The document discusses different theories of truth and fallacies in arguments. It explains that facts refer to objective information, while truth is a proposition that corresponds to reality. However, apparent facts may not always reflect the whole truth, as there could be underlying contexts not considered. Theories of truth discussed include the correspondence theory, which holds that truth corresponds directly to facts/reality; the coherence theory, where truth depends on coherence with other accepted beliefs; and the pragmatic theory, where what is useful or beneficial is considered true. Determining truth can also involve identifying formal and informal fallacies in arguments.

2. TRUTH, FACT, OPINION
Although oftentimes used
synonymously, the terms fact and
truth for many philosophers are
different.
• FACT is a piece of information having objective reality which is
acknowledge by the greater whole.
• TRUTH is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
Many teachers detest the student for
his/her slackness- absences in class, missing
projects, and constant failures in exams. It is a
fact that this particular student is indeed slack,
for many evidences support the allegation.
HOWEVER, IN A SENSE, THIS CANNOT ALSO BE
THE TRUTH. The said student could be
experiencing challenges at home; difficulties in
coping with the class; or having personality
disorders which make him/her delinquent in
school.
THE FACT THAT THE STUDENT IS A SLACK MAY OR
MAY NOT BE THE TRUTH AT ALL.
Although oftentimes used
synonymously, the terms fact and
truth for many philosophers are
different.

3. TRUTH, FACT, OPINION
Although oftentimes used
synonymously, the terms fact and
truth for many philosophers are
different.
• FACT is a piece of information having objective reality which is
acknowledge by the greater whole.
• TRUTH is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
Many teachers detest the student for
his/her slackness- absences in class, missing
projects, and constant failures in exams. It is a
fact that this particular student is indeed slack,
for many evidences support the allegation.
HOWEVER, IN A SENSE, THIS CANNOT ALSO BE
THE TRUTH. The said student could be
experiencing challenges at home; difficulties in
coping with the class; or having personality
disorders which make him/her delinquent in
school.
THE FACT THAT THE STUDENT IS A SLACK MAY OR
MAY NOT BE THE TRUTH AT ALL.
is a judgment based on personal convictions, which
may or may not be factual, truthful, or false.

4. “Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated several theories to understand truth:
• The Correspondence Theory
• The Coherence Theory
• The Pragmatic Theory
THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
- the most popular theory which states that the
truth of a proposition is determined by its
relationship (correspondence) to the way
things actually are in the world.
- states that something is true if it corresponds
to reality or actual state of affairs.
- truth therefore, corresponds to facts; hence,
truth is absolute.

5. “Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated several theories to understand truth:
• The Correspondence Theory
• The Coherence Theory
• The Pragmatic Theory
THE COHERENCE THEORY
- contends that a proposition is true if it is
consistent with a system of other propositions
considered true.
- the truthfulness of a person’s judgment is
based on his/her statements coherence to a
certain set of established beliefs.
- this idealist theory of truth puts premium to
the culture of a person and his/her set of
beliefs as imposed by the society.

6. “Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated several theories to understand truth:
• The Correspondence Theory
• The Coherence Theory
• The Pragmatic Theory
THE PRAGMATIC THEORY
- holds that a proposition is true if it is useful.
- contends that judgment must be continually
verified and validated by having close
encounter and interaction with the world.
- in order to know the truth, a person must
engage oneself with something that would
give him/her the benefit or the highest form of
success.

7. THE PRAGMATIC THEORY
• INVESTMENT IN KAPA, REGIN, AND ALMAMICO MAKES PEOPLE RICH.

8. THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
• SQUARE HAVE FOUR ANGLES.

9. THE CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
• ALAMADA IS LOCATED IN REGION XII.

10. THE COHERENCE THEORY
• FILIPINOS BELIEVE THAT MARCOS IS A DICTATOR. MEANWHILE, CHINESE CONTENDED THAT MARCOS IS A
HERO.

11. THE PRAGMATIC THEORY
• VOTING RICH CANDIDATE WILL SECURE THE FUTURE OF THE COUNTRY.

12. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
FORMAL FALLACIES
 detectable by an examination of the
FORM of argument.
 also known as Traditional and Symbolic
Logic:
 8 Rules of Syllogism
 The Square of Opposition
INFORMAL FALLACIES
 detectable by an examination of the content of the argument itself.
 Argument against the man
 Appeal to force
 Appeal to emotion
 Appeal to the popular
 Appeal to tradition
 Begging the question
 Cause-and-effect
 Fallacy of composition
 Fallacy of division
 Fallacy of equivocation

13. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
FORMAL FALLACIES
 detectable by an examination of the
FORM of argument.
 also known as Traditional and Symbolic
Logic:
 8 Rules of Syllogism
 The Square of Opposition
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 a syllogism is an argument arranged in a specific manner in such a
way that it contains a major premise, minor premise, and a
conclusion.
Example:
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

14. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
FORMAL FALLACIES
 detectable by an examination of the
FORM of argument.
 also known as Traditional and Symbolic
Logic:
 8 Rules of Syllogism
 The Square of Opposition
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 How do we determine the major premise, minor premise, and the
conclusion?
*Major premise- the premise that contains the major term
*Minor premise- the premise that contains the minor term.
*Conclusion- the third proposition whose meaning and truth are
implied in the premises.
 How do we determine the major term, minor term, and the middle term?
*Major term- the predicate of the conclusion.
*Minor term- the subject of the conclusion.
*Middle term- the remaining term which does not (and cannot)
appear in the conclusion.

15. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #1: There should only be
three terms in the syllogism,
namely: the major term, the
minor term, and the middle term.

16. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #2: The major and the minor
terms should only be universal in
the conclusion if they are
universal in the premises.

17. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #3: The middle term must be
universal at least once.

18. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #4: If the premises are
affirmative, then the conclusion
must be affirmative.

19. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #5: If one premise is
affirmative and the other is
negative, then the conclusion
must be negative.

20. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #6: The argument is invalid
whenever the premises are both
negative.

21. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #7: One premise at least
must be universal.

22. “Aside from the truth theories presented, there are other means by which a person can
determine truth. One is by looking into fallacies (error in reasoning) in argument.”
8 RULES OF SYLLOGISM
 Rule #8: If one premise is
particular, then the conclusion
must be particular.