Research Guideline Handbook

Research
Guideline
Handbook
Compiled by
LUNGWANI T. M. MUUNGO

Lecture Notes on
Research Guidelines
Handbook
By L.T.M. Muungo
Coordinator for Departmental Activities, School of
Medicine, University of Zambia
Version 2006

Research Guideline Handbook
All Rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, without the UNZA Authority.

Acknowledgment
On behalf of Fellow lecturers and the academic researchers, the Course Coordinator
wishes to extend his thanks and appreciation to the School of Medicine Deanship for its
full support to reform health education, postgraduate studies and research activities for
being comprehensive at UNZA. The designing team also extends its special thanks and
appreciation to Assistant Dean, postgraduate and who helped initiate and implement this
endeavor, and who spared no effort to support the health education overall reform
institutional activities, particularly research and quality assurance of the higher health
education system. All the attributed efforts were culminated by the institutional
endorsement to reform the health education for the benefits of the patient health care
recipients.
The role of our main partner in raw research data generators is also acknowledged. The
support of collaborate training system as applied to our health trainees in the country is
inspiring in developing the advanced training program and in support of departmental
initiatives.
It is worth mentioning that majority of the raw data that is used by the training students
is mainly supplied by the Ministry of Health patient clients and is greatly appreciated.
We also appreciate the efforts and collaborative attitude of all colleagues from within
and outside the University of Zambia for the operational support rendered to the new
upcoming Department of Pharmacy at UNZA
Finally, thanks and appreciation are also extended to every member of Pharmacy
Department (both full-time and part-time academic, technical and administrative
members; Research Ethics Committee for general overview towards the successful
implementation of this project in localized pharmacist training with practical emphasis
on both scientific and clinical research.

Initiation Pharmacy Program Membership
SN Member Name Title Institution
1 Prof. L. Munkonge Dean, School of Medicine UNZA
2 Dr. Y. Mulla Asst. Dean, General UNZA
3 Dr. B Munalula HoD, Physiology Department UNZA
4 Dr. Shinondo HoD, Biomedical Department UNZA
5 Prof. Karashan HoD, Anatomy Department UNZA
6 Dr. L.T. Muungo Founding HoD, Department of Pharmacy UNZA
7 Mr. R.M Kampamba Part-time lecturer, Department of Pharmacy MOH
Dr. F. Mutambo Part-time lecturer, Department of Pharmacy Private
UNZA – University of Zambia
MOH – Ministry of Health

Publisher Tips
The School of Medicine, University of Zambia is a pioneer in the localized training in
the field of Pharmaceutical knowledge learning and continual education and
professional training.
The school, through the department of physiology provided appropriate and conducive
conditions to implement the local training of pharmacists for Zambia.
Following the steps as described above, the spread of science and clinical knowledge as
generated from the research findings is scheduled to be spread out through the UNZA
established information disseminating tool in order for the participation of society
developmental strategies with emphasis on pharmaceutical care service provision.
Dr. L.T.M. Muungo
Programme Course Coordinator

7
Foreword by the Programme Coordinator
The Research Course aims at training fresh university graduates in order to enhance their
research skills to upgrade their chances in collaborating national and international
postgraduate training activities with easiness as well as operating in the health sector with
practical confidence.
Research training has been designed to define basic skills needed to bridge the gap between
capabilities of fresh university graduates and requirements of society and scientific research.
These skills are: mental, communication, personal and social, and managerial and team
work, in addition to complementary knowledge. Consequently, research fields are open to
all the main fields of pharmacy training including sources and chemistry of drugs; Dosage
form design; scientific basis of pharmacotherapy and basis of pharmacy practice through the
preparation and delivery of training material aiming at developing the previous skills
through three main training programs:
1. Enhancement of Research Skills
2. Training of Field Trainers
3. Development of Leadership Skills
Believing in the importance of spreading science and knowledge, the pharmacy training
program factored in research training material. The material was thoroughly developed to
meet the needs of trainees. A good amount reference materials has been factored in to enrich
the lecture material. However, the development process of both style and content of the
material is continuing while more courses are being prepared.
The course has been designed in the initial stages to compile the trainees to approach
research with commitment through the allocation of credit points to the course.
Dr. L.T.M. Muungo, HoD & Course Coordinator

8
Table of Contents
Chapter Contents Page
Table of Contents………………………………………8
Proposal Writing………………………………………………9
Research Paper Writing…………………………………….…12
Abstract-Text Analysis…………………………………………..…17
Introduction………………………………………………………………..20
Literature Review…………………………………………………………..…28
Literature Review – Questions & Answers………………………………..…36
Method and Research Design………………………………………………….…37
Method- Text Analysis……………………………………………………………….…44
Verb Tense and Method………………………………………………………………….…46
Results………………………………………………………………………………………………52
Discussion………………………………………………………………………………….…57
Discussion – Text Analysis………………………………………………………….…60
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….…62
Referencing……………………………………………………………….…68
Plagiarism……………………………………………………….……81
Referencing Styles……………………………………………82
The basics of Good Writing………………………..…84
Introduction to SOM Texts………………………86
Introduction to SERD Texts…………………90
Introduction to SET Texts………………91

9
PROPOSAL WRITING
Some tips when writing a proposal
Most proposals include the following components:
1. Cover or Title Page
Many sponsors/donors provide preprinted Cover Pages for you to fill out.
The title page contains the following information:
• Principal Investigator’s name, address, phone
number o Title of proposal
• Sponsor name and address
• Duration of the proposed project with start and
end dates o Amount requested
• Submission date
• Signature of Principal Investigator
• Signature of Institutional Representative (AIT
President or his authorized representative)
2. Abstract
The abstract outlines the proposed research, including objectives,
methodology, and significance of the research. It is usually limited to 200 ‐
400 words and should be written in lay terms.
3. Budget & Justification
The budget includes a reasonable estimate of the financial support required
to conduct the project, including justification of budget expenses.
4. Statement of Work
The Statement of Work provides a full and detailed explanation of the
proposed research, typically including a project timetable. It should include
general background information regarding how the project relates to
previous and current research.
5. Curriculum Vitae
Include for all key project personnel. Some sponsors impose page limits or
CV templates.
6. Bibliography
List all references cited in proposal.

10
7. Current and Pending Support
Sponsor may require a listing of the PI’s (and sometimes Key Personnel)
current projects and pending proposals.
Typical budget categories include:
• Direct Costs
• Indirect Costs
• In‐kind Contribution/ Cost Sharing
Direct Costs/ Expenses
Direct costs on sponsored and contracted research projects are those that can be
directly associated with the project with a high degree of accuracy. Direct costs are
essential to the project's fulfillment.
Some examples of direct costs:
• Salaries: For the Institute's professional and research staff and student
assistants, salary figures should be based on the percentage of effort by each
individual on the project applied to his/her annual salary (man‐months). For
internal AIT budget this is part of the Faculty/staff time recovery costs
• Tuition: Scholarships for Masters and PhD students can also be included.
• Equipment (can be indirect too): Any item of equipment having a unit cost of
15,000 THB or more and a useful life of one year or more. Includes cost of
shipping, installation, and fabrication. General purpose equipment, such as
office furniture, PCs, fax machines etc., are generally not deemed allowable
by most sponsors, unless it is used primarily or exclusively for the research
project.
• Materials and Supplies: Expendable/ consumable items with a useful life of
less than one years or a cost under 15,000 THB. Description of category (e.g.
glassware, chemical, office supplies, etc) and best estimate of cost should be
included
• Travel: Domestic and foreign travel should be shown separately. List the
name, destination, and purpose of trip. Include transportation costs (coach
airfare), registration fees, accommodation fees, and other related expenses
• Publication Costs: Estimate the number of pages, page charges, and names
of journals if possible.

