affect
25% of women later on in life.
Estimates are that 1 in 5 adolescents is overweight and 1 in 20
can be formally classified as obese.
The psychological consequences of adolescent obesity are
severe since body image is a key focus.
Obese adolescents have an 80% chance of becoming obese in
adulthood.

22. 7
Obesity
Is the most common nutritional concern in adolescence
1 in 5 adolescent is overweight
1 in 20 can be classified as obese (more than 20% above av.
body weight).
Health concern for obesity during adolescence
Taxes the circulatory system
Increase the risk of high blood pressure and diabetes
Obese adolescence have a 80% chance of obese adult
Obesity (cont.)
Fear of obesity may lead to eating disorders
Anorexia
Girls worry and refuse to eat because they might think they
will become obese
15 to 20% of girls starve themselves to death.
It affect women between the ages of 12 and 40
The most likely candidates are intelligent, successful, and
attractive White adolescent girls from affluent homes.
However, anorexia is becoming a problem for boys
About 10%, due to use of steroids
Obesity (cont.)

23. Bulimia
Is binge eating, consuming large amount of food, followed by
throwing up or using laxatives.
The person might eat a gallon of ice-cream and feel guilt and
depressed and therefore feel that they need to rid them of the
food.
Health risk, constant vomiting could cause a chemical
imbalance that triggers heart failure
Brain Development
Prefrontal cortex still being developed
Roles of prefrontal cortex?
Prefrontal cortex increases efficient communication with other
parts of the brain
Internal clock shifts as academic & social demands increase
Sleep deprivation = lower grades, more depressed, & moodiness
11
Piaget: Formal Operations
Formal Operations Period
People develop the ability to think abstractly
Ability to think abstractly (ages 12- 15)
Apply principles of logic

24. Adolescents become more argumentative.
This makes adolescents more interesting, but challenging.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
Start with a general theory and deduce explanations (“If – then”
statements)
12
Information Processing & Egocentrism
Thinking advances based on organization of thoughts &
development of new strategies
Metacognition increases
The ability to think about one’s own thinking process and the
ability to monitor one’s cognition.
Increasing becomes self-absorbed
Critical of authority figures
Unwilling to accept criticism
13
Information Processing & Egocentrism (cont.)
Adolescent egocentrism leads to two distortions:
Imaginary audience is where adolescent think they are the focus
of everyone’s attention.

25. Personal fables is the belief that the adolescent is unique and
exceptional and shared by no one else.
School Performance
Grades decline
Strong relationship between SES & academic achievement
Fewer resources, lower health, inadequate schools, & low
parental involvement
Racial & ethnic differences in achievement due to SES
15
Threats to Well-Being
Illegal drugs
Adolescent use drugs for many reasons
Pleasure they provide
Hoping to escape the pressures of everyday life
Some try for the thrill of doing illegal drugs
Alcohol
Teens may be genetically prone to become alcoholic (triggered
by stress)

26. 16
Threats to Well-Being (cont.)
Tobacco
Smoking is more prevalent among girls.
Whites smoke more than AAs.
Why do adolescents smoke?
Smoking is hip and sexy.
Nicotine can produce biological and psychological dependency.
Exposure to parents’ smoking and peer smoking increases the
chances that an adolescent will take up the habit.
Threats to Well-Being (cont.)
Sexually transmitted diseases
Avoided through abstinence, safe sex, & promoting a healthy
lifestyle
The Preschool Years
Physical, Cognitive, & Psychosocial Development

27. 1
The Growing Body
Rapid changes in:
Height
Weight
Physical strength
More prone to injuries
Due to high levels of physical activity, curiosity, and lack of
judgment.
Brain Development
Functions become lateralized
Left hemisphere – verbal & reasoning abilities; processes data
sequentially (speaking, reading, thinking, and reasoning).
Right hemisphere - nonverbal abilities; processes information
globally (comprehension of spatial relationships, recognition of
patterns and drawings, music and emotional expression).
3

28. Motor Development
Gross motor skills
Jumping; skipping
Increased muscle control
4
Potty training
Signs of readiness: between 18 – 24 months
Staying dry for 2 hours at a time
Waking up dry after a nap
Regular bowel movements
No bedwetting
An indication through facial expressions or words, that
urination or a bowel movement is about to occur
The ability to get to the bathroom alone and undress self.
Ask to use the toilet or potty chair
Potty training (cont.)
Signs of readiness: between 18 – 24 months
The desire to wear underwear
Toilet training has begun later over the last few decades. For

29. example, in 1957, 92% of children were toilet trained by 18
months.
In 1999, only25% were toilet trained by 18 months
Signs not ready:
Children should be ready physically and emotionally, if children
are not ready at 18 to 24 months, you can wait until they are 30
months or older.
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills
Using a fork and spoon
Cutting with scissors
Tying shoelaces
Drawing
Putting puzzle together
Playing the piano
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage
Increase in symbolic thinking
Improvements in language
The use of concepts increases (seeing mom’s car key may
prompt questions).
Pretend play
Egocentric thought emerges
Thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of
others.

