2. Forms of Project Organisation
Depending on the authority that is given to the person responsible for
the project, the project organisation may take one of the following three
forms:
• Line and Staff organisation
• Divisional organisation
• Matrix organisation
3. Line and Staff Organisation
In this form of project organisation, a person is appointed with the
primary responsibility of coordinating the work of the people in the
functional departments. Such a person, referred to commonly as the
project coordinator, acts essentially in a staff position to facilitate the
coordination of line management in functional departments. The project
coordinator does not have authority and direct responsibility of the line
management. He serves as a focal point for receiving project- related
information, and seeks to promote the cause of the project by rendering
advice, sharing information and providing assistance.
Clearly, this is a weak form of organisation which may be employed
mostly for small projects – it is certainly not suitable for large projects.
4. Divisional Organisation
Under this form of project organisation, a separate division is set up to
implement the project. Headed by the project manager, this division has its
complement of personnel over whom the project manger has full line
authority. In effect, this form of organisation implies the creation of
separate goal-oriented division of the company, with its own functional
departments.
Promotes effective attainment of project objectives but results in an
inefficient use of the resources of the firm.
5. Matrix Organisation
In a matrix organisation, the people working on the project have a
responsibility to their functional superior as well as to the project
manager
The matrix form of organisation seeks to achieve the twin objectives of
efficient use of resources and effective realisation of project objectives –
at the cost of greater organisational complexity of course
6. Project Planning
Projects involving few activities, resources, constraints, and inter-
relationships can be visualised easily by the human mind and planned
informally. However,when a project crosses a certain threshold level of size
and complexity, informal planning has to be substituted by formal planning.
The need for formal planning is indeed much greater for project work than
for normal operations. Without effective planning , there may be chaos.
Comprehensive project planning covers the following:
• Planning the project work
• Planning the manpower and organisation
• Planning the money
• Planning the information system
7. Work Breakdown Structure
The work breakdown structure, as its name suggests, represents a
systematic and logical breakdown of the project into its component parts.
It is constructed by dividing the project into its major parts, with each of
these being further divided into sub-parts. This is continued till a
breakdown is done in terms of manageable units of work for which
responsibility can be defined.
8. Life Cycle of a Project
The important stages in the life cycle of a project are:
• Project development and preliminary engineering
• Bidding and contract negotiation
• Engineering design
• Purchase and procurement
• Construction
• Commissioning
9. Tools of Planning: Bar Chart
This is a pictorial device in which the activities are represented by horizontal bars on
the time axis. The left-hand end of the bar shows the beginning time, the right-hand
end the ending time. The duration of the activity is indicated by length of the bar. The
manpower required for the activity is shown by a number on the bar.
10 20 30 40 50
7
12
16
4
Design
Purchase
of parts
Fabrication
Assembly
An Illustrative Bar Chart
Time in weeks from project start
10. Tools of Planning: Network Technique
These are more sophisticated than the traditional bar chart. In these
techniques, the activities, events, and their inter-relationships are
represented by a network diagram, also called an arrow diagram.
An Illustratative Network Diagram
11. Hierarchy of Plans
A large project may consist of thousands (or even tens of thousands) of activities. A
project plan consisting of such a large number of activities cannot be comprehended
and visualised by the human mind. Hence, the global plan of so many activities may
be held in a computer memory and structured on a hierarchical and modular basis in
terms of plans of much smaller size , consisting of, say, 30 to 150 activities.
I Level Plan : A highly summarised plan, the I level plan shows the broad
activities of the project, such as engineering design, contract negotiation,
procurement, construction, and commissioning with very elementary breakdown.
II Level Plan : The activities in the summary plan (at the I level) are shown in
greater detail in the II level plan. This permits a more detailed examination of
various stages of the project, so that inter-relationships can be properly established.
III Level Plan : This is the plan constructed in terms of cost accounts. It is useful
for lower levels of management. It helps them in week to week, or even day to
day, planning and control.
