From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

FROM THE BEGINNING
OF SPACE AND TIME:
Modern Science and the Mystic Universe
Manjunath.R
manjunath5496@gmail.com

Copyright © 2019 Manjunath.R
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I dedicate this book to everyone who has contributed
significantly to our understanding of the universe as a
whole, why it is the way it is, and why it even exists.

"My goal is simple. It is a complete understanding of the
universe, why it is as it is and why it exists at all."
- STEPHEN HAWKING

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CONTENTS
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Epigraph
Introduction
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
LONG STANDING QUESTIONS
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Conclusion
Glossary
Acknowledgement
One final thought

There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All
that remains is more and more precise measurement.
– Lord Kelvin, 1900
VII

INTRODUCTION
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
We human beings − who are ourselves mere collections of
fundamental particles of nature and the product of quantum
fluctuations in the very early universe – unsure of the
existence of more than one universe, dark matter, or dark
energy, as well as other exotic conceptions − try to wonder,
seek answers and gazing at the immense heavens above, we
have always asked a multitude of questions: Which came
first, the galaxy or the stars? What is Dark Matter? What
is Dark Energy? What Came Before the Big Bang? What's
Inside a Black Hole? Are We Alone? How old is the Universe?
What is the currently most accepted model for the Universe?
What is the origin of the universe? How did it come into
existence, and what was the state of the universe in its earliest
moments? Does gravity travel at the speed of light? Does
the graviton have mass? Is the Big Bang a Black Hole? What
IX

is the structure of space-time just outside astrophysical black
holes? Do their space times have horizons? What happens in
a black hole? Where did the Big Bang happen? What is the
evidence for the Big Bang? How did life come to exist on
Earth? What conditions were necessary for the evolution of
life, and is life unique to our planet or common throughout the
universe? What is the nature of time and space? How does the
fabric of space-time behave, and what are the implications
of this for our understanding of the universe? How did the
structure of the universe form and evolve over time? What
role did dark matter and dark energy play in the formation of
galaxies and galaxy clusters? If the production of microscopic
black holes is feasible, can the LHC create a black hole that
will eventually eat the world? Many others! These questions
continue to trouble scientists despite the massive amounts of
data coming in from observatories around the globe and from
particle physics experiments like the Large Hadron Collider
in Switzerland, as well as despite the countless hours that
astronomers and physicists spend in front of a chalkboard or
running computational simulations.
Cosmology is the scientific study of the universe as a whole,
including its origin, evolution, and structure. It is an
interdisciplinary field that draws on knowledge from
X

astronomy, physics, and mathematics to understand the
cosmos on the largest scales. It is one of the oldest branches of
human inquiry and has its roots in ancient civilizations that
tried to understand the nature of the cosmos. The earliest
recorded cosmological ideas date back to ancient civilizations
such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks. These
civilizations believed that the universe was ordered and that
the gods controlled its workings. The Babylonians were the
first to develop a systematic study of the heavens, and they
recorded the movements of the planets and stars on clay
tablets. The Egyptians also had a deep understanding of the
cosmos and believed that the sun and stars were the
manifestations of gods. In ancient Greece, philosophers such
as Thales, Anaximander, and Pythagoras tried to explain the
nature of the universe using reason and observation. However,
it was the philosopher Aristotle who had the most significant
impact on Greek cosmology. He believed that the universe was
eternal, and the earth was at the center of the cosmos, with the
stars and planets moving around it in perfect circles. The
Greek astronomer Ptolemy developed a sophisticated
cosmological model that was widely accepted for over a
thousand years. According to this model, the earth was at the
center of the universe, and the sun, moon, planets, and stars
moved around it in a series of perfect circles. This model was
XI

refined over time, but it was unable to explain some of the
observed phenomena in the night sky. The Polish astronomer
Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the Ptolemaic model in the
16th century, proposing that the sun was at the center of the
universe, and the planets, including the earth, orbited around
it. This model, known as the heliocentric model, was later
confirmed by the observations of the Italian astronomer
Galileo Galilei, who used the newly invented telescope to
study the planets and stars. In the 17th century, the English
physicist Isaac Newton developed the laws of motion and
gravity, which revolutionized our understanding of the
cosmos. He proposed that the universe was governed by
universal laws of physics, and that the same physical laws
applied everywhere in the cosmos. This idea was later used to
explain the motion of the planets, comets, and other celestial
objects. The 20th century saw a major shift in cosmological
thinking, with the development of new theories and
technologies that enabled us to study the universe in new and
innovative ways. One of the most significant developments
was the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation
in 1965, which provided evidence for the Big Bang theory. This
theory proposed that the universe began as a singularity and
has been expanding ever since. In the latter part of the 20th
century, advances in technology enabled us to observe the
XII

cosmos in new ways, such as using radio telescopes and space-
based observatories. These observations led to the
development of new theories, such as the inflationary
universe theory, which proposed that the universe underwent
a period of rapid expansion in the first few moments after the
Big Bang. To sum up, the history of cosmology is a long and
fascinating one that has been shaped by the ideas and
observations of many cultures and individuals. While our
understanding of the universe has come a long way, there is
still much to learn, and cosmologists continue to work
towards unraveling the mysteries of the cosmos. One of the
major areas of inquiry in cosmology is the origin of the
universe, known as the Big Bang theory. This theory proposes
that the universe began as a singularity, an infinitely hot and
dense point in space-time, around 13.8 billion years ago. From
this initial state, the universe rapidly expanded and cooled,
eventually leading to the formation of atoms and the structure
we see today. Another area of study in cosmology is the nature
of dark matter and dark energy. Observations of galaxy
motion and the cosmic microwave background radiation
have provided strong evidence that the majority of the
universe is composed of these mysterious, invisible
substances. Despite extensive research, the true nature of dark
matter and dark energy remains unknown, and their study is
XIII

an active area of research in cosmology. The structure of the
universe is also a central focus of cosmology. The large scale
structure of the universe is thought to be comprised of galaxy
clusters and superclusters, which are connected by vast cosmic
voids. Cosmologists use computer simulations and
observational data to study the formation and evolution of
this structure. In recent years, cosmology has made
significant progress due to advances in technology and data
collection. The study of the cosmic microwave background
radiation has provided us with valuable information about the
universe's early history, and large scale surveys of galaxies
have given us a detailed look at the universe's current
structure. In essence, cosmology is a fascinating field of study
that seeks to answer some of the most fundamental questions
about the universe. From the origin of the universe to the
nature of dark matter and dark energy, cosmologists are
constantly working to expand our understanding of the
cosmos.
Why does anything exist as opposed to nothing? What kind
of thing is reality? Why are the natural laws so perfectly
balanced to make it possible for intelligent creatures like us
to exist? These questions serve as the framework for what is
now known as the "standard model" of the beginning of the
XIV

universe, which takes us on an amazing adventure starting
from the Planck Epoch, the very beginning of the universe's
history, and ending with the scientific breakthrough of the
Cosmic Microwave Background and Albert Einstein's Theory
of Relativity. And now, with advancement in cosmology,
quantum theory, relativity and string theory, many
researchers have been able to solve problems relating to almost
everything from the smallest quarks to the largest exploding
stars. Astrobiology (often referred to as xenobiology or
exobiology) upholds its perspective on life elsewhere in the
universe, holding that while the dimensions of the universe
allows for the possibility of millions of extraterrestrial
civilizations, there is no reliable evidence to support the claim
that any of these civilizations have ever been to Earth to meet
us. Only 4% of our universe is made up of the matter that
goes into making the smallest atomic particles, planets, stars,
galaxies, black holes, and wormholes, which has caused some
scientists in the community of theoretical physics to scramble
to find an explanation for it in recent years. The remaining
96% of the cosmos is a complete mystery. Until now. The
universe is full of mysteries. It might conceal dimensions
of space in addition to the well-known three that we are
familiar with. There may even be an undiscovered, invisible
neighboring universe to our own.
XV

The question of why we exist is one of the oldest and most
profound philosophical questions, and it has been pondered
by thinkers for centuries. There is no one answer that can
fully explain the reasons for our existence, as it is a complex
and multifaceted question that can be approached from many
different perspectives. From a scientific perspective, we can
understand why we exist in terms of the laws of physics and
the way they have shaped the universe and the development
of life on Earth. For example, the laws of physics, such as
gravitation and the laws of thermodynamics, have created
the conditions that allowed for stars to form and eventually
give birth to planets like Earth. Over time, life on Earth
evolved through a process of natural selection, leading to
the development of species like humans. From a religious
perspective, the reasons for our existence may be understood
in terms of a higher power or deity creating the universe and
humanity for a specific purpose. Different religious traditions
have different beliefs about why we exist and the role we
play in the larger cosmic plan. Philosophically, the question
of why we exist can be seen as a question about the meaning
and purpose of life. Some philosophers argue that life has
no inherent meaning, while others believe that our existence
is imbued with purpose, either by a higher power or through
XVI

our own actions and choices. Ultimately, the reasons for our
existence are a subject of ongoing debate and discussion, and
each person may have their own unique perspective based
on their beliefs and experiences. There is no one answer
that can fully explain why we exist, and the question may
remain unanswered for some, but that does not diminish its
importance or the continued effort to understand it.
Theories are models or frameworks that attempt to explain
or predict a phenomenon. While theories are generally useful
in providing a way to understand and make sense of complex
phenomena, they are not infallible and can have limitations
and failures. Here are a few examples of failures of theories:
Incomplete or inaccurate assumptions: The assumptions underlying a
theory may not always be complete or accurate, leading to limitations or
errors in the predictions or explanations the theory provides.
Limited applicability: The scope of a theory may be limited to a specific
context or situation, and may not be applicable to other contexts or
situations.
Contradictory evidence: New evidence or observations may contradict
the predictions or explanations provided by a theory, calling into
question its validity or usefulness.
Unfalsifiability: Some theories may be inherently unfalsifiable,
meaning that it is impossible to prove or disprove them with empirical
evidence. This makes them difficult to test or verify, and may limit their
XVII