11
• Consultants/ External Resource Person: List each consultant, their
specialty or service to the project, and their daily, weekly or monthly rate of
reimbursement, and show the consultant’s total projected cost on the project.
Include in the proposal an Agreement with the consultant and the
consultant’s curriculum vitae.
• Sub-contracts: A sub‐contract is a contract to other organization(s) of some
scientific or programmatic aspect of the grant or contract made originally to
AIT.
• Other: Other costs typically include items such as, research publications,
fees, contingency for currency fluctuation
Indirect Costs
Costs related to expenses incurred in conducting or supporting research or other
externally funded activities but not directly attributable to a specific project. For
internal AIT budget, this is Overhead charge.
Some examples of indirect costs:
• Utilities (Electricity, water, etc)
• Buildings & grounds
• Equipment (can be direct too)
• Library Expenses
• General Administration
• Sponsored Projects Administration
• School Administration

12
RESEACH PAPER WRITING
The Abstract
This page is designed to be interactive, so in places you can jump forward
for more information, or will be asked questions that you find answers to by
using the links. This page covers:
• Purpose
• Common Problems
• What is the difference between an abstract and an introduction?
• Examples
PURPOSE
For conference papers, research papers, theses and dissertations, you will
almost always be asked to write an abstract. The main point to remember is
that it must be short, because it should give a summary of your research. In
fact, not only are abstracts short, they must almost always be a certain,
specified length. Many abstracts are, so, before you begin writing, you must
find out how long your abstract should be (for example, 200 words for AIT
master's theses) and you should come close to ‐ but not go over ‐ this limit.
Abstracts that exceed the maximum word limit are often rejected because
they cannot be used for databases, summaries of conferences, etc.
An abstract should briefly:
• Re‐establish the topic of the research.
• Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research (this
usually comes first).
• Indicate the methodology used.
• Present the main findings.
• Present the main conclusions
It is essential that your abstract includes all the keywords of your research,
as it will enabled on databases which other researchers will search.
Obviously if you only have two hundred words, you can only cover each of
these areas briefly. The emphasis is generally on the main findings and main
conclusions since these areas are of most interest to readers.
6

13
COMMON PROBLEMS
•Too long. If your abstract is too long, it may be
rejected ‐ abstracts are entered on databases, and
those is usually a specified maximum number of
words. Abstracts are often too long because people
forget to count their words (remember that you can
use your word processing program to do this) and
make their abstracts too detailed (see below).
•Too much detail. Abstracts that are too long often
have unnecessary details. The abstract is not the
place for detailed explanations of methodology or for
details about the context of your research problem
because you simply do not have the space to present
anything but the main points of your research.
•Too short. Shorter is not necessarily better. If your
word limit is 200 but you only write 95 words, you
probably have not written in sufficient detail. You
should review your abstract and see where you could
usefully give more explanation ‐ remember that in
many cases readers decide whether to read the rest
of your research from looking at the abstract. Many
writers do not give sufficient information about their
findings
•Failure to include important information. You
need to be careful to cover the points listed above.
Often people do not cover all of them because they
spend too long explaining, for example, the
methodology and then do not have enough space to
present their conclusion.

14
ABSTRACT AND INTRODUCTION COMPARED
At first glance, it might seem that the introduction and the abstract are very
similar because they both present the research problem and objectives as
well as briefly reviewing methodology, main findings and main conclusions.
However, there are important differences between the two:
Introduction
Should be short, but does not have a word limit;
- Main purpose is to introduce the research by presenting its context or
background.
- Introductions usually go from general to specific, introducing the
research problem and how it will be investigated). For more detail see
Introductions.
Abstract
• Has a maximum word limit
• Is a summary of the whole research;
• Main purpose is to summarize the research (particularly
the objective and the main finding/conclusion), NOT to
introduce the research area.
Examples
Example 1
Here is an abstract from a published paper. It is 220 words long. Read it
through looking for the main purpose of each sentence (for example,
presenting research problem, objective, methodology, main findings, or
conclusion). You can find suggested answers by clicking on the sentences.

15
Abstract
Major problems of the arid region are transportation of agricultural products and
losses due to spoilage of the products, especially in summer. This work presents the
performance of a solar drying system consisting of an air heater and a dryer chamber
connected to a greenhouse. The drying system is designed to dry a variety of
agricultural products. The effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process is
studied. Composite pebbles, which are constructed from cement and sand, are used
to store energy for night operation. The pebbles are placed at the bottom of the
drying chamber and are charged during the drying process itself. A separate test is
done using a simulator, a packed bed storage unit, to find the thermal characteristics
of the pebbles during charging and discharging modes with time. Accordingly, the
packed bed is analyzed using a heat transfer model with finite difference technique
described before and during the charging and discharging processes. Graphs are
presented that depict the thermal characteristics and performance of the pebble beds
and the drying patterns of different agricultural products. The results show that the
amount of energy stored in the pebbles depends on the air mass flow rate, the inlet
air temperature, and the properties of the storage materials. The composite pebbles
can be used efficiently as storing media.
Helwa, N. H. and Abdel Rehim, Z. S. (1997). Experimental Study of the Performance of
Solar Dryers with Pebble Beds. Energy Sources, 19, 579‐591.
Example 2
Here is a second abstract from a published paper. It is 162 words long. Again, read it
through looking for the main purpose of each sentence (for example, presenting the
research problem, objective, methodology, main finding, or conclusion). You can find
suggested answers by clicking on the sentences.
Abstract
The long‐term performance of various systems was determined and the economic
aspects of solar hot water production were investigated in this work.The effect of the
collector inclination angle, collector area and storage volume was examined for all
systems, and various climatic conditions and their payback period was calculated.It
was found that the collector inclination angle does not have a significant effect on
system performance. Large collector areas have a diminishing effect on the systems
overall efficiency. The increase in storage volume has a detrimental effect for small
daily load volumes, but a beneficial one when there is a large daily consumption.Solar
energy was found to be truly competitive when the conventional fuel being
substituted is electricity, and it should not replace diesel oil on pure economic
grounds. Large daily load volumes and large collector areas are in general associated
with shorter payback periods. Overall, the systems are oversized and are
economically suitable for large daily hot water load volumes.

16
Haralambopoulos, D., Paparsenost, G. F., and Kovras, H. (1997) Assessing the
Economic Aspects of Solar Hot Water Production in Greece. Renewable Energy, 11,
153‐167.
9

17
The Abstract - Text Analysis
This page provides answers to the text analysis of the Abstract page.
Example 1 - Abstract Text Analysis
Example 1
"Major problems of the arid region are transportation of agricultural
products and losses due to spoilage of the products, especially in
summer."
This sentence gives the general problem the research is attempting to
help solve (rather than the specific research problem) in order to provide
a rationale for the research.
"This work presents the performance of a solar drying system consisting
of an air heater and a dryer chamber connected to a greenhouse. The
drying system is designed to dry a variety of agricultural products."
This part of the abstract gives the main objective of the research.
"The effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process is studied."
Here the authors give the parameter they will be focusing on in order to
measure the effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process. Their
research problem, therefore, is to find out the effect of air mass flow rate
on the drying process.
"Composite pebbles, which are constructed from cement and sand, are
used to store energy for night operation. The pebbles are placed at the
bottom of the drying chamber and are charged during the drying process
itself. A separate test is done using a simulator, a packed bed storage unit,
to find the thermal characteristics of the pebbles during charging and
discharging modes with time. Accordingly, the packed bed is analyzed
using a heat transfer model with finite difference technique described
before and during the charging and discharging processes."

18
This part of the abstract summarizes the methodology used.
"Graphs are presented that depict the thermal characteristics and
performance of the pebble beds and the drying patterns of different
agricultural products. The results show that the amount of energy stored
in the pebbles depends on the air mass flow rate, the inlet air
temperature, and the properties of the storage materials."
Here we are told in what form the results are presented, and the main
findings.
"The composite pebbles can be used efficiently as storing media."
Finally, we are presented with the main conclusion of the research.
Example 2 - Abstract Text Analysis
Example 2
"The long‐term performance of various systems was determined and the
economic aspects of solar hot water production were investigated in this
work."
Here the authors present the objectives of their research (and by
implication their research problem, i.e. the long‐term performation and
the economic aspects are unknown and need to be found).
"The effect of the collector inclination angle, collector area and storage
volume was examined for all systems, and various climatic conditions
and their payback period was calculated."
Here we are told what was studied and calculated, i.e. we are given a very
brief summary of the methodology.
"It was found that the collector inclination angle does not have a significant
effect on system performance. Large collector areas have a diminishing
effect on the system’s overall efficiency. The increase in storage volume has
a detrimental effect for small daily load volumes, but a beneficial one when
there is a large daily consumption."
This part of the abstract presents the main finding (i.e. results) the
authors obtained.
"Solar energy was found to be truly competitive when the conventional
fuel being substituted is electricity, and it should not replace diesel oil on
pure economic grounds. Large daily load volumes and large collector

19
areas are in general associated with shorter payback periods. Overall, the
systems are oversized and are economically suitable for large daily hot
water load volumes."
Finally, the main conclusions and recommendations from the research are
given.