30. Preschoolers do not understand that other have different
perspectives than theirs.
Egocentric can take two forms
Lack of awareness that others see things from a different
physical perspective .
Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and
points of view that differ from their.
8
Intuitive thought emerges
Occurs between 4 and 7
Children usually ask why?
They believe that they know answers to all kind of questions.
Information Processing Approach
Increased understanding of numbers
Longer attention span
Autobiographical memory increases
Stable?
Accurate?
Memory organized into scripts & susceptible to suggestion

31. 10
Vygotsky’s Perspective
Culture in which we are raised significantly affects cognitive
development.
Zone of proximal development
The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend
or perform a task on his or her own; if information falls within
the ZPD, children can master it.
Scaffolding – is the support for learning and problem solving
that encourages independence and growth.
11
Language Development
Sentence length & syntax increases
Vocabulary increases due to fast mapping
Routinely use nouns, past tense, & articles
Acquire grammatical principles
Private speech and social speech increases
12

32. Forming a Sense of Self
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 6 years)
Conflict between desire to act independently and guilt from
being unsuccessful.
Begin to form self-concept & overestimate skills
View of self often reflects cultural values
Able to distinguish between members of different racial
identities
Some preschoolers show preference for majority values or
people
Gender (being male or female) manifests through play &
develop gender-stereotypes
13
Gender Identity
Hormones affect gender-based behaviors
Learn gender–related behaviors through training & observation
of others
Media & books contribute to gender-related behaviors
Gender identity based on perceptions of
appropriate/inappropriate behaviors
Differences based on appearance & behavior
14

33. The Social Life as A Preschooler
Friendships based on companionship, play, and entertainment.
Social aspects of play
Functional play - (usually around 3)– simple, repetitive
activities typical of 3 –year-old, such as pushing cars on the
floor, skipping, and jumping.
Constructive play - (usually around 4)– children manipulate
objects to produce or build something (a child builds a house
out of legos or puts a puzzle together)
Parallel play - is when children play with similar toys, in a
similar manner, but do not interact with each other.
The Social Life as A Preschooler (cont.)
Onlooker play - occurs when children simply watch others play
but do not actually participate themselves.
Cooperative play - playing with each other, taking turns,
playing games.
Associative play - is when two or more children actually
interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or
materials, although they do not do the same thing.
Theory of Mind & Parenting
Able to explain how others think & reasons for their behavior.
Can see others’ perspectives
Difficulty understanding false beliefs until end of preschool
years.

34. 17
Theory of Mind & Parenting (cont.)
Types of parenting styles:
Authoritarian
controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold;
their word is law;
they value strict, unquestioning obedience from the children and
do not tolerate expressions of disagreement.
Authoritative
are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but are loving and
supportive
They try to reason with their children, giving explanations for
why they should behave in a particular way
Children tend to fare best: they are independent, friendly with
their peers, self-assertive
Theory of Mind & Parenting (cont.)
Permissive
provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their
children
are usually involved in their children’s lives
Uninvolved
show virtually no interest in their children, displaying
indifferent, rejecting behavior.

35. Child Abuse and Neglect
Can occur in any home
Reasons of abuse:
Permissible vs. impermissible punishment
Privacy of child care
Unrealistic expectations of child’s abilities
Cycle of Violence Hypothesis
Abuse & neglect in childhood predisposes adults to abuse &
neglect their children
Psychological maltreatment – harm to overall well-being
Belittling, humiliating, intimidating, and harassing children .
20
Moral Development
Changes in sense of right vs. wrong & behavior
Piaget:
heteronomous morality incipient cooperation
autonomous cooperation
Environment influences pro-social behavior
Learned through reinforcement & modeling
Increase of empathy leads to moral behavior
Heteronomous morality – 4- 7 yrs – rules are unchangeable

36. while everyone has their own set of rules (everyone’s a winner)
Incipient cooperation – 7-10 yrs – games are social; learn rules
(unchangeable) and play according to shared knowledge
Autonomous cooperation – 10 yrs – fully aware of formal rules
of the game but can modify rules if agreed upon
21
Aggression in Preschoolers
Intentional injury or harm to another
Often related to attaining some goal
Instrumental vs. Relational
Personality & social development contribute to emotional self-
regulation
What causes aggression?
Instinct
Learned behavior through reinforcement & models
Exposure to violence in media
Interpretation of other’s actions & situations
22
Grading Guide
Developmental Stages Matrix
This assignment is due on Sunday, April 24, 2017 by 11:55 p.m.
The total points earned for this assignment is 20 points.
Content
15
Points Earned

37. · You will answer the developmental stages for (Infancy, Early
Childhood (Preschool) etc. Review your slides and it should
help with completing the different sections (physical, cognitive,
and socioemotional). If answers are not in the slides, you must
look for other resources dealing with stages of development.
Comments:
Organization and Development
5
Points Earned
· You can write it out or use bullets for each section.
· Make sure the sections are clear and organized; major sections
are supported by details.
· Make sure the sections provide relevant and sufficient
background on the changes.
Comments:
Additional Comments:
Total Earned
Developmental Stages Matrix
Due -Sunday, April 24 by 11:55 p.m.
Please check your syllabus to which Developmental Stage you
will be work on. You will turn in the completed matrix on
April 24 by 11:55 p.m. Each developmental stage will be worth
2.5 points. At the end of the assignment, you can get a total of
20 points, if you complete all 7 stages.
Developmental Stage

38. Physical changes
Cognitively changes
Socioemotionaly changes
Infancy
Early Childhood (Preschool)
Middle Childhood
Adolescence
Early Adulthood
Middle Adulthood
Late Adulthood