usefulness in explaining or predicting phenomena.
Inadequate testing: The testing of a theory may be inadequate or
flawed, leading to incorrect conclusions about its validity or usefulness.
It is important to note that failures of theories do not
necessarily mean that the theory is useless or without
value. Rather, it highlights the need for continued refinement
and improvement of theories through ongoing research and
testing.
Seeking an answer to the fundamental puzzle of why do
we exist at all? There are just a few of the many questions
that cosmologists seek to answer, and the field continues to
evolve as new data and technology become available. The
study of cosmology provides us with a deeper understanding
of the universe and our place within it and it continues to
be a source of wonder and discovery. This book provides a
glimpse into the living story of our universe and a clear,
readable and self-contained introduction to the story of how
our understanding of the cosmos has evolved significantly
over time. It fills the gap and addresses the issues that
are important to everyone, or at least to everyone reading
this book, and it inspires us to explore the black holes and
time machines, entire cosmos from creation to ultimate
destruction, with a wealth of secrets at every turn. It
XVIII

discusses the mind-bending nature of time and space, God's
involvement in creation, the past and future of the universe,
and more.
The purpose of the universe is a philosophical and scientific
question that has been debated by scholars and thinkers for
centuries. While there is no definitive answer, here are some
perspectives on the purpose of the universe:
From a scientific perspective, the universe can be seen as the result of
natural processes that have unfolded over billions of years. The purpose
of the universe, in this view, is simply to exist and to continue to evolve
according to the laws of physics.
From a religious perspective, the purpose of the universe may be tied to
the beliefs of a particular faith. For example, some religious traditions
hold that the universe was created by a deity or deities, and that its
purpose is to serve as a manifestation of the divine.
From a human perspective, the purpose of the universe may be to
provide a home for life, including human life, and to offer opportunities
for growth, exploration, and understanding. In this view, the universe
can be seen as a vast and complex environment that offers endless
possibilities for discovery and learning.
Ultimately, the purpose of the universe is a deeply personal
and subjective question that may depend on one's worldview,
beliefs, and values.
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Gravity was first described by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th
century, and is explained by his law of universal gravitation,
which states that every object in the universe attracts every
other object with a force that is proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. Gravity is the force that keeps us
anchored to the Earth, and without it, we would float off into
space. Despite its importance, the nature of gravity remains
a mystery in many ways, and it is one of the most active
areas of research in physics today. Dark matter is a type of
matter that is thought to make up about 85% of the matter
in the universe, but it does not interact with light or other
forms of electromagnetic radiation. The nature of dark matter
is still unknown, and scientists are working to develop new
ways to detect it and understand its properties. Dark energy
is a mysterious force that is thought to be responsible for
the accelerating expansion of the universe. Its nature and
origin are still unknown, and scientists are exploring different
theories to explain it. According to general relativity, space
and time are intimately linked and can be warped by matter
and energy. However, the principles of general relativity and
quantum mechanics seem to be incompatible, and scientists
are searching for a theory of quantum gravity that can unify
XX

these two branches of physics. The Big Bang theory is the most
widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe,
but it still leaves many unanswered questions, such as what
caused the Big Bang, and what happened in the moments
immediately after. While there is no conclusive evidence of
extraterrestrial life, the vast size and age of the universe
suggest that life may exist elsewhere. Scientists are exploring
different techniques for detecting signs of life on other planets
and moons, and searching for habitable environments beyond
our solar system. The mysteries of the universe continue to
captivate and challenge scientists. As technology and scientific
knowledge advance, we may be able to unlock more of these
secrets and gain a deeper understanding of the universe and
our place within it.
Have we reached the end of physics? As far as our current
understanding of the universe goes, there is no reason to
believe that physics will ever come to an end. Physics is the
study of the fundamental laws of nature, and these laws have
been observed to be consistent and unchanging throughout
the history of the universe. Of course, our understanding of
physics is constantly evolving as new discoveries are made
and new theories are developed. However, even if we were to
XXI

discover a completely new set of physical laws that completely
upended our current understanding of the universe, it is
likely that the study of these new laws would simply become
a new branch of physics. Furthermore, physics is intimately
connected to the other natural sciences, such as chemistry,
biology, and geology. As our understanding of these fields
grows, it is likely that our understanding of physics will
continue to grow as well. So, in short, there is no reason
to believe that physics will ever come to an end. As long as
there is a universe to observe and study, there will be a need
to understand its fundamental laws. Why something? Why
not nothing? Why is There Universe rather Than Nothing?
Science scrambles, Nature mystifies. This book concentrates
on presenting the subject from the understanding perspective
of cosmology and brings the reader right up to date with
curious aspects of cosmology established over the last few
centuries. This book assumes cosmology a journey not a
destination and the advance of knowledge is an infinite
progression towards a goal that forever recedes. This book will
be of interest to students, teachers and general science readers
interested in fundamental ideas of cosmology from the Big
Bang to the present day and on into the future. It encourages
us to think about the universe and our place in it in unique and
fascinating ways while focusing our attention on the ongoing
XXII

quest for the enticing secrets at the centre of time and space.
Just as the mind is a womb of wordless thoughts, the universe
is a fountain where everything is conceived.
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
XXIII

Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer Discussing Theory of
Matter with Albert Einstein at the Institute for Advanced
Study in Princeton, New Jersey, 1947.

For his work on the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein was never awarded
a Nobel Prize. For his explanation of the photoelectric phenomenon, he
was awarded the 1921Nobel Prize in physics.

The History Of The Universe
In 1000 Words Or Less
The effort to understand the universe is one of the very
few things that lifts human life a little above the level of
farce, and gives it some of the grace of tragedy.
− Steven Weinberg
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
Cosmic Event in which our universe was born.
Cosmic Inflation in which the Grand Unified Force
was separated into the Four Forces of Nature (gravity,
CHAPTER 1
XXV

electromagnetic, the weak force and the strong force) as We
Now Know Them, and the space expanded by a factor of the
order of 1026
over a time of the order of 10−36
to 10−32
seconds
to Many Times Its Original Size in a Very Short Period of Time
– Rapid expansion in which the universe super cooled, though
not Quite as Quickly from about 1027
down to 1022
Kelvins.
There were 2 types of fundamental particles: quarks and leptons.
Quarks felt the strong interaction, leptons did not. Both quarks and
leptons felt the other three interactions.
PARTICLE-ANTIPARTICLE ANNIHILATION in which All the
Antiparticles in the Universe Annihilated Almost All the
Particles, Creating a Universe Made Up of Matter and Photons
(which did not possessed electrical charge nor did they had
any rest mass) and no antimatter. This process satisfied a
number of conservation laws including:
Conservation of electric charge: The net charge before and after was zero.
Conservation of momentum and energy: The net momentum and energy
before and after was zero.
If the positron and the electron were moving very slowly, then they went
into orbit round each other producing a quasi-stable bound atom-like
object called positronium. Positronium was very unstable: the positron
and the electron invariably destroyed each other to produce high
energetic gamma photons.
DEUTERIUM AND HELIUM PRODUCTION in which Many
XXVI

of the positively charged Protons and electrically neural
Neutrons in the Early Universe Combined to Form Heavy
Hydrogen and Helium. The proton was composed of two up
quarks and one down quark and the neutron was composed of
two down quarks and one up quark.
Charge on the up quark was + 2/3 × 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs
Charge on the down quark was −1/3 × 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs
The charge on the proton was approximately + 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs and
that on the electron was −1.6 × 10−19
coulombs.
Intrinsic energy of a proton or a neutron
was = Kinetic Energy of quarks + Potential
Energy of quarks + intrinsic energy of quarks
RECOMBINATION in which Electrons Combined with
Hydrogen and Helium Nuclei, Producing Neutral Atoms. A
neutrino was passed through matter then it reacted with a
proton to produce a positively charged particle with the same
mass as the electron — this particle was the positron. The
properties of the strong force were such that the quarks did
not all stick together in one large mass (otherwise the newly
born universe would have been a huge lump of fundamental
constituent of matter). The strong force ensured that quarks
and antiquarks could only stick together in groups of three:
2 up quarks + 1 down quark → Proton
XXVII

or
2 up antiquarks + 1 down antiquark → Antiproton
or as a quark and an antiquark pair (up quark + up antiquark).
GALAXY FORMATION in which the Milky Way Galaxy
(consisted of ≈1011
stars) was Formed – TURBULENT
FRAGMENTATION in which a Giant Cloud of Gas Fragments
broke into Smaller Clouds, which later Became Protostars –
MASSIVE STAR FORMATION in which a Massive Star was
Formed. The star's gravity tried to squeeze the star into the
smallest ball possible. But the nuclear fusion reaction in the
star's core created strong outward radiation pressure. This
outward radiation pressure resisted the inward squeeze of a
force called gravity.
STELLAR EVOLUTION in which Stars Evolved and Eventually
Died – IRON PRODUCTION in which Iron was Produced in
the Core of a Massive Star, Resulting in a Disaster called
SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION in Which a Massive Star Ended Its
Life by Exploding outpouring electromagnetic radiation over
a very short period of time – STAR FORMATION in which the
Sun was Formed within a cloud of gas in a spiral arm of the
Milky Way Galaxy. There was a mass limit to neutron stars. It
was approximately about 4 solar mass. Beyond this limit the
degenerate neutron pressure was not sufficient to overcome
XXVIII