20
Introduction
HOW TO USE THIS PAGE?
Most of the links will take you to another part of this page where you can
find more detailed information.
The links for the references, for example, (Boucher and Smeers, 1996),
will take you to the References page where you can find bibliographic
information for the articles used in this on‐line course. If you want to
know more about how to reference, access the How to Reference page.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION?
Of course, the introduction comes at the start of a piece of writing. It
introduces the research by situating it (by giving background), presenting
the research problem and saying how and why this problem will be
solved. Without this important information the reader cannot easily
understand the more detailed information about the research that comes
later in the thesis. It also explains why the research is being done
(rationale) which is crucial for the reader to understand the significance
of the study.
After reading an introduction, the reader should be able to answer most
of these questions:
o What is the context of this problem? In what situation or
environment can this problem be observed? (Background)
o Why is this research important? Who will benefit? Why do we need
to know this? Why does this situation, method, model or piece of
equipment need to be improved? (Rationale)
o What is it we don’t know? What is the gap in our knowledge this
research will fill? What needs to be improved? (Problem Statement)
o What steps will the researcher take to try and fill this gap or improve
the situation? (Objectives)
o Is there any aspect of the problem the researcher will not discuss? Is
the study limited to a specific geographical area or to only certain
aspects of the situation? (Scope)
o Is there any factor, condition or circumstance that prevents the
researcher from achieving all his/her objectives? (Limitations)
o In considering his/her method, model, formulation or approach,
does the researcher take certain conditions, states, requirements for
granted? Are there certain fundamental conditions or states the
researcher takes to be true? (Assumptions)
COMMON

21
PROBLEMS
• Too much detail, and hence too long. Remember, this is the
introduction, a kind of overview. Although you will cover important
points, detailed descriptions of method, study site and results will be in
later sections. Look at the proportion of a research paper an introduction
takes up. Notice it is comparatively short because it serves as a summary
of what follows.
• Repetition of words, phrases or ideas. You will have keywords
that are crucial to your study. However, your reader doesn't want to read
them over and over! A high level of repetition makes your writing look
careless. To reduce it, highlight repeated words or phrases ‐ then you can
easily judge if you are overusing them and find synonyms or pronouns to
replace them.
• Unclear problem definition. Without a clear definition of your
research problem, your reader is left with no clear idea of what you were
studying. This means that they cannot judge your work's relevance to
their own work, or its usefulness, quality, etc. As an exercise, you should
be able to complete a sentence that starts, "The purpose of this study is . . .
" that encapsulates the problem you are investigating. Of course you will
not include this exact sentence in your thesis, but it serves as an easy way
to check that you have a clearly defined problem. In your thesis you
should be able to write your research problem in one sentence ‐ you can
add details in the sentences that follow. You should also ensure that your
research problem matches the title of your thesis (you'd be surprised
how many don't !) as well as its methodology and objectives.
• Poor organization. Writing an introduction that effectively
introduces your research problem and encapsulates your study is not an
easy task. Often when we write we discover gradually what we want to
say and how we want to say it. Writing is often a process of discovery.
Bear this in mind when you write your introduction, and be prepared to
go back and make big changes to what you have written, and the order in
which you have presented your ideas and information. Your introduction
must have a logical sequence that your reader can follow easily. Some
suggestions for how to organize your introduction are given below (see
the next section and the modified Swales schema).

22
The following schema is adapted from Swales (1984). Swales researched
the structure of introductions to academic journal articles. The schema
presented here is the pattern that he found occurring in a majority of the
articles. It is not a set of rules for how you must write ‐ rather, it is a
useful guideline for how to think about structuring your information. An
explanation of the terms and examples is given further down this page
(click on the links to find the right section).
Move 1: Establish the field by:
•
•
Claiming centrality (why this field of study is
important) moving from general to specific
AND/OR
• reviewing relevant items of previous research
Move 2: Define a research problem by:
•
•
•
Indicating a gap OR
Raising a question OR
Continuing a previously developed line of inquiry OR
• c
o
u
n
t
e
r
‐
c
l
a
i
m
i
n
g
(
d
i
s
a
g
r
e
e
i
n
g with an existing/accepted approach)
Move 3: Propose a solution by:
Outlining purpose/setting
objectives AND/OR announcing
present research (methodology)
AND/OR announcing principal
findings (results) AND/OR
• indicating the structure of the research
Adapted from Swales, J. (1984). Research into the structure of
introductions to journal articles and its application to the teaching of
academic writing. In Common Ground: Shared interests in ESP and
communication studies. [eds.] R. J. Williams, J. Swales, and J. Kirkman.
Oxford: Pergamon

23
FIELD
First you need to establish the area of research in which your work
belongs, and to provide a context for the research problem. This has three
main elements:
Claiming Centrality: Claiming that the area of research is an important
one, and therefore implying that the research done is also crucial.
For example:
"Minimum safe low temperatures (above freezing) and high humidity control
are the most important tools for extending shelf life in vegetables." (Barth et
al., 1993).
Here the words "the most important tools" indicate centrality by
showing that these two factors are crucial.
General to specific: Most writing starts with general information
and then moves to specific information. This is true of introductions
too.
For example:
In recent years, there has been an increased awareness of the potential
impact of pollutants such as heavy metals. Moreover, the traditional
methods for treating aqueous streams containing metal contaminants are
expensive and can have inadequate facilities (1). This is particularly true
in developing countries. This has led to the use of alternative technologies.
The use of biological materials is one such technology which has received
considerable attention. (Ho et al., 1996)
Explanation:
o The first sentence: impact of heavy metals (general).
o The second sentence: expense and shortcomings of methods of
removing heavy metals (less general).
o The third sentence: expense and shortcomings of methods of removing
heavy metals in developing countries (more specific).
o The fourth sentence: alternative technologies to overcome expense and
shortcomings of methods of removing heavy metals (yet more specific).
o The fifth sentence: biological materials as an example of alternative
technologies to overcome the expense and shortcomings of methods of
removing heavy metals (very specific).

24
Notice how each sentence adds a piece of information (shown in italics) to
move the introduction from the general topic of "heavy metals" to the
specific topic of "biological materials as an alternative method of removing
heavy metals."
Do not begin by being too general. If your work is examining the delivery of
cash to ATM machines, do not start by a history of the banking system in
Europe since the Middle Ages - it's probably not relevant and will mean you
will take a very long time to reach the specific area of your research. Think
of "general" in terms of information which will help your reader understand
the context of your research problem (rather than your whole field of
study!).
Previous research: Often the introduction will refer to work already
done in the research area in order to provide background (and often also
to help define the research problem).
For example:
Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or
complete replacement for fish meal in diets have been conducted using
various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983;
Murai et al., 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974). (Takii et al., 1989)
PROBLEM
Your research must be new in some way. It must add knowledge to your
field so you need to show in what way your work explores an
area/issue/question that has previously not been explored, or not been
explored in detail, in not explored in the way that you are going to use. In
other words, you need to give a rationale for your work (i.e. show the
reasons for doing it). There are four ways to demonstrate that you are
adding to the knowledge in your field:
Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research has been
carried out. This is shown by outlining the work already done to show
where there is a gap in the research (which you will then fill with your
research).
For example:
Numerous studies on the utilization of plant proteins as a partial or
complete replacement for fish meal in diets have been conducted using
various freshwater and marines fishes (Lovell, 1987; Tacon et al., 1983;
Murai et al., 1989a; Cowey et al., 1974). However, very little is known about
the feasibility of using soybean meal as a dietary protein source in
practical feeds for yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata. (Takii et al., 1989)

25
Raising a question: The research problem is defined by asking a
question to which the answer is unknown, and which you will explore in
your research.
For example:
The question we address here is how technological change occurs when
it is the overall system that needs to be changed. In particular, how can
we begin and sustain a technological transition away from
hydrocarbon based technologies? (Street and Miles, 1996)
Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry: Building on work
already
done, but taking it further (by using a new sample, extending the area
studied, taking more factors into consideration, taking fewer factors into
consideration, etc.).
For example:
Taking all these elements and their possible variations into account is often
far too complex and tedious for determining efficient gas development
patterns with simple back of the envelope calculations. In their survey of
these elements, Julius and Mashayeki [8] present a detailed analysis of these
different interactions. They suggest that these be taken into account
through gas planning models constructed in the same spirit as the planning
models developed in the power generation sector.
In this paper, we present a gas planning model that fulfils some of the
specifications established in Julius and Mashayeki [8]. (Boucher and Smeers,
1996)
Counter-claiming: A conflicting claim, theory or method is put forward.
Here, for example, the researchers argue that previous researchers'
assessments of cost effectiveness were too complex, and that a simplified
process could and should be used instead:
Evaluating the cost effectiveness of distributed generation is a crucial
resource planning issue. Many have assessed cost effectiveness by dividing
the utility system into many parts and estimating distributed generation's
value to each part. When this is done, total value can be composed of ten or
more individual components (Hoff and Shugar, 1995), substation
transformer (El-Gassier et al., 1993), transmission system, generation
system, voltage support (Hoff et al., 1994) reliability, energy savings,
electrical loss savings (Hoff and Shugar, 1995) minimum load savings,
modularity and flexibility (Morris et al., 1993) and financial risk reduction
values (Awerbuch, 1994).