12. Project Control
Project control involves a regular comparison of performance against targets, a
search for the causes of deviation, and a commitment to check adverse
variances. It serves two major functions: (i) it ensures regular monitoring of
performance, and (ii) it motivates project personnel to strive for achieving
project objectives.
Reasons for Ineffective control:
• Characteristics of the project
• People problems
• Poor control and information system.
13. Human Aspects of Project Management
A satisfactory human relations system is essential for the successful execution
of a project. Without such a system, the other systems of project management,
however sound they may be by themselves, are not likely to work well.
To achieve satisfactory human relations in the project setting, the project
manager must successfully handle problems and challenges relating to:
Authority
Orientation
Motivation
Group functioning
14. Authority
Since the project manager works largely with professionals and supervisory
personnel, the basis of the authority would be different from that found in
simple superior-subordinate relationships. For exercising leadership and
influence over professional people, he has to explain the logic and rationale
for the project activities; show receptivity to the suggestions made by others;
avoid unilateral imposition of decisions: eschew dogmatic postures; and
search for areas of agreement which can be the basis of acceptable solutions.
His effective authority would stem from his ability to develop a rapport
with the project personnel, his skill in resolving conflicts among various
people working on the project, his professional reputation and stature, his
skills in communication and persuasion, and his ability to act as a buffer
between the technical, engineering, financial, and commercial people involved
in the project.
15. Orientation
Most of the managers working for a project are usually engineers (or technologists) .
Typically, an engineer:
Works with physical laws, characterised by mathematical precision, as his
tools.
Adopts a structured, mechanical approach to his problem
Seeks an enduring solution to his problem
Attaches a high value on technical perfection
When an engineer assumes managerial responsibilities, he faces a very different
world in which he is supposed to :
Perform the tasks of planning, organising, directing, and controlling the
resources of the firm in a world of uncertainty.
Adopt a more creative approach to solve non-programmed and unstructured
problems
Attach greater importance to efficient utilisation of resources and resolution of
human relation problems.
16. Motivation
The project manager should bear in mind the following:
Human beings are motivated by a variety of needs: physiological
needs, social needs, recognition needs, and self-actualisation various
need satisfactions.
Behavioral research shows that while some pressure is beneficial, an
excess of it is undesirable. Beyond a certain point, pressure is
dysfunctional
Motivation tends to be strong when the goal set is challenging, yet
attainable
Expectation of reward, rather than fear of punishment, has a greater
bearing on individual behaviour
In a project setting where hygiene factors are reasonably taken care of,
the principal motivators would be a sense of accomplishment and
professional growth.
17. Group Functioning
The groups formed in a project setting may be of three types: vertical
groups, horizontal groups and mixed groups. A vertical group consists
of people drawn from different levels in the same department, or
function, or company. A horizontal group consists of people drawn
from different functions, departments, and companies, but occupying
similar hierarchical positions. A mixed group consists of people drawn
from different levels from various functions, departments, and
companies.
18. Building Effective Groups
An effective group consists of members who are satisfied and committed and
who strive for the attainment of project objectives, without dissipating their
energies in inter-personal and inter-group conflicts. The manifest signs of an
effective group are: esprit de corps, pride in the project, supportive
behaviour, coordinated endeavour, mutual respect, and resilience during
trying periods.
How can effective groups be established? Studies in group dynamics
suggest several stages, which are partially overlapping, in the formation of
an effective group:
Development of mutual trust
Diminution of defensive behaviour
Openness and candour in communication
Cooperation and supportive behaviour
Resolution of differences by mutual negotiation
19. Pre-requisites for successful Project Implementation
What can be done to minimise time and cost over – runs and thereby
improve the prospects of the successful completion of projects? While a lot
of things can be done to achieve this goal, the more important ones appear
to be as follows:
• Adequate formulation
• Sound project organisation
• Proper implementation planning
• Advance action
• Timely availability of funds
• Judicious equipment tendering and procurement
• Better contract management
• Effective monitoring
20. Essence of Project Management
The Project Management Institute (PMI) has developed a body of
knowledge termed the Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK).