the gravitational contraction and the star collapsed to black
holes. There was no mass limit to the mass of a black hole.
PLANETARY DIFFERENTIATION in which the vast disk of gas
and debris that swirled around the sun giving birth to planets,
moons, and asteroids. Planet Earth was the third planet out −
VOLATILE GAS EXPULSION in which the Atmosphere of the
Earth was Produced – MOLECULAR REPRODUCTION in which
Life on Earth was created.
PROTEIN CONSTRUCTION in which Proteins were built
from organic compounds that contain amino and carboxyl
functional groups (Amino Acids) – FERMENTATION in which
Microorganisms Obtained Energy by converting sugar into
alcohol – CELL DIFFERENTIATION in which dividing cells
changed their functional or phenotypical type and Eukaryotic
Life had a beginning.
RESPIRATION in which Eukaryotes Evolved to Survive
in an Atmosphere with Increasing Amounts of Oxygen
– MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS CREATION In Which
Organisms Composed of Multiple Cells emerged – SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION in Which a New Form of Reproduction
Occurred and with the invention of sex, two organisms
exchanged whole paragraphs, pages and books of their DNA
helix, producing new varieties for the sieve of natural
XXIX

selection. And the natural selection was a choice of stable
forms and a rejection of unstable ones. And the variation
within a species occurred randomly, and that the survival
or extinction of each organism depended upon its ability to
adapt to the environment. And organisms that found sex
uninteresting quickly became extinct.
EVOLUTIONARY DIVERSIFICATION in which the Diversity of
Life Forms on Earth Increased Greatly in a Relatively Short
Time – TRILOBITE DOMINATION In Which Trilobites (an
extremely successful subphylum of the arthropods that were
at the top of the food chain in Earth's marine ecosystems for
about 250 million years) Ruled the Earth.
LAND EXPLORATION In Which Animals First Venture was
On to Land – COMET COLLISION in which a Comet smashed
the Earth – DINOSAUR EXTINCTION In Which an asteroid
or comet slammed into the northern part of the Yucatan
Peninsula in Mexico. This world-wide cataclysm brought to an
end the long age of the fossil reptiles of the Mesozoic era
(dinosaurs)
MAMMAL EXPANSION in which Many Species of warm-
blooded animals with hair and backbones was developed –
HOMO SAPIENS MANIFESTATION In Which our caveman
ancestors Appeared in Africa from a line of creatures that
XXX

descended from apes.
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION in which something called
curiosity ensued which triggered the breath of perception and
our caveman ancestors became conscious of their existence
and they learned to talk and they Developed Spoken Language
– GLACIATION in which the formation, movement and
recession of glaciers Began.
INNOVATION in which Advanced Tools were Widely made and
Used – RELIGION In Which a Diversity of Beliefs emerged –
ANIMAL DOMESTICATION in which Humans Domesticated
Animals.
FOOD SURPLUS PRODUCTION In Which Humans Developed
and promoted the practice of cultivating plants and livestock –
INSCRIPTION In Which Writing was Invented and it allowed
the communication of ideas.
WARRING NATIONS In Which Nation Battled Nation for
Resources – EMPIRE CREATION AND DESTRUCTION In
Which the First Empire in Human History Came and went –
CIVILIZATION In Which Many and Sundry Events Occurred.
CONSTITUTION In Which a Constitution was Written
to determine the powers and duties of the government
and guarantee certain rights to the people in it –
XXXI

INDUSTRIALIZATION in Which Automated Manufacturing
and Agriculture Revolutionized the World – WORLD
CONFLAGRATIONS In Which Most of the World was at War.
FISSION EXPLOSIONS In Which Humans Developed the
most dangerous weapons on earth (Nuclear Weapons) –
COMPUTERIZATION In Which Computers were Developed
to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically.
SPACE EXPLORATION In Which Humans Began to Explore
Outer Space which fuelled interest in exploring and
discovering new worlds − pushing the boundaries of the
known − and expanding scientific and technical knowledge –
POPULATION EXPLOSION In Which the Human Population of
the Earth Increased at a Very Rapid Pace.
SUPERPOWER CONFRONTATION In Which Two Powerful
Nations Risked it All – INTERNET EXPANSION In Which a
Network of Computers Developed to carry out a vast range of
information resources and services.
RESIGNATION In Which One Human Quitted His Job –
REUNIFICATION In Which a Wall went Up and Then Came
Down.
WORLD WIDE WEB CREATION In Which a New Medium
XXXII

was Created to meet the demand for automated information-
sharing between scientists in universities and institutes
around the world – COMPOSITION In Which a Book was
Written – EXTRAPOLATION In Which Future Events were
Discussed (sharing our understanding of the workings of the
universe, opening our eyes to the grandeur of the cosmos).
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
XXXIII

In 1898, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre made the discovery
of polonium and radium. They were awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1903 for their discovery of radioactivity.
Pierre and Marie Curie, c. 1903

Nothing happens until something moves.
― Albert Einstein
ᦲ ᦲ ᦲ
E
ver since the beginning of human civilization, we
have not been in a state of satisfaction to watch
things as incoherent and unexplainable. While we
have been thinking whether the universe began at the big
bang singularity and would come to an end either at the big
crunch singularity, we have converted at least a thousand
joules of energy in the form of thoughts. This has decreased
CHAPTER 2
A Briefer History Of Time
XXXV

the disorder of the human brain by about few million units.
Thus, in a sense, the evolution of human civilization in
understanding the universe has established a small corner
of the order in a human brain. However, the burning
questions still remain unresolved, which set the human race
to keep away from such issues. Many early native postulates
have fallen or are falling aside – and there now alternative
substitutes. In short, while we do not have an answer, we
now have a whisper of the grandeur of the problem. With our
limited brains and tiny knowledge, we cannot hope to have a
complete picture of unlimited speculating about the gigantic
universe we live in.
Stories of creation are a fundamental part of many cultures
and traditions, serving as a way to explain the origins of
the universe and humanity. These stories can be found in
religious texts, cultural myths, and traditional tales and they
often reflect the beliefs and values of the society in which they
originated. Here are a few examples of creation stories from
different cultures.
The Bible: The Biblical Creation Story Can Be Found In The Book Of
Genesis, And It Describes How God Created The Universe In Six Days
And Rested On The Seventh. On The First Day, God Created Light, And
On Subsequent Days, He Created The Sky, The Seas, The Land, Plants,
XXXVI