26
Although impressive, this list of value components suggests that
determining the value of distributed generation requires a team of experts
assembled from each department within the utility. This paper describes a
simplified evaluation process based on the observation that distributed
generation is of value because it reduces variable costs or defers capacity
investments. (Hoff et al., 1996)
SOLUTION
Once the field and problem have been defined, it is time to give the
"solution." In other words, how will the research gap be filled? How will the
question that was raised be answered? This last part of the introduction can
also be used to show the benefits, to explain the objectives, to clarify the
scope of the research, to announce what was found from doing the research
and how it can be used. Notice that an introduction will discuss a number of
the following points but is unlikely to cover them all.
Outlining purpose: Often researchers will describe their objectives in
their introduction in order for the reader to have a clear idea of what
they set out to accomplish. Usually there is a general objective written
in one sentence (details of more specific objectives can be given in
following sentences).
For example:
This work aims to establish the extent of interaction of alginate with
calcium and aluminium ions with respect to the influence of algal exudates
have on the removal of humic substances by aluminium coagulation during
drinking water treatment. (Gregor et al., 1996)
Hint!: always give an overall objective before giving specific objectives. This
will help you explain much more clearly to your reader what your work
aimed to accomplish.
Announcing present research (method): Important points about
the methodology used are outlined, perhaps including the scope of the
study. However, the methodology is not given in detail (since details
are given in the methodology section).
For example:
This paper examines the use of peat for the removal of two metals, copper
and nickel, from both mono-solute and bi-solute solutions. In particular,
it reports the effect that a competing ion has on the rates of removal and
examines the mechanisms which may affect the uptake of minerals. (Ho
et al., 1996)

27
Announcing principle findings (results): Researchers may indicate the
kind of results they obtained, or an overall summary of their findings.
For example:
Different operating modes of the MESFET mixers, gate mixers, drain mixers,
and resistive mixers were investigated in this work and the results proved that
good conversion characteristics could be achieved.(Angelov, 1991)
Indicating the structure of the research: It is useful to outline the
organization of the written up research that follows so that the reader
has a clear idea of what is going to follow, and in what order.
For example:
This paper is organized as follows. Alternative representations of demand
and supply are discussed in sections 2 and 3 respectively. The model is
described in section 4. Section 5 presents an application of the tool to a
gas reserves development timing problem in Indonesia. The full set of
equations is given in the appendix and is referred to throughout the text.
(Boucher and Smeers, 1996)
Indicating directions for further research: Research often opens up
other areas where research could or should be done, so it is common for
these areas to be defined in the introduction. It is also a way of indicating
that the current study is not designed to be comprehensive.
This paper takes a first step in this direction by laying out the rationale for
incorporating feedback and feed forward mechanisms in decision support
for dynamic tasks such as software project management (Sengupta and
Abdel-Hamid, 1993).
Indicating benefits of current research: Indicating the benefits of the
research helps to justify why it was carried out and emphasizes the value of
the study.
For example:
The paper further suggests a multidisciplinary management approach to
effect a favorable outcome for the whole fishing community (Lim et al.,
1995).
Notice that the introduction includes information that is presented
in other parts of the thesis. Does this mean that if you indicate your
results in your Introduction that you will have nothing left to
present in your Results chapter? No! Introductions literally
"introduce" information to give an overview, often offering only a
short summary because full details are given in later chapters.

28
Literature Review
HOW TO USE THIS PAGE?
This page is designed to be interactive, so in places you can jump in for
more information, or will be asked questions that you find answers by
using the links. This page covers:
• What is "the literature"?
• Why write a review of the literature?
• Writing your own literature review
• How can I write a good literature review?
• Traps
• Literature review: an example
WHAT IS THE LITERATURE?
Although you might think of novels and poetry when you hear the word
"literature," for a piece of research the meaning is more specific. In terms
of a literature review, "the literature" means the works you consulted in
order to understand and investigate your research problem.
USEFUL SOURCES:
1. Journal articles: These are good especially for up‐to‐date
information. Bear in mind, though, that it can take up to two years to
publish articles. They are frequently used in literature reviews because
they offer a relatively concise, up‐ to‐date format for research, and
because all reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the
most relevant and reliable research).
2. Books: Books tend to be less up‐to‐date as it takes longer for a
book to be published than for a journal article. Text books are unlikely to
be useful for including in your literature review as they are intended for
teaching, not for research, but they do offer a good starting point from
which to find more detailed sources.
3. Conference Proceedings: These can be useful in providing the
latest research, or research that has not been published. They are also
helpful in providing information on which people are currently involved
in which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other
work by the same researchers.

29
4. Government / Corporate Reports: Many government
departments and corporations commission or carry out research. Their
published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending
on your field of study.
5. Newspapers: Since newspapers are generally intended for a
general (not specialized) audience, the information they provide will be
of very limited use for your literature review. Often newspapers are more
helpful as providers of information about recent trends, discoveries or
changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy, but you should
then search for more detailed information in other sources.
6. Theses and Dissertations: These can be useful sources of
information. However there are disadvantages: 1) they can be difficult to
obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from
the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; 2) the student who carried
out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you
might have to treat their findings with more caution than published
research.
7. Internet: The fastest‐growing source of information is on the
Internet. It is impossible to characterize the information available but
here are some hints about using electronic sources: 1) bear in mind that
anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be
reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general
audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review
(information for a general audience is usually less detailed) and 3) more
and more refereed electronic journals (e‐journals) are appearing on the
Internet ‐ if they are refereed it means that there is an editorial board that
evaluates the work before publishing it in their e‐journal, so the quality
should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal).
8. CD-ROMS: At the moment, few CR‐ROMs provide the kind of
specialized, detailed information about academic research that you need
for your own research since most are intended for a general audience.
However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD‐ROM for
use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching
for the information you need.
22

30
9. Magazines: Magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time)
are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need.
Specialized magazines may be more useful (for example business
magazines for management students) but usually magazines are not
useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or
general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can
further research in more specialized sources.
WHY WRITE A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE?
The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is
significant to the work that you are carrying out. Some people think that
it is a summary: this is not true. Although you need to summarize relevant
research, it is also vital that you evaluate this work, show the relationships
between different work, and show how it relates to your work. In other
words, you cannot simply give a concise description of, for example, an
article: you need to select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the
methodology), show how it relates to the other work (e.g. What other
methodologies have been used? How are they similar? How are they
different?) and show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship
to your methodology?).
Keep in mind that the literature review should provide the context for
your research by looking at what work has already been done in your
research area. It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's
work!
Here are some of the questions your literature review should answer:
1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned?
2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or
variables?
3. What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or
variables?
4. What are the existing theories?
5. Where are the inconsistencies or shortcomings in our knowledge and
understanding?
6. What views need to be (further) tested?
7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited?
8. Why study (further) the research problem?
9. What contribution can the present study be expected to make?
10. What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory?

31
It's easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one.
The main mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review
that looks like this:
II LITERATURE REVIEW
Until recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of
coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out
numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate
the darkness of this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed
here.
JACHOWSKI (1964) developed a model investigation conducted on the
interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of
damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and
especially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore
protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type
seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce
wave run‐up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved
that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units.
HOM‐MA and HORIKAWA (1964) studied waves forces acting on the
seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the
experimental results conducted to measure waves forces against a
vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave
pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by
using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave
pressure on a vertical wall.
SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (1965) conducted experiments on scour of
sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, basing on the theoretical
investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using
Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in
reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data.
Have another look at the questions a literature review should answer.
See if you can answer the following questions about the literature review
above:
- Which of the questions does this literature review answer?
- Which of them doesn't it answer?
- What system has the writer used to organize the litera review?
- Is it a good literature review? Why/why not?
• Remember the purpose: It should answer the questions we
looked at above. Look at how published writers review the literature.
You'll see that you should use the literature to explain your research ‐
after all, you are not writing a literature review just to tell your reader

32
what other researchers have done. You aim should be to show why your
research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain
methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the
research already carried out, etc.
• Read with a purpose: You need to summarize the work you read
but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to
your research (so you can emphasize them), and which are less
important and can be covered briefly or left out of your review. You
should also look for the major concepts, conclusions, theories, arguments
etc. that underlie the work, and look for similarities and differences with
closely related work. This is difficult when you first start reading, but
should become easier the more you read in your area.
• Write with a purpose: Your aim should be to evaluate and show
relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory
more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the
work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own. In order to
do this effectively you should carefully plan how you are going to
organize your work.
A lot of people like to organize their work chronologically (using time as
their organizing system). Unless developments over time are crucial to
explain the context of your research problem, using a chronological
system will not be an effective way to organize your work. Some people
choose to organize their work alphabetically by author name: this system
will not allow you to show the relationships between the work of
different researchers, and your work, and should be avoided!
When you read for your literature review, you are actually doing two
things at the same time (which makes things more difficult for you!):
1. You are trying to define your research problem: finding a gap, asking
a question, continuing previous research, counter‐claiming (see the
Introduction page);
2. You are trying to read every source relevant to your research
problem.
Naturally, until you have defined your problem, you will find that there
are hundreds of sources that seem relevant. However, you cannot define
your problem until you read around your research area. This seems a
vicious circle, but what should happen is that as you read you define your
problem, and as you define your problem you will more easily be able to
decide what to read and what to ignore.
Some traps to avoid

