2. ARTICLES
• One sub-category of determiners.
• There are 3 types of articles:
+ A/an (the indefinite article)
+ The (the definite article)
+ Ø (the ‘zero’ article)
4. REFERENCE
• Reference is the relationship between a
noun phrase and a person/object in real
life or an abstract concept.
• The person/object/concept mentioned is
called a referent.
Referent
AN ELEPHANT
Reference
5. REFERENCE
• There are 3 types of reference:
+ The indefinite reference.
+ The definite reference.
+ The generic reference.
10. INDEFINITE REFERENCE:
How to express?
Ex:
+ I have a dog. (Singular noun)
+ I have (some) Ø dogs. (Plural noun)
+ I have (some) Ø wine. (Mass noun)
11. INDEFINITE REFERENCE
+ Indefinite reference is used to
introduce or classify people or things.
Ex: He is a teacher.
Those are Ø pens.
She looks like a dancer.
This coffee tastes like Ø mud.
12. INDEFINITE REFERENCE
+ We use ‘the zero article’ after ‘a kind
of’, ‘a sort of’, ‘a type of’, or ‘a
variety of’.
Ex: He is a sort of Ø teacher.
Those are a variety of Ø pens.
She looks like a kind of Ø dancer.
This is a type of Ø tea.
13. INDEFINITE REFERENCE
+ Indefinite reference is used to express
the meaning ‘anything, it does not
matter’.
Ex: Bring an umbrella (= any umbrella).
Choose a seat (= any seat).
We need Ø cups (= any cups).
Buy some Ø milk (= any milk).
14. INDEFINITE REFERENCE
+ Indefinite reference is used to
express an exclamation.
Ex: + What a lovely girl!!!
+ What terrible Ø weather!!!
15. INDEFINITE REFERENCE
+ A/an is used to express the meaning
‘one of…’.
Ex: He is a friend. (= one of my friends)
16. (1) He is a friend.
(2) He is my friend.
Which sentence is more endearing?
18. DEFINITE REFERENCE:
How to express?
Ex:
+ The dog over there is mine. (Singular noun)
+ The dogs over there are mine. (Plural noun)
+ The wine over there is mine. (Mass noun)
19. On what do we base to decide
whether the reference is
definite or indefinite?
20. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on the listener’s awareness:
Ex: + I bought a dress. (The speaker
assumes the listener doesn’t know
which dress mentioned) à Indefinite
reference
+ I bought the dress. (The speaker
assumes the listener know which dress
mentioned) à Definite reference.
21. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on the listener’s surroundings:
Ex: + Pass me a cup on the table. (there are a lot of
cups on the table and the speaker assumes the listener
isn’t sure which cup mentioned) à Indefinite
reference
+ Pass me the cup on the table. (there is only one cup
on the table and the speaker assumes the listener
knows which cup mentioned) -à Definite reference
22. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on general knowledge:
Ex: The President has just resigned.
(The speaker assumes the listener
knows who the President is)
à Definite reference
23. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on whether the thing we are talking
about is unique and related to humans or not.
Ex: The moon today is full. (We are talking
about the moon circulating our Earth)
à Definite reference
24. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on whether the thing we are talking
about is unique and related to humans or not.
Ex: the sun, the Earth, the sky, the air, the
solar system, the stars, etc.
--> All those are unique and related to
humans.
25. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on whether the thing we are talking
about is unique and related to humans or not.
Ex: Jupiter has a moon. (We are talking about
the moon circulating another planet, not our
Earth).
à Indefinite reference
26. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
We base on co-text.
à Co-text: the words surrounding
a particular word that provide
context and help to determine
meaning.
27. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Relative clauses:
Ex: The song that she sang was beautiful.
(The speaker assumes the listener knows
what song she sang. She only sang one
song.)
à Definite reference
28. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Relative clauses: can make the noun
definite but not always.
Ex: A song that she sang was beautiful.
(She sang a lot of songs and the speaker
assumes the listener doesn’t know which one
mentioned)
29. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Prepositional phrases:
Ex: The book on the table is mine.
(The speaker assumes the listener
knows what book mentioned. Only one
book on the table)
à Definite reference
30. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Prepositional clauses: can make the noun
definite but not always.
Ex: A book on the table is mine.
(There are a lot of books on the table and
the speaker assumes the listener doesn’t
know which one mentioned)
à Indefinite reference
32. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Of-phrases:but not always.
Ex: a friend of mine (= one of my
friends, the speaker assumes the
listener doesn’t know which friend
mentioned)
à Indefinite reference
33. Challenge 1
(1)_____ man of wisdom.
(2)_____ god of wisdom.
Which article is suitable for
each noun phrase?
34. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Certain adjectives:can make the noun definite.
Ex: the same/first/next/last/only day
the right/correct/wrong answer
the previous/following sentences
the usual restaurant
36. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Superplatives: ‘the’ can be dropped if
the adjective is used later in the
sentence without the noun.
Ex: + She is (the) most beautiful.
+ She is most beautiful girl.
à She is the most beautiful girl.
37. (1) I am the most productive in the morning.
(2) I am most productive in the morning.
What is the difference between (1) and (2) in terms
of meaning?
40. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
If a thing has already been mentioned
in the previous sentence, it will
automatically become definite.
Ex: I have a dog. The dog is cute.
I have a dog. The animal is cute.
41. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
If a thing has already been mentioned in
the previous sentence, things that
related to it will automatically become
definite.
Ex: I work at a company. The colleagues
are friendly, the environment is active.
42. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Co-text
Ex:
+ I ate at a restaurant. The food was delicious.
à ‘Restaurant’ and ‘food’ are related to each other.
+ I ate at a restaurant. I met a friend there.
à ‘Restaurant’ and ‘friend’ are NOT related to each
other.
43. Challenge 2
I want to study at a university in
which ____ teachers are friendly,
______ classrooms are well-equipped
and _______ library is full of books.
Fill in the blanks.
Note: This is an imaginary university.
45. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
For the structure ‘there (be)….’ which means
‘something exists’, the noun is always indefinite.
‘The’ is never used.
Ex: There is a man outside. (Singular noun)
There is the man outside.
46. DEFINITE VS. INDEFINITE
Ex: + There are (some) Ø children
outside. (Plural noun)
+ There is (some) Ø wine in the
glass. (Mass noun)
47. GENERIC REFERENCE
+ We use the generic reference when
we want to generalize people or
things.
+ We want to refer to the whole
group of people or things.
48. GENERIC REFERENCE:
How to express?
Articles Countable nouns Mass nouns
Singular Plural
A/an ✔
The ✔
Ø ✔ ✔
49. GENERIC REFERENCE
A dog never betrays its owner.
(The characteristic(s) of an individual can be
applied to the whole group of people or things)
Hachiko’s statue – Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan
51. GENERIC REFERENCE
Ø Loyalty is one of the
requirements.
(We are talking about ‘loyalty’ in general)
Compare: The loyalty of the soldier
is admirable.
52. GENERIC REFERENCE
The tiger is
endangered.
(‘The tiger’ here is not a
real tiger, it is a concept
or an abstract idea about
being a tiger)
53. (1) Ø Tigers are endangered.
(2) The tiger is endangered.
(3) A tiger is endangered.
Which of the above sentences does not make sense in
terms of meaning?
55. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ To refer to a group of people/things abstractly.
Ex:
(1)You need to be calm when dealing with the
customer.
(2) In the classroom, the teacher should
communicate effectively with the student.
56. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
I am going to the library.
Do I know specifically
which library to go to?
57. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Entertainment as a general idea:
Ex: the cinema: I often go to the cinema.
the opera: She loves the opera.
the gym: John has just gone to the gym.
the zoo: I have never been to the zoo.
the park: Shall we go to the park?
58. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Shops and businesses:
Ex: the hotel: Jobs at the hotel are available.
the bank: I need to go to the bank.
the dentist’s: John has visited the dentist’s.
the hairdresser’s: She went to the hairdresser’s.
Notes: We do not say “Let’s go to the restaurant/café” but
“Let’s go to a restaurant/café” when we mean an abstract
idea of the place.
59. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Transport:
Ex: the bus: We took the bus to school.
the plane: It’s best to take the plane.
the train: Mary’s on the train now.
the airport: She’s going to the airport.
the bus stop: Wait at the bus stop.
60. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Transport:
Notes:
+ I arrived at Tan Son Nhat airport.
+ I arrived at THE Tan Son Nhat airport.
61. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Transport:
Notes: We do not use ‘the’ after ‘by’.
+ I traveled by Ø boat.
+ I traveled by THE boat.
62. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Communication and media:
Ex: the newspaper: We often read the newspaper.
the radio: He listens to the radio everyday.
the email: Has the email arrived yet?
63. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Communication and media:
Notes: For ‘television’, we do not use ‘the’
if we means ‘an abstract idea’.
Ex: What’s on Ø TV today?
What’s on the TV today?
64. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Communication and media:
Notes: We do not use ‘the’ after ‘by/via’.
Ex: by/via Ø email
by Ø radio
65. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Inventions:
Ex: the computer: We often use the newspaper.
the wheel: The wheel is an important
invention.
the Internet: The Internet has transformed
our life
66. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Parts of the body:
We usually use a possessive before parts of the body:
Ex: I have hurt my leg.