Animals, And Finally Humans, Who Were Created In His Own Image.
Hinduism: In Hinduism, The Creation Of The Universe Is Described In
The Hindu Scriptures Known As The Vedas. One Of The Most Well-
Known Hindu Creation Stories Is That Of The God Brahma, Who
Emerged From The Cosmic Egg And Created The Universe And All Living
Things.
Ancient Greek Mythology: In Ancient Greek Mythology, The Universe
Was Created From The Remains Of The Titans, A Race Of Giant Beings
Who Were Defeated By The Gods Of Olympus. According To The Myth,
The God Chronos Swallowed His Children, But His Son Zeus Eventually
Defeated Him And Became The Ruler Of The Universe.
Indigenous Cultures: Many Indigenous Cultures Have Their Own
Creation Stories That Reflect Their Beliefs And Traditions. For Example,
Some Native American Tribes Have Creation Stories That Describe How
The World Was Formed From The Body Of A Giant Animal Or The
Actions Of A Great Spirit.
Chinese Mythology: In Chinese Mythology, The Universe Was Created
By The Goddess Nüwa, Who Molded Humans From Clay And Separated
The Sky From The Earth. She Also Created The Four Seasons And Set The
Laws Of Nature In Motion.
These are just a few examples of the many creation stories
that exist across cultures and traditions. Regardless of their
specific details, these stories often serve as a way to provide
meaning and context for the universe and humanity, and
they continue to play an important a part in influencing our
perspective and beliefs.
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In 1911, fresh from completion of his PhD, the young Danish
physicist Niels Bohr left Denmark on a foreign scholarship
headed for the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to work
under J. J. Thomson on the structure of atomic systems. At the
time, Bohr began to put forth the idea that since light could no
long be treated as continuously propagating waves, but
instead as discrete energy packets (as articulated by Planck
and Einstein), why should the classical Newtonian mechanics
on which Thomson's model was based hold true? It seemed to
Bohr that the atomic model should be modified in a similar
way. If electromagnetic energy is quantized, i.e. restricted to
take on only integer values of hυ, where υ is the frequency of
light, then it seemed reasonable that the mechanical energy
associated with the energy of atomic electrons is also
quantized. However, Bohr's still somewhat vague ideas were
not well received by Thomson, and Bohr decided to move from
Cambridge after his first year to a place where his concepts
about quantization of electronic motion in atoms would meet
less opposition. He chose the University of Manchester, where
the chair of physics was held by Ernest Rutherford. While in
Manchester, Bohr learned about the nuclear model of the atom
proposed by Rutherford. To overcome the difficulty associated
with the classical collapse of the electron into the nucleus,
Bohr proposed that the orbiting electron could only exist in
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certain special states of motion - called stationary states, in
which no electromagnetic radiation was emitted. In these
states, the angular momentum of the electron L takes on
integer values of Planck's constant divided by 2π, denoted by ħ
= h/2π (pronounced h-bar). In these stationary states, the
electron angular momentum can take on values ħ, 2ħ, 3ħ... but
never non-integer values. This is known as quantization of
angular momentum, and was one of Bohr's key hypotheses.
Bohr Theory was very successful in predicting and accounting
the energies of line spectra of hydrogen i.e. one electron
system. It could not explain the line spectra of atoms
containing more than one electron. For lack of other theories
that can accurately describe a large class of arbitrary elements
to must make definite predictions about the results of future
observations, we forcibly adore the theories like the big bang,
which posits that in the beginning of evolution all the
observable galaxies and every speck of energy in the universe
was jammed into a very tiny mathematically indefinable
entity called the singularity (or the primeval atom named by
the Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre, who was the first to
investigate the origin of the universe that we now call the big
bang). This extremely dense point exploded with
unimaginable force, creating matter and propelling it outward
to make the billions of galaxies of our vast universe. It seems to
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be a good postulate that the anticipation of a mathematically
indefinable entity by a scientific theory implies that the theory
has ruled out. It would mean that the usual approach of
science of building a scientific model could anticipate that the
universe must have had a beginning, but that it could not
prognosticate how it had a beginning. Between 1920s and
1940s there were several attempts, most notably by the British
physicist Sir Fred Hoyle (a man who ironically spent almost
his entire professional life trying to disprove the big bang
theory) and his co-workers: Hermann Bondi and Thomas
Gold, to avoid the cosmic singularity in terms of an elegant
model that supported the idea that as the universe expanded,
new matter was continually created to keep the density
constant on average. The universe didn’t have a beginning and
it continues to exist eternally as it is today. This idea was
initially given priority, but a mountain of inconsistencies
with it began to appear in the mid 1960's when observational
discoveries apparently supported the evidence contrary to it.
However, Hoyle and his supporters put forward increasingly
contrived explanations of the observations. But the final blow
to it came with the observational discovery of a faint
background of microwaves (whose wavelength was close to
the size of water molecules) throughout space in 1965 by Arno
Penzias and Robert Wilson, which was the the final nail in
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the coffin of the big bang theory i.e., the discovery and
confirmation of the cosmic microwave background radiation
(which could heat our food stuffs to only about −270 degrees
Centigrade − 3 degrees above absolute zero, and not very
useful for popping corn) in 1965 secured the Big Bang as the
best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe. Though
Hoyle and Narlikar tried desperately, the steady state theory
was abandoned.
With many bizarre twists and turns of Humanity’s deepest
desire for knowledge, super strings − a generalized extension
of string theory which predicts that all matter consists of tiny
vibrating strings and the precise number of dimensions: ten
and has a curious history (It was originally invented in the
late 1960s in an attempt to find a theory to describe the
strong force). The usual three dimensions of space − length,
width, and breadth − and one of time are extended by six
more spatial dimensions − blinked into existence. Although
the mathematics of super strings is so complicated that, to
date, no one even knows the exact equations of the theory
(we know only approximations to these equations, and even
the approximate equations are so complicated that they as
yet have been only partially solved) − The best choice we
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have at the moment is the super strings, but no one has
seen a superstring and it has not been found to agree with
experience and moreover there's no direct evidence that it
is the correct description of what the universe is. String
theory has the potential to reconcile two of the biggest
theories in physics: general relativity, which describes the
behavior of gravity on large scales, and quantum mechanics,
which governs the behavior of matter on very small scales.
However, it remains a highly theoretical and mathematically
complex area of research, and much of its predictions are
difficult to test experimentally. Nonetheless, string theory has
made significant contributions to our understanding of the
fundamental nature of the universe and remains an active area
of research in theoretical physics.
The idea of extra dimensions is motivated by a number of
theoretical and experimental considerations. One of the most
important is the search for a unified theory of all the
fundamental forces of nature, including gravity,
electromagnetism, and the strong and weak nuclear forces. In
many of these theories, the extra dimensions are necessary to
unify the different forces into a single, coherent framework.
Are there only 4 dimensions or could there be more: x, y, z, t) +
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w, v, …? Can we experimentally observe evidence of higher
dimensions? What are their shapes and sizes? Are they
classical or quantum? Are dimensions a fundamental property
of the universe or an emergent outcome of chaos by the mere
laws of nature (which are shaped by a kind of lens, the
interpretive structure of our human brains)? And if they
exist, they could provide the key to unlock the deepest secrets
of nature and Creation itself? We humans look around and
only see four (three spatial dimensions and one time
dimension i.e., space has three dimensions, I mean that it
takes three numbers − length, breadth and height− to specify
a point. And adding time to our description, then space
becomes space-time with 4 dimensions) – why 4 dimensions?
Where are the other dimensions? Are they rolled the other
dimensions up into a space of very small size, something like a
million million million million millionth of an inch − so
small that our most powerful instruments can probe? Up until
recently, we have found no evidence for signatures of extra
dimensions. No evidence does not mean that extra
dimensions do not exist. However, being aware that we live in
more dimensions than we see is a great prediction of
theoretical physics and also something quite futile even to
imagine that we are entering what may be the golden age of
cosmology even our best technology cannot resolve their
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shape. For n spatial dimensions: The gravitational force
between two massive bodies is: FG = GMm / rn−1
, where G is the
gravitational constant (which was first introduced by Sir
Isaac Newton -who had strong philosophical ideas and was
appointed president of the Royal Society and became the first
scientist ever to be knighted - as part of his popular
publication in 1687 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica and was first successfully measured by the
English physicist Henry Cavendish), M and m are the masses
of the two bodies and r is the distance between them. The
electrostatic force between two charges is: FE = Qq / 4πε0rn−1
,
where ε0 is the absolute permittivity of free space, Q and q are
the charges and r is the distance between them. What do we
notice about both of these forces? Both of these forces are
proportional to 1 / rn−1
. So in a 4 dimensional universe (3
spatial dimensions + one time dimension) forces are
proportional to 1 / r2
; in the 10 dimensional universe (9
spatial dimensions + one time dimension) they're
proportional to 1 / r8
. Not surprisingly, at present no
experiment is smart enough to solve the problem of whether
or not the universe exists in 10 dimensions or more (i.e., to
prove or disprove both of these forces are proportional to 1 /
r8
or proportional to a value greater than 1 / r8
). However, yet
mathematically we can imagine many spatial dimensions but
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the fact that that might be realized in nature is a profound
thing. So far, we presume that the universe exists in extra
dimensions because the mathematics of superstrings
requires the presence of ten distinct dimensions in our
universe or because a standard four dimensional theory is too
small to jam all the forces into one mathematical framework.
But what we know about the spatial dimensions we live in is
limited by our own abilities to think through many
approaches, many of the most satisfying are scientific. Among
many that we can develop, the most well- known, believed
theory at the present is the standard four dimensional theory.
However, development and change of the theory always
occurs as many questions still remain about our universe we
live in. And if space was 2 dimensional then force of
gravitation between two bodies would have been = GMm / r
(i.e., the force of gravitation between two bodies would have
been far greater than its present value). And if the force of
gravitation between two bodies would have been far greater
than its present value, the rate of emission of gravitational
radiation would have been sufficiently high enough to cause
the earth to spiral onto the Sun even before the sun become a
black hole and swallow the earth. While if space was 1
dimensional then force of gravitation between two bodies
would have been = GMm (i.e., the force of gravitation between
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two bodies would have been independent of the distance
between them).
The hierarchy problem in particle physics and other
theoretical issues can both be resolved with the aid of
extra dimensions. This problem arises from the fact that
the strength of gravity is much weaker than the other
fundamental forces, despite the fact that they are all thought
to arise from the same underlying framework. One possible
explanation for this discrepancy is that the extra dimensions
are responsible for diluting the strength of gravity at larger
scales. The quest for dark matter and dark energy may be
significantly impacted by the existence of extra dimensions.
Although their nature and characteristics are not completely
known, it is believed that these enigmatic substances make
up a significant fraction of the universe.According to certain
theories, they may be connected to the extra dimensions,
which may open up new pathways for discovering and
comprehending these mysterious entities. Despite their
importance, the existence of extra dimensions remains a
highly theoretical and speculative area of research. Many of
the predictions of extra dimensional theories are difficult to
test experimentally, and so far no direct evidence of extra
dimensions has been observed. Nonetheless, the study of extra
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dimensions is an active area of research in theoretical physics,
and may hold the key to unlocking some of the deepest
mysteries of the universe.
A theory of everything is a theoretical framework that seeks
to unify all the fundamental forces and particles of nature
into a single, coherent framework. In other words, it is an
attempt to explain the entire universe and all of its physical
phenomena with a single set of equations or principles. The
quest for a theory of everything has been a major goal of
theoretical physics for decades. The current framework that
describes the universe, known as the Standard Model, does an
excellent job of explaining the behavior of subatomic particles
and the electromagnetic, strong, and weak nuclear forces.
However, it does not include a description of gravity, which is
currently described by Einstein's theory of general relativity.
Attempts to unify the forces of nature into a single theory
have led to a number of theoretical frameworks, including
superstring theory, loop quantum gravity, and various
versions of M-theory. These theories propose that the universe
is made up of tiny, vibrating strings or loops, which interact
with one another to produce all of the particles and forces
we observe. One of the challenges of developing a theory of
everything is that it must be consistent with all of the existing
XLVII