33
PROCESS CHALLENGES
Some traps to avoid:
• Trying to read everything! As you might already have discovered,
if you try to be comprehensive you will never be able to finish the
reading! The idea of the literature review is not to provide a summary of
all the published work that relates to your research, but a survey of the
most relevant and significant work.
• Reading but not writing! It's easier to read than to write: given
the choice, most of us would rather sit down with a cup of coffee and read
yet another article instead of putting ourselves in front of the computer to
write about what we have already read! Writing takes much more effort,
doesn't it? However, writing can help you to understand and find
relationships between the work you've read, so don't put writing off until
you've "finished" reading ‐ after all, you will probably still be doing some
reading all the way through to the end of your research project. Also,
don't think of what you first write as being the final or near‐final version.
Writing is a way of thinking, so allow yourself to write as many drafts as
you need, changing your ideas and information as you learn more about
the context of your research problem.
• Not keeping bibliographic information! The moment will come
when you have to write your references page . . . and then you realize you
have forgotten to keep the information you need, and that you never got
around to putting references into your work. The only solution is to
spend a lot of time in the library tracking down all those sources that you
read, and going through your writing to find which information came
from which source. If you're lucky, maybe you can actually do this before
your defence ‐ more likely, you will unable to find all your sources, a big
headache for you and your committee. To avoid this nightmare, always
keep this information in your notes. Always put references into your
writing. Notice how on this course we have referenced the works that we
have referred to ‐ you should do the same. (Access our How to Reference
page for more information about why and how to do reference).
LITERATURE REVIEW: AN EXAMPLE
Here is an example of using the literature to explain and define a
problem. This example is taken from an introduction because most
thesis literature reviews tend to be too long for us to easily look at.
Although your literature review will probably be much longer than the
one below, it is useful to look at the principles the writers have used.

34
On the optimal container size in automated warehouses
Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh, Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR
Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are being introduced
into the industry and warehousing at an increasing rate. Forecasts
indicate that this trend will continue for the foreseeable future (see [1]).
Research in the area of AS/RS has followed several avenues. Early work
by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7] was concerned with storage
assignment and interleaving policies,
grouped similar information: "Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14],
Tanchoco et al. [15] and Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various
aspects of this subject."based on turnover rates of the various items.
Elsayed [3] and Elsayed and Stern [4] compared algorithms for handling
orders in AR/RS. Additional work by Karasawa et al. [9], Azadivar [2]
and Parry et al. [11] deals with the design of an AS/RS and the
determination of its throughput by simulation and optimization
techniques.
Several researchers addressed the problem of the optimal handling unit
(pallet or container) size, to be used in material handling and warehousing
systems. Steudell [13], Tanchoco and Agee[14], Tanchoco et al. [15] and
Grasso and Tanchoco [5] studied various aspects of this subject. The last two
references incorporate the size of the pallet, or unit load, in evaluation of the
optimal lot sizes for multi‐inventory systems with limited storage space. In a
report on a specific case, Normandin [10] has demonstrated that using the
'best‐size' container can result in considerable savings. A simulation model
combining container size and warehouse capacity considerations, in an
AS/RS environment, was developed by Kadosh [8]. The general results,
reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are similar to those
reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]. Nevertheless, container size was
found to affect strongly overall warehousing costs.
In this paper, we present an analytical framework for approximating the
optimal size of a warehouse container. The approximation is based on series
of generalizations and specific assumptions. However, these are valid for a
wide range of real life situations. The underlying assumptions of the model
are presented in the following section.

35
Notice how the writers have:
- shown the relationship between the work of different
researchers, showing similarities/differences: "The general
results, reflecting the stochastic nature of the flow of goods, are
similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and Roll [12]."
- indicated the position of the work in the research area history:
"Early work by Hausman, Schwarz and Graves [6, 7] .
- moved from a general discussion of the research in AS/RS to the
more specific area (optimal container size) that they themselves
are researching i.e. they relate previous work to their own to
define it, justify it and explain it.
HERE IS AN OUTLINE OF THE SAME PIECE OF WRITING
"On the optimal container size in automated warehouses"
BY: Y. Roll, M.J. Rosenblatt and D. Kadosh, Proceedings of the Ninth ICPR
1. Forecasts of increasing rate of AR/RS introduction [1]
2. Storage assignment/interleaving policies (Hausman, Schwarz, Graves
[6,7])
3. Comparison of algorithms for handling orders (Elsayed [3], Elsayed &
Stern [4])
4. Design of AS/RS & determination of throughput (Karasawa et al. [9],
Azadivar [2], Parry et al. [11])
5. Optimal handling unit (Steudel [13], Tanchoco & Agee [14])
a. with pallet size/unit load (Tanchoco et al. [15], Grasso & Tanchoco
[5])
b. “best‐size” gives savings (Normandin [10])
c. simulation model (Kadosh [8])
d. stochastic flow (Kadosh [8], Rosenblatt and Roll [12])
6. Summary of previous research: “container size was found to affect
strongly overall warehousing costs.”
7. Present research: “an analytical framework for approximating the
optimal size of a warehouse container.”
29
From this outline, it is clear that the writers are organizing their
information around ideas (in this case research) not around the
researchers. This enables them to focus on the research itself, to show
how different research is related, and how it all relates to their own
research.

36
Literature Review - Q & A
Questions and Answers for using literature
Which of the questions does this literature review answer?
This literature offers a summary of previous research, so it answers
question 1.
It simply tells the reader what was discovered in previous research.
Which of them doesn't it answer?
This literature review doesn't answer any of the questions from 2 to 10. It
doesn't evaluate the research it summarizes, nor does it show the
relationships between the different theories, views and approaches it
describes.
Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review?
The writer has organized this literature review around the researchers,
and has presented it chronologically (arranging the work by when it was
published). Notice that by organizing it around the researchers (the
summaries are listed after the names of the people who did the research)
and not around the research (e.g. around key concepts) the writer
emphasizes the people and not their work.
Is it a good literature review? Why?
We do not believe that it is a good literature. It only gives a summary of
previous research but it does not use the literature to explain more about the
writer’s own research problem. Also it is not critical: after we read it we still
do not know which theories or findings are important, which are
inconclusive, what the shortcomings are etc.
The main problem with this literature review is that it does not show how
previous research relates to the writer's own research problem, or the
relationship between different research already carried out. Given the
organization the writer has used, this literature review could not be
effective literature review because there is little scope for showing
relationships, drawing comparisons, or making evaluations.

37
Method and Research Design
Details on Method and Research Design
• Purpose
• Common problems
• Overview
• Examples of different types of research
• Examples of method sections
• Writing your own method section
PURPOSE
The method section answers these two main questions:
1. How was the data collected or generated?
2. How was it analyzed?
In other words, it shows your reader how you obtained your results.
But why do you need to explain how you obtained your results?
• We need to know how the data was obtained because the method
affects the results. For instance, if you are investigating users' perceptions
of the efficiency of public transport in Bangkok, you will obtain different
results if you use a multiple choice questionnaire than if you conduct
interviews. Knowing how the data was collected helps the reader
evaluate the validity and reliability of your results, and the conclusions
you draw from them.
• Often there are different methods that we can use to investigate a
research problem. Your methodology should make clear the reasons why
you chose a particular method or procedure.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated
in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For
example, if you are using a questionnaire, readers need to know that it
offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from
(asking if the efficiency of public transport in Bangkok is "a. excellent, b.
very good or c. good" would obviously not be acceptable as it does not
allow respondents to give negative answers).
• The research methods must be appropriate to the objectives of the
study. If you perform a case study of one commuter in order to

38
investigate users' perceptions of the efficiency of public transport in
Bangkok, your method is obviously unsuited to your objectives.
• The methodology should also discuss the problems that were
anticipated and explain the steps taken to prevent them from occurring,
and the problems that did occur and the ways their impact was
minimized.
• In some cases, it is useful for other researchers to adapt or replicate
your methodology, so often sufficient information is given to allow others
to use the work. This is particularly the case when a new method had
been developed, or an innovative adaptation used.
32

39
COMMON PROBLEMS
1. Irrelevant Detail
2. Unnecessary explanation of basic procedures
Remember that you are not writing a how‐to guide for beginners. Your
readers will be people who have a level of expertise in your field and you
can assume that they are familiar with basic assessments, laboratory
procedures etc, so do not explain these in detail. For example: "Total
chlorophyll content (microgram/gram vegetable tissue) was determined
spectrophotometrically by the Anderson and Boardman method (1964),
as adapted by Barth et al., (1992)" (Barth et al., 1993). Notice that the
authors do not explain the Anderson and Boardman method (we can
assume it is known in their field of study) nor their own previous
adaptation of it (because the adaptation has already been recorded in the
work they published in 1992). However they do record in detail their
own procedures that have not been previously recorded: "At each time
interval, three replicates/treatment were taken, ground (stem and
florets) with a Kitchen‐Aid grinder Model K5‐A and used for
determination of reduced ascorbic acid" (Barth et al., 1993). Notice that
they specify the equipment used because it could affect the results.
3. Problem blindness
Most of us encounter some problems when collecting or generating our
data. Do not ignore significant problems or pretend they did not occur.
Often, recording how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting
part of the methodology, and means you can also give a rationale for
certain decisions, plus a realistic view of using the methods you chose.
OVERVIEW
• Introduction: Introduction of research problem
introduction of objectives introduction of how objectives will
be achieved (methodology), optional introduction of main
findings and conclusions, optional
• Literature review: Review of previous work relating to
research problem (to define, explain, justify) review of
previous work relating to methodology (to define, explain,
justify) review of previous work relating to results
(particularly reliability, etc.)