It is possible to talk in general about parts of the
body:
Ex: The brain uses a lot of energy.
67. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Parts of the body:
Sometimes, we can use ‘the’ after a preposition. This only
happens after certain verbs, including: touch, shoot,
pull, hit, kick, pat, grab, hold, and kiss.
Ex:
She touched him on the arm.
Not: She touched him on his arm.
But: She touched his arm.
68. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Musical instruments:
Ex: the piano: Can you play the piano ?
+ Kinds of weather:
the rain: I don’t mind the rain.
the snow: I love to see the snow one day.
the fog: London is covered in the fog.
the weather: What’s the weather like in June?
69. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Animals/plants: we means ‘the whole species’.
Ex: the rhino: We must protect the rhino.
+ Geographical expressions:
the city: Living in the city is stressful.
the countryside: We love to live in the countryside.
the beach: Let’s go to the beach this weekend.
the seaside: He is at/by the seaside.
70. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Time expressions:
the morning: I get up early in the morning.
the past/present/future
the weekend: We’ll see again at the weekend
the daytime: I don’t work in the daytime.
71. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Singular Noun
+ Time expressions:
Notes: For fixed expressions like ‘at Ø night’,
‘by Ø day/night’, we use ‘the zero article’.
72. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Adjective
+ To refer to the whole group of people:
Ex: the rich
the poor
the elderly
73. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Adjective
+ To refer to nationalities:
Ex: the French (= French people)
the Japanese (= Japanese people)
the Swiss (= Swiss people)
the Dutch (= Dutch people)
74. GENERIC REFERENCE:
Zero Article + Plural Noun
+ If the nationality adjective ends in –an. In
this case, we often use ‘zero article’ +
plural noun to generalize.
Ex: Ø Americans (not ‘The American’)
Ø Germans (not ‘The German’)
Ø Australians (not ‘The Australian’)
+ Other exceptions:
Ex: Ø Thais, Ø Czechs, Ø Pakistanis.
75. GENERIC REFERENCE:
The + Plural Noun
+ It is also possible to use ‘The + Plural Noun’
to refer to a whole group of people. In this
sense, this group of people is different from
other groups of people.
Ex: The Normans
The Jews
76. GENERIC REFERENCE
+ Other words:
the police
the public
the press
the passive (a grammatical concept)
the past tense (a grammatical concept)
the environment
etc.
77. GENERIC REFERENCE
+ However, there are abstract ideas requiring ‘the
zero article’:
life: Ø Life can be hard.
nature: I love Ø nature (not ‘the nature’)
music: She is keen on Ø music.
science: Are you interested in Ø science?
space: One day, humans will live in Ø space.
etc.
78. Challenge 2
______ books in England are quite expensive.
Which article should be filled in the blank?
A. The
B. Ø
Explain your answer.
79. Challenge 1
If you want to refer
to all books in
England à Generic
Reference
à The answer should
be Ø.
80. Challenge 1
If you want to refer
to all of the books
in England in
comparison to all of
the books in other
countries à
Definite Reference
à The answer should
be the.
The books in England
The books in Vietnam
81. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Languages:
Ex: She speaks Ø Japanese.
Not: She speaks the Japanese.
Exception: The Japanese that she speaks is different.
82. + Meals:
Ex: I had Ø lunch with my colleagues.
Not: I had the lunch with my colleagues.
Exception: The lunch that I had is terrible.
WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
83. + Sports:
Ex: I play Ø golf every Saturday.
Not: I play the golf every Saturday.
Exception: The golf that he plays is terrible.
WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
84. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Nouns followed by a letter or number
Ex: Read Ø question 8 (Not: Read the question 8)
Complete Ø Part B (Not: Complete the Part B)
Exception: Talking about the number or letter
itself.
A: What’s this number?
B: It’s a number four.
85. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ It is possible to drop ‘the’ before ‘the fact
is’, ‘the truth is’, ‘the problem is’, ‘the
question is’ at the beginning of a sentence.
Ex: (The) truth is, I hate music.
(The) question is, what should we do next?
86. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Unique roles: if there is only ONE of a
certain role, we can eliminate articles when we
use certain verbs, including: elect, appoint,
become, and be.
Ex: He was appointed Ø President of our school
She became Ø Head of Marketing.
He is Ø captain of the football club.
87. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Unique roles:
However, it is still possible to have the
following sentences:
Ex: He is a headteacher.
He is the headteacher of our school.
88. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Language of the press: to make the sentence
more concise and ‘catchy’.
89. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ For awards or prizes, we usually use the
‘zero article’.