experimental data and observations. This can be difficult, as
many of the phenomena that a theory of everything must
explain occur at extremely small scales, where our current
experimental techniques are limited. Another challenge is that
a theory of everything must be able to describe the behavior of
the universe at all times, from the Big Bang to the present day.
This requires a deep understanding of the physics of the early
universe, which is currently an area of active research. Despite
the challenges, the quest for a theory of everything remains
a major goal of theoretical physics. If successful, it would
represent a major breakthrough in our understanding of the
universe and the laws that govern it. However, it remains a
highly theoretical and speculative area of research, and more
work is needed to develop and test the various proposed
theories.
The selection principle that we live in a region of the universe
that is suitable for intelligent life which is called the Anthropic
principle (a term coined by astronomer Brandon Carter in
1974) would not have seemed to be enough to allow for the
development of complicated beings like us. The universe
would have been vastly different than it does now and, no
doubt, life as we know it would not have existed. And if spacial
dimensions would have been greater than 3, the force of
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gravitation between two bodies would have been decreased
more rapidly with distance than it does in three dimensions.
(In three dimensions, the gravitational force drops to 1 / 4 if
one doubles the distance. In four dimensions it would drops
to 1 / 5, in five dimensions to 1 / 6, and so on). The
significance of this is that the orbits of planets, like the earth,
around the sun would have been unstable to allow for the
existence of any form of life and there would been no
intelligent beings to observe the effectiveness of extra
dimensions. The anthropic principle is a philosophical and
scientific idea that suggests that the observed properties of the
universe and the conditions necessary for life are not
accidental, but rather are a result of the fact that we, as
conscious beings, exist to observe them. In other words, the
universe appears to be fine-tuned for the emergence of life
because we exist to observe it. The anthropic principle has
been used to explain a variety of phenomena in physics and
cosmology, such as the apparent coincidence of the physical
constants and the structure of the universe that allow for the
emergence of life. Proponents of the anthropic principle
argue that the universe must have been designed in some way
to produce life, because otherwise, we would not be here to
observe it. There are several different versions of the anthropic
principle, including the weak anthropic principle, the strong
XLIX

anthropic principle, and the participatory anthropic
principle. The weak anthropic principle suggests that the
universe must have the properties necessary for the
emergence of life, because otherwise, we would not exist to
observe it. The strong anthropic principle takes this idea
further, suggesting that the universe is in some sense
compelled to produce conscious observers. The participatory
anthropic principle argues that observers are not just passive
observers of the universe, but that they actively shape it
through their observations. The anthropic principle has been
the subject of debate and controversy in both scientific and
philosophical circles. Critics of the anthropic principle argue
that it is a form of circular reasoning, in which the existence of
life is used to explain the properties of the universe that allow
for life. Others argue that the anthropic principle is a valid
scientific idea, and that it can be used to make testable
predictions about the nature of the universe. Overall, the
anthropic principle is an idea that attempts to explain the
apparent fine-tuning of the universe for the emergence of
life. While it remains a controversial idea, it has sparked a
great deal of discussion and debate among scientists and
philosophers.
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Although the proponents of string theory (which occupies
a line in space at each moment of time) predict absolutely
everything is built out of strings (which are described as
patterns of vibration that have length but no height or width
— like infinitely thin pieces of string), it could not provide
us with an answer of what the string is made up of? And one
model of potential multiple universes called the M Theory −
has eleven dimensions, ten of space and one of time, which
we think an explanation of the laws governing our universe
that is currently the only viable candidate for a theory of
everything: the unified theory that Einstein was looking for,
which, if confirmed, would represent the ultimate triumph of
human reason − predicts that our universe is not only one
giant hologram. The concept of a multiverse, or the idea that
there may be many universes beyond our own, has become
a popular topic of discussion in both science and popular
culture. However, there are several problems and challenges
associated with the idea of a multiverse, including:
Lack of empirical evidence: While the idea of a multiverse is
theoretically possible, there is currently no empirical evidence to
support its existence. This means that it is difficult to test many of the
predictions and hypotheses associated with the multiverse.
Complexity: The idea of a multiverse can be very complex and difficult
to understand. It requires the acceptance of concepts such as infinite
LI

space, infinite time, and infinite copies of ourselves, which can be
challenging to grasp.
Lack of testability: Many of the predictions and hypotheses associated
with the multiverse are difficult or impossible to test experimentally.
This can make it difficult to determine whether the theory is true or not.
Occam's razor: The concept of a multiverse is often criticized for
violating the principle of Occam's razor, which states that the simpler
theories to be chosen over more complicated ones or that explanation
for enigmatic events be looked out first using known quantities. The
idea of a multiverse, with its infinite possibilities and universes, is much
more complex than the idea of a single universe.
Philosophical implications: The idea of a multiverse has significant
philosophical implications, such as the potential for a lack of meaning
or purpose in life if there are infinite copies of ourselves and infinite
versions of reality.
Overall, the idea of a multiverse remains a highly theoretical
and speculative area of research, with many unanswered
questions and challenges. While it is an intriguing concept,
more research and evidence is needed to determine whether it
is a valid theory or not.
Albert Einstein is one of the most famous and influential scientists
in history. He is particularly well-known for his groundbreaking
contributions to the field of theoretical physics, especially his development
of the theory of general relativity. Einstein's work revolutionized our
understanding of space and time, and his famous equation, E=mc²,
demonstrated the relationship between matter and energy. He also made
LII