40
• Method: How the results were achieved): explanation of
how data was collected/generated · explanation of how data
was analyzed explanation of methodological problems and
their solutions or effects
• Results and Discussion: Presentation of results
interpretation of results discussion of results (e.g. comparison
with results in previous research, effects of methods used on
the data obtained)
• Conclusions: Has the research problem been “solved”? to
what extent have the objectives been achieved? what has been
learnt from the results? how can this knowledge be used? what
are the shortcomings of the research, or the research
methodology? etc.
This is how method fits into your thesis:
EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF RESEARCH
• Analysis: Classes of data are collected and studies conducted to
discern patterns and formulate principles that might guide future action.
• Case Study: The background, development, current conditions and
environmental interactions of one or more individuals, groups,
communities, businesses or institutions is observed, recorded and
analyzed for stages of patterns in relation to internal and external
influences.
• Comparison: Two or more existing situations are studied to
determine their similarities and differences.
• Correlation-Prediction: Statistically significant correlation
coefficients between and among a number of factors are sought and
interpreted.
• Evaluation: Research to determine whether a program or project
followed the prescribed procedures and achieved the stated outcomes.
• Design-demonstration: New systems or programs are
constructed, tested and evaluated
• Experiment: One or more variables are manipulated and the
results analyzed.
• Survey questionnaire: Behaviors, beliefs and observations of
specific groups are identified, reported and interpreted.

41
• Status: A representative or selected sample of one or more
phenomena is examined to determine its special characteristics.
• Theory Construction: An attempt to find or describe principles
that explain how things work the way they do.
• Trend Analysis: Predicting or forecasting the future direction of
events.
METHOD SECTION: AN EXAMPLE
The following example is abridged (the introduction has been removed,
as well as the results, discussion and conclusions).
Task: Look for the purpose of each part of the methodology. Examine
each sentence and see if you can decide its function. Here is a range of
possibilities to help you: rationale (reasons for doing something),
description (e.g. of equipment), purpose (e.g. of the model), application
(how something is used), structure of the research (the order in which
information will be given), assumptions (for a model), parameters
(these may be variables that are measured).
Click on the highlighted sentences for suggested answers. The
answers are designed for you to jump and forth rather than to read as
a complete text.
Production and Storage of Ice for Cooling Buildings
Wubben, E.A., Shapiro, H.N. and Nelson, R.M. Transactions of the ASME,
Vol. 111, pp. 338 ‐ , 1989.
Abstract
A strategy that may provide economic benefits in buildings is to use and
ice production system to provide cool storage for later use when cooling
is needed. Understanding the fundamental dynamics of the storage tank
is critical in determining the feasibility of such strategies. For this
purpose, a lumped parameter model of ice growth on a heat exchanger is
developed. Results of an experimental study of an ice storage system
installed in a residential research facility are also presented. The results
of the parametric study are also presented that show some of the effects

42
of geometric and operation variables on system performance. Trends
exhibited in the results suggest ways to optimize ice production for the
particular exchanger studied.
Introduction
Lumped Parameter Model of Ice Growth
In this section, governing equations are developed to model ice growth
on the heat exchanger plates. The model is intended to characterize the
dynamics of the ice growth without the [added problem] of the detailed
ice profiles. The presentation begins with mass and energy balances and
concludes with the development of a model for the heat transfer between
the water and the coolant.
Energy and Mass Balances
An analytical model of a storage tank and heat exchanger was constructed
to predict the amount of ice that could be produced on the heat exchanger.
The model predicts the energy flows into and out of the storage tank by
considering energy and mass balances for a suitable control volume. The
rates of energy removal from the tank are related to parameters that
depend on the properties of the storage medium, the physical
characteristics of the system, and the environmental conditions. After this
model was verified by experiments, it was used to predict the effects of
these parameters on the system performance.
The heat exchanger, illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, consists of two plates with
attached tubes placed in parallel between supply and return headers. This
type of heat exchanger was chosen because of its thermal characteristics,
large surface area, ready availability, and because the ice remains attached
to the heat exchanger. To simplify the model, no stratification of the
water is allowed in the storage tank. A submerged pump is placed in the
tank to keep the water well mixed.
WRITING YOUR OWN METHOD SECTION
• Bear in mind the purpose of the method section.
• Keep notes of what you did, why you did it, and what happened.
• Some researchers keep research diaries so that they have a record of the
methods they used.
• Make sure you develop some way of recording your work, and that you
then carefully select which material to include in your final methodology
section.
• Remember who your audience will be, and be careful not to include
unnecessary details.

43
• Avoid using "I" to write about what you did. Do not use "we" unless you
really were working with one or more other researchers. One way to
avoid this problem is to use passive voice.
• Verb tenses ‐ be consistent, and choose the correct one!

44
Method - Text Analysis
Method and Research Design - Text Analysis
"In this section," "begins with," "concludes with"
Structure of the written report: the writers are telling
you how their research will be presented in the following
section, including the topic and the order in which
information will appear. This is useful because it gives an
overview of the methodology section and therefore
makes what follows easier to understand. Without an
overview it may not be evident why the author/s are
presenting certain material or the relevance of certain
sections. This first paragraph functions like an
introduction to the following section. Usually every
section of a piece of research writing has some form of
introduction that gives the main points of what follows
or outlines the structure of the research.
"is intended to," "was constructed to"
Purpose: in this case, the purpose of the model. Very
often in methodology sections the purpose is given first,
or at least very early because knowing the aim of the
research is obviously paramount to understanding how
the researcher/s set out to achieve their objectives.
Later, in the second paragraph, the more specific
purpose (in this case to predict) is given.
“The model predicts"
What the model does: the model predicts energy flows. In
this sentence we learn a more specific purpose than was
given in the previous paragraph, and are given more
information about how it works.
"The rates of energy removal from the tank are
related to parameters"
Functioning of the system: here the authors tell us which
variables affect the rate of energy removal, i.e. how the
system functions. In the following sentence we are told
that the model is used to predict the effect of these
parameters.

45
"It was used"
Application: how the model was used, in this case as a
method of predicting how well the system would work.
"Consists of"
Description: a description of the model, in this case the
physical equipment assumed in the model.
"Was chosen because"
Rationale: reasons why this method (in this case, this
heat exchanger) were chosen for this model. It is often
crucial to give an explanation in order to justify
decisions.
"To simplify the model"
Assumptions: models necessarily involve simplifying
reality. Here the authors specify their assumptions (no
stratification in the water), and provide a rationale for
why they can assume this to be true (a submerged pump
in the tank is assumed to keep the water sufficiently well
mixed).

46
Verb Tense and Method
FOR YOUR THESIS OR DISSERTATION PROPOSAL
Because you haven't yet carried out your research, you should write
about what you plan to do in the future tense (because you will do the
work at some point in the future). For example:
A multiple choice questionnaire will be administered to the top managers
of fifty information technology companies in the country.
Use "will" to make the future tense rather than the more informal "going to."
For facts or information that are true and unlikely to change, write about
them in the present tense. For example:
A multiple choice questionnaire will be used since it offers a way to
reduce the time respondents will need to complete it, and therefore to
increase the number of completed questionnaires.
The fact that the multiple choice questionnaire offers a way to reduce
completion time is true whether the questionnaire is administered today
or next year (it is always true), so "offers" is used instead of "will offer."