The PMBOK describes project management under nine areas as follows:
• Project integration
• Project scope management
• Project time management
• Project cost management
• Project quality management
• Project human resource management
• Project communications management
• Project risk management
• Project procurement planning
21. SUMMARY
The traditional form of organisation is not very suitable for project work because it has
no means of integrating different departments at levels below the top management and
it does not facilitate effective communication, coordination, and control.
Project organisation may take one of the following three forms: line and staff
organisation, divisional organsiation, and matrix organisation.
In the line and staff form of project organisation, a person is appointed with the primary
responsibility of coordinating the wok of the people in the functional departments.
Under the divisional form of project organisation, a separate division headed by the
project manager is set up to implement the project. In a matrix organisation, the
personnel working on the project have a responsibility to their functional superior as
well as to the project manager.
The line and functional form of organisation is conducive to an efficient use of
resources but is not suitable for an effective realisation of project objectives. The
divisional form of organisation, on the other hand, is suitable for an effective realisation
of project objectives but not conducive to an efficient use of resources. The matrix form
of organisation seeks to achieve the twin objectives of efficient use of resources and
effective realisation of project objectives, at the cost of greater organisational
complexity, of course.
22. Comprehensive project planning covers the following areas: project work, manpowr
and organisation, money, and information system.
The important stages in the life cycle of a project are: project development and
preliminary engineering, bidding and contract negotiations, engineering design,
purchase and procurement, construction, and commissioning.
The two important tools of planning are the bar chart and the network techniques. The
bar chart is a pictorial device in which the activities are represented by horizontal bars
on the time axis. In network techniques, the activities, events, and their inter-
relationships are represented by a network diagram
For large projects, a hierarchy of plans showing various levels of detail may be
prepared.
The traditional approach to project control, involving a comparison of the actual cost
with the budgeted cost, is referred to as variance analysis. This approach is inadequate
for project control for the following reasons: (i) it is backward-looking rather than
forward-looking, and (ii) it does not use the data effectively to provide integrated
control.
The modern approach to project control, referred to as performance analysis, involves
monitoring the project along the following lines:
Cost variance : Budgeted cost of work performed-
Actual cost of work performed
23. The modern approach to project control, referred to as performance analysis, involves
monitoring the project along the following lines:
Cost variance : Budgeted cost of work performed-
Actual cost of work performed
Schedule variance in cost terms : Budgeted cost of work performed –
Budgeted cost of work scheduled.
Cost performance index : Budgeted cost of work performed
/Actual cost of work scheduled
Schedule performance index : Budgeted cost of work performed
/Budgeted cost of work scheduled
Estimated cost performance index : Budgeted cost for total work/(Actual
cost of work performed + Additional
cost for completion)
To achieve satisfactory human relations in the project setting, the project manager must
successfully handle problems and challenges relating to (i) authority, (ii) orientation,
(iii) motivation, and (iv) group functioning.
Often, the project manager has to coordinate the efforts of various functional groups
(within the organisation) and outside agencies without the leverage of hierarchical
authority. His effective authority depends largely on his professional stature and inter-
personal skills.
24. The project manager has to strengthen the managerial orientation of project personnel,
particularly technical and engineering personnel.
In order to succeed in motivating personnel, the project manager must be a perceptive
observer of human beings, must have the ability to appreciate the variable needs of
human beings, must have skills in several styles of management suitable to different
situations, and must be sensitive to the reactions of people so that he can act
supportively rather than threateningly.
There are several stages, partially overlapping, in the formation of an effective group:
development of mutual trust, diminution of defensive behaviour, openness and candour
in communication, cooperation and supportive behaviour, and resolution of differences
by mutual negotiation.
Time and cost over-runs of projects are very common in India, particularly in the public
sector. Hence, projects tend to become uneconomical and economic development is
adversely affected.
The important pre-requisites for successful completion of projects are : (i) adequate
formulation, (ii) sound project organisation, (iii) proper implementation planning, (iv)
advance action, (v) timely availability of funds, (vi) judicious equipment tendering and
procurement, (vii) better contract management, and (viii) effective monitoring.