important contributions to the development of quantum mechanics, and
was a key figure in the development of the atomic bomb. Einstein was
also a public figure and advocate for social justice, using his fame and
influence to promote pacifism, civil rights, and other causes. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, and his work continues to
inspire and influence scientists and non-scientists alike to this day. Overall,
Albert Einstein is famous for his groundbreaking contributions to physics,
his revolutionary theories of space and time, and his influence on the
development of modern science and technology. He remains an important
and widely celebrated figure in both the scientific and popular imagination.
He published several important papers throughout his career, but here are
five of his most famous ones that changed the face of Physics:
On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and
Transformation of Light (1905): In this paper, Einstein introduced the
idea of photons and the quantization of light energy, which helped to
explain the photoelectric effect and led to the development of quantum
mechanics.
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1905): This
paper introduced Einstein's special theory of relativity, which
fundamentally changed our understanding of space and time and
showed that they are not absolute but relative to the observer's frame of
reference.
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content? (1905):
In this paper, Einstein derived the famous equation E=mc², which
describes the relationship between mass and energy. It has significant
implications for our understanding of the universe and has had
a profound impact on many areas of science and technology. In
addition, the mass-energy equivalence has important implications for
the development of energy technologies, such as nuclear power and
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renewable energy sources. It has also led to the development of medical
technologies, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scanners,
which use the conversion of matter into energy to create images of the
body.
On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation (1916): This paper
introduced Einstein's theory of general relativity, which extended
the principles of special relativity to include gravity as a curvature
of spacetime. This theory has important implications for our
understanding of the universe, including the existence of black holes
and the expansion of the universe.
Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be
Considered Complete? (1935): In this paper, Einstein, along with
Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, presented the famous EPR
paradox, which challenged the completeness of quantum mechanics
and led to important developments in our understanding of quantum
entanglement and the nature of reality.
Einstein's papers were of great importance to the field of physics and had
a profound impact on our understanding of the universe. Here are some
reasons why:
Special and General Relativity: Einstein's papers on special and general
relativity fundamentally changed our understanding of space, time,
and gravity. According to special theory of relativity, all observers,
regardless of their relative motion, are subject to the same physical laws.
General relativity went further to show that gravity is not a force but
a curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of matter and energy.
These theories have been extensively tested and confirmed through
experiments and have important implications for our understanding of
the universe.
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Quantum Mechanics: Einstein's work on quantum mechanics was
groundbreaking and helped to establish the field. His paper on the
photoelectric effect showed that light behaves like a particle, which was
one of the first pieces of evidence for the existence of photons. He also
challenged the completeness of quantum mechanics with the Einstein–
Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox, which led to important developments
in our understanding of quantum entanglement and the nature of
reality.
Energy and Mass Equivalence: Einstein's famous equation E=mc²,
which he derived in his paper on the relationship between mass
and energy, showed that mass and energy are equivalent and can be
converted into each other. The equation shows that a small amount
of mass contains an enormous amount of energy. For example, if you
were to convert one gram of matter into energy, you would release
around 90 trillion joules of energy, which is roughly equivalent to the
energy released by detonating 20,000 tons of TNT. This equation has
important implications in the field of nuclear physics, where it is used to
explain the energy released during nuclear reactions such as fission and
fusion. It is also used in the development of nuclear power and nuclear
weapons. Additionally, the equation has broader implications for our
understanding of the relationship between matter and energy, and has
contributed to many other areas of physics research.
Contributions to Cosmology: Einstein's theory of general relativity
had important implications for our understanding of the universe as
a whole. It predicted the existence of black holes and led to the
development of the Big Bang theory, which describes the origin and
evolution of the universe.
Overall, Einstein's papers contributed to some of the most important
developments in physics in the 20th century and continue to inspire new
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research and discoveries today.
Many theoretical physicists and quantum scientists of a fast
developing science have discussed about mass annihilation at
different times. Mass annihilation, also known as particle-
antiparticle annihilation, refers to the process by which
a particle and its corresponding antiparticle come together
and annihilate each other, converting their mass into energy
according to Einstein's famous equation E=mc². In particle
physics, every particle is associated with an antiparticle, which
has the same mass but opposite charge. For example, the
antiparticle of the electron is the positron, which has the same
mass as the electron but a positive charge instead of a negative
charge. When a particle and its antiparticle come into contact
with each other, they can annihilate each other, producing
energy in the form of gamma rays, which are highly energetic
photons. The process of annihilation occurs when the particle
and antiparticle come together and interacts, causing their
mass to be converted into energy. The energy produced by
the annihilation is equal to the total mass of the particles
multiplied by the speed of light squared (E = mc²), which is an
enormous amount of energy. For example, the annihilation of
an electron and a positron produces 1.02 MeV of energy, which
is released in the form of gamma rays. Mass annihilation is a
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key process in the field of particle physics and has important
implications for understanding the behavior of particles and
their interactions. It is also a source of energy in certain types
of nuclear reactions, such as those that occur in the core of the
sun, where protons and antiprotons can destroy one another,
generating gamma rays as energy. Overall, mass annihilation
is an important phenomenon in the study of particle physics
and the behavior of matter and energy in the universe.
The Standard Model of particle physics is a theoretical
framework that describes the fundamental particles and
forces that make up the universe. It is a mathematical
model that explains the behavior of subatomic particles,
including quarks, leptons, and force-carrying particles, known
as bosons. The Standard Model consists of three fundamental
forces: the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force,
and the weak nuclear force. These forces are mediated by
the exchange of force-carrying particles: photons for the
electromagnetic force, gluons for the strong force, and W and
Z bosons for the weak force. The Standard Model also includes
the Higgs boson, which gives particles mass. The Higgs boson
is the only scalar particle in the Standard Model, meaning it
has no spin, and it is responsible for breaking the electroweak
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symmetry, which is responsible for the differences between
the electromagnetic and weak forces. The Standard Model
describes matter as being made up of two types of
fundamental particles: quarks and leptons. Quarks are the
building blocks of protons and neutrons and come in six types,
or flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Leptons
come in three types: electrons, muons, and tau particles, each
with their associated neutrinos. The Standard Model has
been extensively tested through high-energy particle collider
experiments, such as those carried out at the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC) at CERN. These experiments have confirmed
the existence of most of the particles predicted by the
Standard Model, including the Higgs boson. However, despite
its successes, the Standard Model is not a complete theory of
the universe. There are several known limitations and failures,
which are discussed below:
Dark Matter: The Standard Model does not account for the existence
of dark matter, which makes up around 27% of the universe. Dark
matter is a form of matter that does not interact with light or
other electromagnetic radiation, making it invisible to telescopes. Its
existence has been inferred from its gravitational effects on visible
matter, but its nature and properties are still unknown.
Neutrino Mass: The Standard Model assumes that neutrinos are
massless, but experiments have shown that they do have a very small
mass. This discrepancy suggests that the Standard Model is incomplete
and that a more comprehensive theory is needed to explain the
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properties of neutrinos.
CP Violation: The Standard Model predicts that the laws of physics
should be the same for matter and antimatter (known as CP symmetry),
but experiments have shown that this symmetry is violated in
certain particle interactions. This suggests that the Standard Model is
incomplete and that there are undiscovered particles or interactions
that could explain this violation.
Gravity: The Standard Model does not include gravity, which is one of
the four fundamental forces of nature. Gravity is described by Einstein's
theory of General Relativity, but this theory is incompatible with the
Standard Model at the quantum level. This has led to efforts to develop a
theory of quantum gravity that can incorporate both General Relativity
and the Standard Model.
Hierarchy Problem: The Standard Model does not explain why the
Higgs boson, which gives particles mass, has such a small mass itself.
The Higgs boson's mass is much smaller than would be expected based
on the energy scale of the Standard Model, leading to what is known
as the hierarchy problem. This problem suggests that there may be
undiscovered particles or interactions that could help explain the Higgs
boson's mass.
Strong CP Problem: The Standard Model predicts that the strong
force should violate a fundamental symmetry called CP symmetry, but
experiments have shown that this violation is much smaller than would
be expected. This discrepancy is known as the strong CP problem and
suggests that there may be undiscovered particles or interactions that
could help explain the smallness of CP violation in the strong force.
To sum up, while the Standard Model has been highly
successful in explaining the behavior of subatomic particles,
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it is not a complete theory of the universe. There are
several known limitations and failures of the Standard Model,
including the absence of an explanation for dark matter, the
mass of neutrinos, and the violation of CP symmetry in
certain particle interactions, among others. These limitations
suggest that there may be undiscovered particles or
interactions that could help complete our understanding of
the fundamental nature of the universe.
Photons are elementary particles that are the carriers of the
electromagnetic force. They are massless, electrically neutral
particles that move at the speed of light, which makes them
unique among the particles in the Standard Model. They
exhibit both wave-like and particle-like behavior, which
is known as wave-particle duality. When traveling through
space, they behave like waves with a specific frequency and
wavelength. However, when interacting with matter, they
behave like particles, transferring discrete amounts of energy
to the material. Their interactions with matter are responsible
for a wide range of physical phenomena, and their properties
have important applications in many areas of science and
technology including telecommunications, solar cells, and
medical imaging, among others. According to the currently
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accepted theory of physics, the Standard Model, photons are
believed to be massless particles that travel at the speed of
light. This means that they have no rest mass and travel
at the speed of light. The idea of a photon having mass is
often associated with the concept of a hypothetical particle
called the Higgs boson, which is believed to be responsible
for giving particles mass through the Higgs mechanism.
However, the Higgs mechanism only applies to particles that
have interactions with the Higgs field, and since photons
are not thought to interact with the Higgs field, they
are not believed to acquire mass through this mechanism.
Experimental evidence also supports the notion that photons
are massless. For example, High-energy photons can be
produced in particle accelerators, and their properties can be
studied in experiments. The behavior of high-energy photons
is consistent with the idea that they have zero rest mass.
From the relativistic energy equation:
E
2
= p
2
c
2
− m0
2c
4
For a photon with no rest mass can still have relativistic energy. If m0 =
0, then
E = pc
Overall, the currently accepted theory of physics, as well
as experimental evidence, supports the notion that photons
LXI

are massless particles. This idea is a fundamental part of
our understanding of the nature of light and the universe
as a whole. Quantum mechanics and general theory of
relativity are two highly successful theories that describe the
behavior of matter and gravity, respectively. However, they
are incompatible, and some physicists believe that a theory of
quantum gravity is needed to reconcile the two. The behavior
of photons in a theory of quantum gravity may be different
from what is currently understood.
General relativity is a theory of gravity that was developed by
Albert Einstein in 1915. It is based on the idea that gravity
is not a force between masses, as described by Isaac Newton's
theory of gravity, but rather a curvature of spacetime caused
by the presence of mass and energy. In other words, matter
and energy warp the fabric of spacetime, causing objects to
move on curved paths. Here are some key features of general
relativity:
Spacetime: In general relativity, spacetime is a four-dimensional
continuum that includes the three dimensions of space and the
dimension of time. The presence of mass and energy warps the fabric of
spacetime, causing objects to move on curved paths.
Curvature: The curvature of spacetime is described by the Einstein field
equations, which relate the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of
mass and energy. These equations are highly nonlinear and difficult to
solve, but they have been used to make many successful predictions.
LXII

Gravitational waves: According to general relativity, gravitational
waves are ripples in the fabric of spacetime that are caused by the
acceleration of massive objects. These waves travel at the speed of light
and have been detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-
Wave Observatory (LIGO).
Black holes: General relativity predicts the existence of black holes,
which are regions of spacetime where the curvature becomes so extreme
that nothing, not even light, can escape. The event horizon is the name
given to a black hole's boundary.
Cosmology: General relativity is the basis of modern cosmology, which
studies the large-scale structure and evolution of the universe. The
theory predicts that the universe is expanding, and that the expansion is
accelerating due to the presence of dark energy.
Tests and confirmations: General relativity has been tested and
confirmed in a variety of experiments and observations, including the
bending of light by massive objects, the precession of the orbit of
Mercury, and the detection of gravitational waves.
General relativity is a highly successful and influential
theory, and it has led to many important advances in our
understanding of the universe. However, there are some areas
where general relativity appears to break down, or where it is
unable to explain certain phenomena. Some examples of the
failures of general relativity include:
Dark matter: General relativity cannot account for the observed amount
of gravitational mass in the universe, which has led astronomers to
hypothesize the existence of dark matter.
Dark energy: General relativity cannot explain the observed
LXIII

acceleration of the expansion of the universe, which has led
astronomers to hypothesize the existence of dark energy.
Quantum gravity: General relativity is a classical theory, which means
it does not take into account the principles of quantum mechanics.
This has led to the development of theories of quantum gravity, which
attempt to reconcile general relativity with quantum mechanics.
Singularities: General relativity predicts the existence of singularities,
which are points of infinite density and curvature. These singularities
occur in the centers of black holes and at the beginning of the universe,
and are seen as a failure of the theory to provide a complete description
of these phenomena.
The conservation laws:
CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE: In any reaction the total
charge of all the particles entering the reaction = the total charge of all
the particles after the reaction.
LEPTON CONSERVATION: In any reaction the sum of lepton numbers
before the interaction = the sum of lepton numbers after the interaction.
CONSERVATION OF BARYON NUMBER: In any reaction the sum of
baryon numbers before the interaction = the sum of baryon numbers
after the interaction.
have far-reaching implications as fundamental to our
understanding of the physical world which we do not see
violated. They serve as a strong constraint on any thought-
out explanation for observations of the natural world in any
branch of science. These laws govern the behavior of nature at
LXIV