Ex: He was awarded First Prize.
90. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Home: I go Ø home early.
+ Town: He is in Ø town.
+ Bed: He’s in Ø bed.
+ Work: He’s at Ø work.
+ Holidays and special occasions: on Ø Christmas, on
Ø New Year’s Eve, on Ø Mother’s Day, etc.
91. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Dates: On Ø November 16th / on the 16th of
November.
+ Months/days of the week: on Ø Monday, in Ø
September.
92. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Parts of the day: on Ø Monday morning
(compare: in the morning)
+ Years, decades, periods of time: ‘in Ø 2000’
but ‘in the 1960s’ ‘in the 18th century’, ‘the
Middle Age’.
93. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
+ Zero articles can be used for parallel
structures.
Ex: a relationship between Ø father and Ø son.
(Not: a relationship between a father and a son)
from Ø dawn till Ø dusk
from Ø west to Ø east
94. WORDS HAVE THE ‘ZERO ARTICLE’
à Other expressions: go to Ø church, go to
Ø court, go to Ø hospital, etc.
(1) I go to Ø school.
(2) I go to the school.
What is the difference between (1) and (2)?
95. Special cases: Compound nouns
+ For compound nouns, the article is used in accordance with
the head noun.
Ex:
(1) She’s taking Ø piano lessons.
(Not: She’s taking the piano lessons)
(2) The teacher is talking about Ø eighteenth-century poetry.
(Not: The teacher is talking about the eighteenth-century
poetry)
96. Special cases: Illnesses
+ a cough/ a cold / a fever / a headache.
+ (the) flu / (the) measles / (the) hiccups
+ Ø Cancer / Ø heart attack
97. Special cases
+ a few / a little / a lot of: purely express
the quantity.
Ex: I have a few books.
She has a little money.
He has a lot of cats.
98. Special cases
+ Few / little / lots of: express quantity and
attitude.
Ex: I have few books. (not enough books)
She has little money. (not enough money)
He has lots of cats. (impressed by the number)
99. Special cases: Idioms
+ a/an
Ex: give someone a hand
call it a day
make a mountain out of a molehill
105. HOW CAN WE MEMORIZE THOSE?
--> MEMORIZE THEM !!!
106. Special cases: a/an + Mass Noun
+ In certain cases, we can use ‘a/an’ in
front of a mass noun to specify a typical
example of that mass noun. Usually, we have
an adjective in between.
Ex: a terrible fear of heights
an admirable patience
107. PROPER NOUNS
+ Proper nouns usually go with the zero
article.
Ex: in Ø Asia
Ø Ho Chi Minh City
Ø China
108. PROPER NOUNS
+ Plural proper nouns usually go with ‘the’.
Ex: the Netherlands
the United States
109. PROPER NOUNS
+ Proper noun phrases that include ‘of’
usually go with ‘the’.
Ex: the University of Oxford
the Department of Marketing
110. PROPER NOUNS
+ Proper nouns that include a possessive
usually go with the ‘zero article’.
Ex: Ø St. John’s University
Ø His Majesty’s Theater
111. PROPER NOUNS
+ Proper nouns that include an adjective
usually go with ‘the’.
Ex: the Open University
the Great Wall
the Great Barrier Reef
112. PROPER NOUNS
Geographical names
+ The
Ex: Rivers: The river Nile, The Mekong
Desserts: The Sahara
Mountain ranges: The Rocky Mountains
Oceans: The Pacific Ocean
Lines and points: The Equator, The North Pole
113. PROPER NOUNS
Geographical names
+ Ø
Ex: Lakes: Ø Lake Michigan , Ø Dau Tieng Lake
Mountains: Ø Mount Fuji
Bays/Islands: Ø Ha Long Bay, Ø Phu Quoc Island
115. PROPER NOUNS
People’s names
+ In certain contexts, people’s name may go
with ‘a/an/the’.
Ex:
(1) There is a John waiting for you outside.
(2) The John that I mentioned is standing
over there.
117. PROPER NOUNS
People’s names
+ When talking about a work of art created by someone, we
use the person’s name like a normal noun.
Ex:
(1) We bought a Van Gogh. (= a painting of Van Gogh)
(2) She has a collection of Picassos (= paintings of
Picasso)
(3) The Monet (= the painting of Monet) that I bought is
over there.
118. PROPER NOUNS
Brands’ names
+ When talking about a product of a brand, we use the
brand’s name like a normal noun.
Ex:
(1) We bought a Mercedes. (= a car of Mercedes).
(2) The Converse (= the product of Converse) that I
bought yesterday is brilliant.
(3) She has a collection of Nikes. (= products of Nike)