47
FOR YOUR THESIS OR DISSERTATION
Most of your methodology section will be written in the past tense
because you are recording what you have done. Notice too that it is
usually written in the simple past (the verb tense used for events that are
now finished). For example:
1) The sample was weighed.
2) Fish seed were added to the pool.
3) A thermometer recorded changes in external temperature.
These sentences are written in the past tense, because an action took
place and is now finished. (For example in 1, the sample was weighed on
the 18th August, 1996 at 3pm and is not still being weighed ‐ the action of
weighing is finished so simple past is used). Notice that although 1, 2 and
3 are all in the simple past, 1 and 2 are passive verbs while 3 is active.
(See Passive and Active Voice for more information). For facts or
information that are true and unlikely to change, write about them in the
present tense. For example:
Vietnam was chosen for this study because it has a long coastline.
(Present tense is used because we assume that the length of Vietnam's
coastline is unlikely to change.)
Cornmeal was used to feed the fingerlings because it provides high
nutritional content at a relatively low cost.
(Present tense is used because we assume that neither the nutritional
content nor the cost of corn meal is likely to change.)
Other verb tenses may also be used, for example to describe one event
happening during another. Example:
Ethyl alcohol was added while the sample was being dried.
(past continuous passive)

48
Notice, too
• The present tense is used to talk about the thesis or
dissertation itself and what it contains, shows, etc.
For example:
Table 3 shows that the main cause of weight increase was nutritional value
of the feed. (Table 3 will always show this ‐ it is now a fact that is unlikely
to change, and will be true whenever this sentence is read, so present
tense is used.)
• "to" is often used to mean "in order to"
• "by" is usually followed by a verb ending in ‐ing
AN EXAMPLE OF VERB TENSES AND VERB TENSE SHIFTS
Look at the text below and see if you can decide why each highlighted
tense has been used. Find suggested answers by clicking on the words,
then return to the text by using the arrows.
Takii, K. and Shimano, S. et al.. In The Current Status of Fish
Nutrition in Aquaculture, Takeda, M. And Watanabe, T. (Eds.)
Materials and Methods
Formulations and proximate compositions of the experimental diets are
shown in Table 1. Brown fish meal was used to provide approximately 54%
(dry matter basis) crude protein for the control diet 1. In diets 2‐4 and 5,
approximately 15‐ 46% and 31% of the fish meal was isonitrogenously
substituted with a soy protein concentrate (SPC), respectively, diets 2‐4
were supplemented with the essential amino acids (DL‐menthionin,
L‐lysine, L‐histidine, L‐valine and L‐ threonin) to simulate the composition
of the control diet 1. Feeding stimulants (L‐alanine, L‐proline and 5’‐IMP)
were supplemented to each diet. The SPC used in this experiment was
DANPRO‐A, product of Aarhus Olie Co., Ltd, (Denmark, supplied by Bayer
Japan Co., Ltd., which contains a high level of crude protein and a low level
of trypsin inhibitors, as a result of the treatments of defatting, ethanol
extraction and toasting.

49
Moist pellets were prepared by thoroughly mixing the dry ingredients
with oil and cold water and then extruding the dough through a
laboratory pelleting machine. Resulting pellets, 3 or 5 mm in diameter,
were stored at ‐20 degrees until use.
For information about voice, see Passive and Active Voice.
Description of above example
Are shown in Table 1: simple present (passive). Always use simple
present to refer the reader to a table or figure in your text.
Was used to provide/was isonitrogenously substituted/were
supplemented/were prepared/were stored: simple past (passive) ‐ this is
the most commonly used tense in a method section because it describes
actions that are now finished. Passive Voice because it sounds more
objective not to use “I” (see Active and Passive).
Used/was/supplied by: simple past. The product was used (an action
now finished). In this experiment (now finished) the product was
DANPRO‐A. The product was supplied (also an action that is now
finished).
Contains: we assume that what the product contains is unlikely to change,
therefore we can describe it in the present tense.

50
Voice in the Method chapter
Passive and Active Voice
Verbs can be used in either in the passive voice (The biscuit was eaten by
the dog OR The biscuit was eaten) or the active voice (The dog ate the
biscuit).
What does it matter? Well, using passive or active voice changes the
emphasis of a piece of writing. For example:
"The biscuit was eaten by the dog." This sentence is passive because the
main focus of the sentence is on the biscuit, but the biscuit does not do
anything ‐ instead something is done to the biscuit (by the dog). In fact,
we can even leave out the part about who performed the action: The
biscuit was eaten.
"The dog ate the biscuit." This is active because the main focus of our
attention is on the dog, and the dog is the one who does something (it
eats the biscuit).
WHY USE PASSIVE VOICE?
People reading your thesis or dissertation are going to be far less
interested in you than in your work so the emphasis should be on what
you did and not on you. Also, by not saying "I weighed the sample" but
"The sample was weighed" you make your writing sound more objective.
HOW DO I MAKE THE PASSIVE VOICE?
Passive voice is the verb to be followed by a past participle: For example:
• Rice is grown in Thailand. (simple present is plus past participle grown)
• The film is being shown at Future Park Mall. (present continuous is
being plus past participle shown)
• The sample was weighed to find its dry weight. (simple past was plus
past participle weighed)
• The samples were being dried . (past continuous were being plus past
participle dried)
• The interviews will be conducted in groups. (future will be plus past
participle conducted)

51
WRITING ABOUT WHAT THE RESEARCHERS HAVE DONE
Research writing usually avoids using "I" or "we" (although "we" is
becoming more acceptable in co‐authored papers). By convention, if the
passive voice is used we assume that an action was carried out by the
researcher/s, and we don't say directly who did it. For example:
INCORRECT
The temperature inside the chamber was increased from 0 C to 20
C by the researcher.
CORRECT
The temperature inside the chamber was increased from 0 C to
20 C. (We assume the researcher increased the temperature.)
INCORRECT
Four thermocouples were monitored hourly by the researcher.
CORRECT
Four thermocouples were monitored hourly. (We assume the
researcher monitored them.)
WRITING ABOUT WHAT THE EQUIPMENT HAS DONE?
The active voice is usually used when the equipment has performed an
action (i.e. when it is not the researcher/s who have performed the
action). For example:
• A 200hp generator provided power to the piezometers.
• Control gauges monitored air pressure inside the chamber.
• The use of active voice indicates that the researchers were not
directly involved in the functioning of the equipment.
The passive voice can be used to describe an action involving equipment,
but a "by" clause must be included to which equipment performed the
action. For example: Power was supplied by 14 generators with
capacities ranging from 90 to 300 KW.
45

52
Results
DETAILS ON THIS SECTION
Purpose
What are the results and discussion sections include?
Common problem
Organization
An Example
Some Advices
PURPOSE
To present the results and make them meaningful to the reader.
WHATS THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SECTIONS INCLUDE
Statement of results: the results are presented in a format that is
accessible to the reader (e.g. in a graph, table, diagram or written text).
Notice that raw data is usually put in an appendix, if it is included at all.
Explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams and figures should be
accompanied by text that guides the reader's attention to significant
results. The text makes the results meaningful by pointing out the most
important results, simplifying the results (e.g. "nearly half" instead of
"48.9%"), highlighting significant trends or relationships (e.g. "the rate of
oxygenation decreases as the temperature decreases"), and perhaps
commenting on whether certain results were expected or unexpected.

53
COMMON PROBLEM
The text includes too much detail that simply repeats data presented in
graphs, tables, etc. without making the results meaningful.
Solution: remember that tables etc. are used to present a lot of
information efficiently, but that your job is to direct the reader's attention
to significant parts of this information.
ORGANIZATION
There are two basic ways of organizing the results:
Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different
section)
Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting
another part then giving a discussion, etc.
The method of organization you use will depend on the quantity and type
of results you obtain from your research. You should look for a method of
presentation that makes the information and ideas you are presenting as
clear as possible to the reader.
AN EXAMPLE
Below is part of the results section from "Strategies of failure diagnosis in
computer‐controlled manufacturing systems: empirical analysis and
implications for the design of adaptive decision support systems." Part of
the discussion can be found on the Discussion page.
Task: read through the part of the results section below and try to find
the purpose of each sentence. Click on the highlighted phrases for
suggested answers. Here are some ideas to help you: explanation,
reference to a figure, statement of results, making the results meaningful,
comparison.

54
Strategies of failure diagnosis in computer‐controlled manufacturing
systems: empirical analysis and implications for the design of adaptive
decision support systems
Konradt, U. International Journal of Human‐Computer Studies (1995) 43,
503‐ 521
SUMMARY (adapted from the abstract)
Objective of the study: to investigate strategies in failure diagnosis at
cutting‐ machine‐tools with a verbal knowledge acquisition technique.
Method: semi‐structured interviews with mechanical and electrical
maintenance technicians; protocol analysis was performed on the data.
Analysis of strategies was performed according to technicians’
experience, familiarity with the problem and the problem complexity. The
technicians were categorized by level of experience.
Results
Figure 2 shows that the most frequent diagnosis strategies were
“Historical information” (29% of the 182 observed strategies), “Least
effort” (11.5%), “Reconstruction” (9.8%) and “Sensory check” (8.7%) (see
Appendix). Strategies such as “Historical information”, which check
available information about the failure history, and “Least effort” are two
low cost technical checks which shorten the time needed for diagnosis
activities (see Appendix). Strategies such as “Split half”, leading to a
binary reduction of the problem space, and “Information uncertainty”
play only a minor role in real‐life failure diagnosis of machine tools (1.1%,
see Figure 2).