the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. As a result of the
particle-particle interaction 2 things may happen:
Particles are attracted or repelled
The particles are changed into different particles
The conservation laws of physics are fundamental principles
that describe the behavior of physical systems, and they
play a crucial role in many areas of physics, from classical
mechanics to quantum field theory. The conservation laws
state that certain physical quantities are conserved over
time, meaning that they cannot be created or destroyed,
but can only be transformed from one form to another.
The conservation laws have practical applications in a wide
range of fields, from engineering to medicine. For example,
energy conservation is important in designing energy-
efficient buildings, while momentum conservation is crucial
for understanding the behavior of fluids in pipes. They are
the foundation of many physical theories, including classical
mechanics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. The
conservation of energy, for example, is a key principle of
thermodynamics, while the conservation of momentum is
fundamental to the laws of motion. Overall, the conservation
laws of physics play a fundamental role in our understanding
of the physical world, and they have numerous practical
LXV

applications in many areas of science and engineering. The
conservation laws enable us to create and optimize systems
to better satisfy our needs and to investigate the underlying
principles that control the behavior of matter and energy
in the universe by offering a framework for projecting the
behavior of physical systems.
Like the formation of bubbles of steam in boiling water
− Great many holograms of possible shapes and inner
dimensions were created, started off in every possible way,
simply because of an uncaused accident called spontaneous
creation. Our universe was one among a zillion of holograms
simply happened to have the right properties − with particular
values of the physical constants right for stars and galaxies
and planetary systems to form and for intelligent beings
to emerge due to random physical processes and develop
and ask questions, Who or what governs the laws and
constants of physics? Are such laws the products of chance
or a mere cosmic accident or have they been designed? How
do the laws and constants of physics relate to the support
and development of life forms? Is there any knowable
existence beyond the apparently observed dimensions of
our existence? However, M theory sounds so bizarre and
LXVI

unrealistic that there is no experiment that can credit its
validity. Nature has not been quick to pay us any hints so far.
That's the fact of it; grouped together everything we know
about the history of the universe is a fascinating topic for
study, and trying to understand the meaning of them is one
of the key aspects of modern cosmology − which is rather like
plumbing, in a way.
The fine-tuning of the universe refers to the remarkable observation that
the fundamental physical constants and parameters of the universe appear
to be finely tuned to allow the emergence of life. If even a slight change was
made to these constants, life as we know it would not be possible. Here are
some examples of the fine-tuning of the universe:
Strong nuclear force: The strong nuclear force is responsible for binding
protons and neutrons together in the nuclei of atoms. If the strength of
this force were slightly weaker, stable atomic nuclei could not exist, and
complex chemistry and life would not be possible.
Weak nuclear force: The weak nuclear force is responsible for nuclear
decay and is involved in the process of nuclear fusion that powers stars.
If this force were slightly stronger or weaker, the abundance of certain
elements in the universe would be vastly different, which could affect
the conditions for life.
Electromagnetic force: The electromagnetic force is responsible for
the behavior of electrically charged particles, which is crucial for the
stability of atoms and molecules. If this force were slightly different,
atoms could not form stable bonds, and the chemistry required for life
LXVII

would not be possible.
Gravitational force: The gravitational force is responsible for the large-
scale structure of the universe and the formation of stars and galaxies. If
this force were significantly weaker, the universe would have expanded
too quickly for stars and galaxies to form, while if it were too strong,
stars would burn out too quickly and would not have time to support
life.
Cosmological constant: The cosmological constant is a measure of the
energy density of space itself, and it affects the expansion rate of the
universe. If this constant were different, the universe could have either
collapsed too quickly or expanded too quickly for stars and galaxies to
form.
These are just a few examples of the fine-tuning of the universe. The fact
that the universe appears to be finely tuned has led some scientists and
philosophers to speculate that it may be the result of design or intention.
Others have suggested that it may be a consequence of a multiverse, where
many different universes with different physical constants exist, and we
happen to live in one that is suitable for life. However, there is currently no
definitive answer to the question of why the universe appears to be finely
tuned, and it remains an active area of research and debate.
Max Planck is famous for his groundbreaking work in the field of
theoretical physics and for his discovery of the fundamental relationship
between energy and frequency, which is now known as Planck's law.
German physicist Max Planck lived from 1858 until 1947. In 1900, he
developed the theory of quantum mechanics, which revolutionized the
field of physics and paved the way for the development of many modern
technologies, including transistors, lasers, and computer chips. Planck's
LXVIII

work on blackbody radiation, in particular, was a major breakthrough that
led to the development of quantum mechanics. He showed that the energy
of light is not continuous, as was previously believed, but rather comes
in discrete packets or quanta. This discovery fundamentally changed
the way scientists thought about energy and matter and opened up new
avenues of research in physics. Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1918 for his work on quantum theory, making him one of the
most celebrated and influential physicists of the 20th century. His work
continues to be studied and built upon by scientists today. He was a man
of indomitable will and had other talents beyond physics. He was a skilled
piano player, formed music, preceded as an artist and furthermore followed
up on the stage and one of the founders of quantum physics. His long
life had a tragic side. In 1909, his first wife, Marie Merck, the daughter of
a Munich banker, died after 22 years of cheerful marriage, leaving Planck
with two sons and twin daughters. The elder son, Karl, was killed in action
in World War I, and both of his daughters died quite young in childbirth
(1918 and 1919). His home was totally annihilated in World War II. He lost
everything − scientific manuscripts and notes, diaries, family keepsakes, all
he had accumulated over a lifetime − all burned up and gone. His youngest
son Erwin was arrested. He was suspected of involvement in the attempted
assassination of Hitler and was executed in a gruesome manner by Hitler’s
henchmen. That merciless act destroyed Planck’s will to live. In the end,
Planck was taken by the Allies to a surviving relative in Gottingen where he
died in 1947.
The idea of a spontaneous creation of the universe is a
controversial topic that has been the subject of much scientific
and philosophical debate. Here are some potential pros and
cons of this idea:
LXIX

Pros:
Offers a potential explanation for the origin of the universe: If the
universe was created spontaneously, it may help to explain how the
universe came into existence in the first place, which has been a
longstanding mystery.
Provides a naturalistic explanation: A spontaneous creation of the
universe may be seen as a naturalistic explanation for the origin of the
universe, in contrast to a creationist or religious explanation.
Fits with current scientific knowledge: The idea of a spontaneous
creation of the universe is consistent with many of the current scientific
theories and observations, including the Big Bang theory and the cosmic
microwave background radiation.
Cons:
Lacks empirical evidence: While the idea of a spontaneous creation of
the universe may be a possible explanation for the origin of the universe,
there is currently no empirical evidence to support it.
Raises questions about causality: If the universe was created
spontaneously, it raises questions about what caused this to happen and
whether causality as we understand it can be applied to the creation of
the universe.
Philosophical implications: The idea of a spontaneous creation of the
universe has profound philosophical implications, such as questions
about the nature of existence, the purpose of the universe, and whether
there is a greater meaning to life.
Difficulty in testing: Because the spontaneous creation of the universe
occurred before the existence of the laws of physics and the scientific
method, it may be difficult or impossible to test the hypothesis.
Overall, the idea of a spontaneous creation of the universe is a
LXX

complex and multifaceted topic with both potential pros and
cons. It remains an area of active research and debate in both
the scientific and philosophical communities.
And as more space comes into existence, more of the
dark energy would appear. Dark energy is a mysterious
phenomenon that is thought to be responsible for the
accelerating expansion of the universe. The term dark energy
was first coined by cosmologist Michael Turner in 1998 to
describe the unknown force causing this acceleration. The
discovery of dark energy was made by studying distant
supernovae, which revealed that the universe's expansion is
accelerating rather than slowing down. This observation was
unexpected and led scientists to conclude that some unknown
force must be pushing the galaxies apart at an ever-increasing
rate. Despite more than two decades of intense research,
scientists still do not know exactly what dark energy is. It is
called dark because it cannot be directly observed, as it does
not interact with light or any other form of electromagnetic
radiation. Dark energy is believed to be a property of space
itself and is thought to be evenly distributed throughout
the universe. There are numerous hypotheses regarding what
dark energy might be. One of the most prominent theories
is that it is the energy of empty space, known as the
LXXI

cosmological constant. According to this theory, empty space
has a constant energy density that is driving the expansion
of the universe. Another theory is that dark energy is a
scalar field, a type of energy field that fills space and exerts
a repulsive force. This theory is known as quintessence and
suggests that dark energy is not constant but varies over
time. Other theories propose that dark energy may be related
to modifications of general relativity, the theory of gravity
developed by Albert Einstein. These theories suggest that
gravity behaves differently on large scales and that this could
explain the observed acceleration of the universe's expansion.
Despite decades of research, no one at the present time has any
understanding of where this undetected substance comes
from or what exactly it is. Is it a pure cosmological constant
or is it a sign of extra dimensions? What is the cause of the
dark energy? Why does it exist at all? Why is it so different
from the other energies? Why is the composition of dark
energy so large? The nature of dark energy remains one of the
biggest mysteries in cosmology. Continued observations and
experiments may provide new insights into the nature of dark
energy and the fundamental nature of the universe itself.
Quantum physics, also known as quantum mechanics, is a
branch of physics that studies the behavior of matter and
LXXII

energy at the atomic and subatomic level. It is a fundamental
theory that provides a description of the physical world
that is different from classical physics, which describes the
behavior of macroscopic objects. Quantum mechanics is
based on several fundamental principles, including the wave-
particle duality, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and the
principle of superposition.
The wave-particle duality principle states that particles, such as
electrons or photons, can exhibit wave-like properties, such as
diffraction and interference, in addition to their particle-like behavior.
This principle led to the development of wave mechanics, which
describes the behavior of particles as waves.
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to
measure certain properties of a particle, such as its position and
momentum, with complete precision at the same time. The more
precisely one measures one of these properties, the less precisely one
can measure the other. This principle is a fundamental limitation on the
precision of measurements in quantum mechanics.
The principle of superposition states that a quantum system can exist
in multiple states simultaneously. For example, an electron can be in
multiple positions at the same time until it is measured and its wave
function collapses into a single position.
One of the most famous applications of quantum mechanics
is the Schrödinger equation, which describes the evolution
of a quantum system over time. The Schrödinger equation
LXXIII

predicts the probabilities of various outcomes for a given
experiment or measurement. Another important concept
in quantum mechanics is entanglement, which occurs
when two particles become linked in a way that their
states are correlated with each other. This phenomenon
has been demonstrated experimentally and has important
applications in quantum computing and communication.
Quantum mechanics also has important implications
for our understanding of the nature of reality. The
Copenhagen interpretation, one of the most widely accepted
interpretations of quantum mechanics, suggests that particles
do not have a definite state until they are observed, and
that the act of observation itself affects the outcome of an
experiment. To sum up, quantum mechanics is a fundamental
theory that has revolutionized our understanding of the
behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic
level. Its principles, such as the wave-particle duality,
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and the principle of
superposition, have important applications in fields such
as quantum computing, communication, and cryptography.
However, like any scientific theory, it is not perfect, and
there are some areas where it does not provide a complete or
satisfactory explanation of certain phenomena. Here are a few
examples:
LXXIV

Measurement problem: The measurement problem is a fundamental
issue in quantum mechanics that has to do with the act of observation.
According to the Copenhagen interpretation, particles do not have a
definite state until they are observed, and the act of observation itself
affects the outcome of an experiment. However, this interpretation
is controversial and has been criticized for not providing a complete
explanation of the role of measurement in quantum mechanics.
Quantum entanglement: While quantum entanglement has been
experimentally demonstrated and has important applications in fields
like quantum computing, the mechanism by which it occurs is not well
understood. It is also not clear how entanglement can be maintained
over large distances or how it can be used to transmit information faster
than the speed of light, as it appears to violate the principles of relativity.
The nature of the wave function: The wave function is a central concept
in quantum mechanics, describing the state of a quantum system.
However, it is not clear what the wave function represents physically,
and different interpretations have been proposed, including the many-
worlds interpretation and the pilot-wave theory.
The problem of non-locality: Quantum mechanics predicts that
particles can be instantaneously correlated with each other, even if they
are separated by large distances, which appears to violate the principle of
locality. While this phenomenon has been experimentally confirmed, it
is not well understood and has been the subject of much debate.
Overall, while quantum mechanics is a highly successful
theory, it is not without its limitations and open questions.
These failures and limitations have led to ongoing research
LXXV

and debate in the field of quantum physics, as scientists
continue to refine and expand our understanding of the
quantum world.
String theory gives us a clue, but there’s no definitive answer.
Well, all know is that it is a sort of cosmic accelerator pedal
or an invisible energy what made the universe bang and if we
held it in our hand; we couldn't take hold of it. In fact, it would
go right through our fingers, go right through the rock beneath
our feet and go all the way to the majestic swirl of the heavenly
stars. It would reverse direction and come back from the
stately waltz of orbiting binary stars through the intergalactic
night all the way to the edge of our feet and go back and forth.
How near are we to understand the dark energy? The question
lingers, answer complicates and challenges everyone who
yearns to resolve. And once we understand the dark energy,
can we understand the birth and the death of everything in
the mankind's observable universe, from a falling apple to the
huge furnace and the earth is also an ? Dark energy is one of
the biggest mysteries in modern astrophysics. It is a theoretical
form of energy that is thought to permeate all of space and is
believed to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the
universe. Here are some reasons why dark energy is considered
to be one of the biggest mysteries in physics:
LXXVI

Unexplained acceleration of the universe: The biggest mystery of dark
energy is the unexplained acceleration of the expansion of the universe.
Dark energy is thought to be responsible for this acceleration, but we
don't understand the physics behind it. We don't know what dark energy
is made of or how it works, and we don't know how it interacts with
other forms of matter and energy.
Inconsistencies in measurements: There are inconsistencies in
measurements of the expansion of the universe, which make it
difficult to accurately determine the properties of dark energy. Different
methods of measuring the expansion rate have produced different
results, and we don't yet have a consistent and accurate picture of the
properties of dark energy.
Lack of a theoretical explanation: We have no good theoretical
explanation for dark energy. We don't know what it is or how it behaves,
and we don't have any models that can accurately predict its behavior.
This lack of understanding makes it difficult to develop a coherent and
testable theory of dark energy.
No direct detection: Dark energy has never been directly detected. We
can only infer its existence based on its effects on the universe. This
makes it difficult to study and understand, as we have no way of
observing it directly or measuring its properties.
In essence, dark energy is one of the biggest mysteries
in modern physics. Despite its potential importance for
understanding the fundamental nature of the universe, we
still don't know what it is or how it works. This makes
it a major focus of ongoing research in astrophysics and
cosmology.
LXXVII

String theory is a theoretical framework in physics that
attempts to reconcile general relativity and quantum
mechanics by describing the fundamental building blocks of
the universe as one-dimensional objects called strings. While
string theory has the potential to provide a unified description
of the fundamental forces of nature, it also faces a number of
problems and challenges, including the following:
Testability: One of the main criticisms of string theory is that it is
not yet testable by experiment. String theory predicts the existence of
additional dimensions beyond the four we observe in our everyday lives,
but these extra dimensions are thought to be too small to detect with
current technology. This lack of experimental verification has led some
to question whether string theory can be considered a scientific theory.
Complexity: String theory is an extremely complex and mathematically
demanding theory, with many different variations and possible
formulations. Some critics argue that the theory is too complex to be
understood or tested, and that it is more like a mathematical construct
than a physical theory.
Multiple solutions: String theory has many possible solutions, which
describe different universes with different physical laws and constants.
Some critics argue that this undermines the theory's explanatory power,
as it can be used to describe a wide range of physical phenomena.
Background independence: String theory assumes the existence of a
fixed background geometry in which strings propagate, which is at odds
with the principles of general relativity. Some researchers are exploring
approaches to string theory that are background-independent, but this
LXXVIII

remains an active area of research.
Connection to the real world: String theory has yet to make testable
predictions about the observable universe, and it is not clear whether
it can be used to explain existing experimental data or to make new
predictions. While the theory has had some success in explaining
certain phenomena in theoretical physics, it has yet to provide a
complete and compelling picture of the universe.
Overall, while string theory has the potential to be a powerful
and unifying theory of physics, it still faces many challenges
and open questions. These problems have led to ongoing
research and debate in the field, as scientists work to refine
and develop the theory and to test its predictions through
experiment.
Entropy is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics that
refers to the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. The
entropy of the universe is a measure of the total disorder of all
the matter and energy in the universe. It is a fundamental
aspect of our understanding of the universe, and has
implications for everything from the evolution of stars and
galaxies to the fate of the universe itself. The entropy of the
universe is always increasing, in accordance with the second
law of thermodynamics. This law states that the total entropy
LXXIX

of a closed system cannot decrease over time, meaning that the
disorder of the system will always increase or remain constant.
Since the universe is considered to be a closed system, its total
entropy is always increasing. The universe started out in a
state of very low entropy at the time of the Big Bang, and has
been increasing ever since. This is because as the universe
expands, the matter and energy within it become more
dispersed and spread out, leading to a higher degree of
disorder. The formation of stars, galaxies, and other structures
in the universe is a manifestation of this tendency towards
increased entropy, as these structures represent localized
decreases in entropy within an overall system that is
becoming increasingly disordered. The concept of the entropy
of the universe is closely related to the concept of the heat
death of the universe. The heat death scenario predicts that as
the universe continues to expand and matter and energy
become increasingly dispersed, the entropy of the universe
will eventually reach a maximum value. At this point, all of the
matter in the universe will be evenly distributed and there will
be no more sources of usable energy to power any kind of work.
This would result in a state of maximum entropy, where the
universe is effectively dead, with no further change or
activity possible. To sum it all up, the entropy of the universe
is a fundamental aspect of our understanding of the universe
LXXX

and its evolution over time. It is a measure of the degree of
disorder in the matter and energy of the universe, and is
always increasing due to the second law of thermodynamics.
The concept of the entropy of the universe has important
implications for our understanding of the evolution of stars
and galaxies, as well as for the ultimate fate of the universe
itself. There are several theories that attempt to explain the
formation of the universe, including the Big Bang theory, the
steady state theory, the cyclic model, the ekpyrotic model,
and the multiverse theory. Here is a brief overview of each of
these theories:
Big Bang Theory: This is currently the most widely accepted theory
for the formation of the universe. It states that the universe began as
a hot, dense, and infinitely small point known as a singularity, which
rapidly expanded in a massive explosion about 13.8 billion years ago.
The universe has been expanding and cooling ever since, and is still
expanding today.
Steady State Theory: This theory, proposed in the 1940s, states that
the universe has always existed and is in a constant state of expansion.
According to this theory, new matter is continuously being created to
maintain a constant density of matter in the universe.
Cyclic Model: This theory proposes that the universe undergoes an
infinite series of cycles, in which it expands and contracts repeatedly.
During each cycle, matter and energy are recycled, and the universe is
renewed.
Ekpyrotic Model: This theory suggests that the universe was formed as
LXXXI

From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

From the Beginning of Space and Time: Modern Science and the Mystic Universe

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