55
Historical information (29.0)
Least effort (11.5)
Reconstruction (9.8)
Sensory checks (8.7)
Systematic narrowing (6.6)
Signal tracing (6.0)
Conditional probability (5.5)
Frequency (4.9)
Exclusion (3.3)
Manuals (3.3)
Pattern of symptoms (2.7)
Topographical search (2.2)
Diagnosis software (1.6)
Split half (1.1)
Information uncertainty (1.1)
Miscellaneous (2.7)
Figure 5.2: Frequencies of failure diagnosis strategies (n=182)
"Figure2 shows"
Reference to a figure. Notice that the present tense is used ("shows").
Usually references to figures, tables etc. are put in parenthesis rather than
in the main body of the sentence because they are of secondary
importance to the results themselves.
"the most frequentdiagnosis strategies were"
The writer is pointing out the significance of three of the results (i.e. that
they were the most frequent diagnosis strategies). Notice that the writers
refers to the figure containing the information ("Figure 2 shows"), and
that detailed percentages are de‐emphasized by being included only in
parentheses. In fact, this detailed information does not need to be
included in the text since it appears in the figure. For more detailed
information, the reader is referred to the appendix: "(see Appendix)."
Notice that this reference is in parentheses too as it is not part of the main
body of the sentence.
"are two low‐cost technical checks which"

56
The writer is summarizing the benefits of two of the strategies in order to
indicate why they were most frequently used. Although this is in fact
discussion, it is helpful for the reader to have this information while
looking at the results. A detailed discussion of the results appears in the
Discussion section of the same article.
"playonly a minor role"
The writer is pointing out the least frequent strategies. In this case, the
low frequency of these strategies is of interest (see the Discussion section
of the same article) and therefore the reader's attention is directed
towards them.
SOME ADVICES
References to the figure and to the appendix are generally put in
parentheses, e.g. "(see Appendix)" because this information is of
secondary importance. Of primary importance are the results themselves,
so most of the sentences focuses on them. Look at the following two
sentences. Which one is more effective? Remember the purpose of the
text in a results section. Click on them to find out.
a. Table 1 shows the results from the laboratory experiment.
b. The results from the laboratory experiment indicate that the reaction
proceeds faster in the presence of this metal (see Table 1).
The point of this sentence is just to tell the reader to look at Table 1. It
does not make the results in Table 1 meaningful because it does not
comment on them.
b)The results from the laboratory experiment indicate that the reaction
proceeds faster in the presence of this metal (see Table 1)".
This sentence is more effective than a) because it makes the results in the
table meaningful by pointing out a relationship between the speed of the
reaction and the presence of the metal. Notice that the reference to the
table is de‐emphasized by being put in parentheses because it is of only
secondary importance.

57
Discussion
DETAILS ON DISCUSSION SECTION
• The Purpose of the Discussion section and what it includes
• Common Problem
• Organization
• An Example
• Some Advices
PURPOSE AND CONTENT OF THE DISCUSSION SECTION
The discussion section is for comment on and explanation of the results.
It includes:
• Explanation of results: the writer comments on whether or not
the results were expected, and presents explanations for the results,
particularly for those that are unexpected or unsatisfactory.
• References to previous research: comparison of the results with
those reported in the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim,
hypothesis or deduction.
• Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more
generally (a conclusion based on reasoning from the results, e.g. we fed
fish a new feed, all the fish gained weight, therefore the new feed causes
fish to gain weight).
• Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising
from the results (which will be proved or disproved in later research).

58
COMMON PROBLEM
The discussion does not discuss ‐ simply supplies more detail about the
results obtained.
Solution: remember that the discussion should explain the results.
ORGANIZATION
There are two basic ways of organizing the results and discussion:
1. Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a
different section)
2. Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting
another part then giving a discussion, etc
The method of organization you use will depend on the quantity and type
of results you obtain from your research. You should look for a method of
presentation that makes the information and ideas you are presenting as
clear as possible to the reader.
AN EXAMPLE
Below is part of the discussion section from "Strategies of failure
diagnosis in computer‐controlled manufacturing systems: empirical
analysis and implications for the design of adaptive decision support
systems." Part of the results section was included on the Results page of
this online course. The square brackets indicate the information that has
been left out.
Task: read through the discussion section and try to find the purpose of
each sentence. Click on the highlighted phrases for suggested answers.
Here are some ideas to help you: explanation, purpose, supporting
reference, theory, description, summary, comparison.

59
Strategies of failure diagnosis in computer-controlled
manufacturing systems: empirical analysis and implications for the
design of adaptive decision support systems
Konradt, U. International Journal of Human‐Computer Studies (1995) 43,
503‐ 521
SUMMARY (adapted from the abstract)
Objective of the study: to investigate strategies in failure diagnosis at
cutting‐ machine‐tools with a verbal knowledge acquisition technique.
Method: semi‐structured interviews with mechanical and electrical
maintenance technicians; protocol analysis was performed on the data.
Analysis of strategies was performed according to technicians’
experience, familiarity with the problem and the problem complexity.
The technicians were categorized by level of experience.
Discussion: Strategies in Real‐life Diagnosis
In fault diagnosis in advanced manufacturing systems, four typical
strategies are found:
 Restriction of diagnosis to components which are known and
susceptible to failures (“Historical information”);
 Performing tests that result in least efforts (“Least effort”);
 Reconstruction of the conditions that lead to the failure
(“Reconstruction”);
 Perception of symptoms, i.e. loose connections, odors, sounds, play
(“Sensory checks”).
These strategies appeared in about 60% of the total observed strategies.
The primary strategy was “Historical Information”. This corresponds to
the results of Hoc (1989). In information theory, strategies such as
“Information uncertainty”, which eliminates the greatest number of
failure causes, or “Split half”, which results in a binary splitting of the
problem space, are economical ways to shorten the problem space. We
found that in real‐life failure diagnosis, even maintenance experts with
more than 20 years experience seldom used these strategies. One reason
may be that the use of this strategy requires information about
conditional probabilities and a fully described problem space that cannot
be supposed for troubleshooting in complex manufacturing systems.

60
Discussion - Text Analysis
"The primary strategy was “Historical Information": Up to this point,
the writer is providing a summary of the results by highlighting the most
significant findings
"corresponds to the results of Hoc (1989)": The writer supports the
validity of the results by referring to similar results obtained by another
researcher.
"In information theory": The writer summarizes relevant information
from the theory. Notice how this is important to put the writer's own
research into context (see the next sentence).
"We found that": The writer summarizes the results in order to show
that they differ from what the theory would predict (the theory was
summarized in the previous sentence).
"One reason may be": The writer suggests why the results from this
study do not correspond with the theory, i.e. the writer is explaining the
difference between theory and this study's results outlined in the
previous sentences.

61
SOME ADVICES
• If you are putting your discussion into a discussion section separate
from the results, you may want to provide a summary of the results to
remind your reader of your main findings.
• Put your results in context (e.g. by comparing them with previous
research, or with existing theory) in order to explain them.
• Give reasons to account for differences between your research and
previous research or existing theory, or to explain unexpected results.
• Although there may be some repetition of information in the
results and discussion sections, it should be kept to a minimum.
• Remember too that the focus should be different: while you are
simply
presenting results and making them meaningful to your reader in the
results section, in the discussion section you are explaining them.

62
CONCLUSION
Detail on Conclusion Section
Purpose
Common Problems
Examples
Purpose
To give a summary of:
What was learned (this usually comes first)
What remains to be learned (directions for future research)
The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation)
The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of the research (evaluation),
and
Recommendations.
COMMON PROBLEM
Too long: The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion
section is as little as 2.5% of an entire piece of published research.
Too much detail: Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary
detail. The conclusion section is not the place for details about your
methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was
learnt from your research, this summary should be short, since the
emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations,
etc. that you make.
Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues: Whereas in the
introduction your task was to move from general (your field) to specific
(your research), in the concluding section your task is to move from
specific (your research) back to general (your field, how your research

63
will affect the world). In other words, in the conclusion you should put
your research in context.
Failure to reveal the complexities of a conclusion or situation:
Negative aspects of your research should not be ignored. Problems,
drawbacks etc. can be included in summary in your conclusion section as
a way of qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the negative
aspects, even if they are outweighed by the positive aspects.
Lack of a concise summary of what was learned: In order to be able to
discuss how your research fits back into your field of study (and the
world at large) you need to summarize it very briefly. Often the summary
is only a few sentences.
Failure to match the objectives of the research: Often research
objectives change while the research is being carried out. This is not a
problem unless you forget to go back and rewrite your original objectives
in your introduction so that they accurately reflect what you were trying
to accomplish in your research (not what you thought you might
accomplish when you began).
56

64
Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match:
Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of
road building on villages on rural communities.
Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the
social and economic impact of road‐building on villages in northern Laos.
If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a
model), it will fit the conclusion:
Rewritten objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a
model to predict the social and economic impact of road‐building on rural
communities.
EXAMPLES
Read the texts below and see if you can decide the purpose of each
highlighted sentence (e.g. summary of research, major conclusion,
problems/drawbacks and other negative aspects, qualified conclusion,
directions for future research, structure of the writing). Click on each
sentence for suggested answers, then use the arrows to return to the
texts.
Example 1
Analysis of coupled shear/core walls using a beam‐type finite element
Kwan, A. K. H., and Cheung, Y. K. (1994) Engineering Structures. Vol 16 No 2.

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