Prvac59 Research Paper

Prvac59 Research Paper
A particular stain of the Zika Virus, PRVABC59, has recently become an epidemic in South America and the PacificВ№, and in the last month has
spread to Florida. PRVABC59 is a Flavivirus, ssRNA(+), is spread by Aedes Aegypti and Aedes Albopictus mosquitoes and is capable of spreading
from mother to unborn child during pregnancy. Although the Zika virus normally doesn't cause severe symptoms, further complications arise if a fetus
is infected, as stated by the World Health Organization "There is scientific consensus that Zika virus is a cause of microcephaly and Guillain–BarrГ©
syndrome". Before more research can be done to develop a vaccine or treatment, a specific primary antibody must be created as a tool for further
research about the function of the ten proteins in the Zika genome. This project worked on nine of these proteins in ten parts. Two structural proteins,
capsid and pre–membrane protein, and the seven non–structural proteins, with NS5 being split into two pieces due to its size and toxicity. A previous
method of protein production and purification2 was followed to create these antibodies. This method of protein production and purification should lead
to a primary antibody specific to recombinant proteins of the PRVABC59 strain of Zika virus, which is a necessary tool for further research into the
PRVABC59 strain.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Plasmid map of pRSETB. Primers were designed to amplify via PCR to cDNA. The PCR product was digested with XhoI and EcoRI enzymes and
ligated into the pRSETB plasmid. The pRSETB plasmid contains a T7 promoter region, is ampicillin resistant, inducible with Isopropyl
ОІ–D–1–thiogalactopyranoside IPTG, a molecular mimic of a lactose metabolite that triggers transcription of the lac operon, and has XhoI and
EcoRI cut sites. The pRSETB plasmid is transformed into dH5О± E. coli and plated on carbenicillin plates. Colonies are selected and grown on a
carbenicillin plate while PCR is used to check that the plasmid that was up–taken was not
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West Nile Virus Research Paper
ABOUT THE PATHOGEN
The pathogen – West Nile virus belongs to the family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus and is part of an antigenic complex of Japanese encephalitis
viruses. According to the classification of human–pathogenic microorganisms WNV belongs to II group of pathogenicity. Pathogen – flavivirus has an
icosahedral shape, the approximate size is 40–50nm. Flavivirus has a single–stranded RNA, has a protein coat an enveloped capsid. Based on the
differences of the nucleotide and amino acid sequences currently distinguish at least five genotypes WNV. Well
–preserved frozen and dried state. Die at
a temperature above 56 C after 30 min.
VIRULENCE FACTORS
Journal of Virology states that West Nile Virushas numerous different proteins on the surface of the envelope. Thanks to these proteins virus can
penetrate into host cells without being detected by immune system. (N–linked glycosylation of the E proteins). WNV also equipped with envelope E
glycoprotein (major structural protein) on the viron which is also the antigen that elicits neutralizing antibodies. Normally Interferon prohibits
infections. Once infection is present WNV is resistant to the effects of antiviral interferon. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reservoir of the virus are birds of water and near–water systems, which explains the wide spread of the virus in nature. Seldom West Nile virus has
a distinct seasons – late summer and fall. WNV also could be transmitted through blood transfusion, breast milk and

Zika Virus Research Paper
The Zika Virus (discovered in 1947), a mosquito–borne virus; is a newly emerging worldwide issue. The virus derived from genus Flavivirus
pathogen family, and its symptoms include fever, headache, myalgia and rash (De M., et al., 2016). The Zika Virus is causing un–born fetus to be born
with microcephaly (a birth defect where a baby's head is smaller than expected when compared to babies of the same sex and age), and Guillain–Barre
syndrome (the body's immune system attacks part of the peripheral nervous system) (England, 2016). In Brazil, there are approximately 1.5 million Zika
Virus cases, and according to the World Health Organization, it is predicted that by the end of 2016, there will be 4 million (Solomon, Baylis, &
Brown, 2016). The

Encephalitis: A Disease That Affects The Brain
Introduction: Encephalitis is a disease that effects the brain. Encephalitis is the inflammation of the brain which can be caused by any one of a number
of viruses. Arboviruses, viruses transmitted through insect bites, are one of the most common causes of viral encephalitis, which also includes
Japanese encephalitis and tick–borne encephalitis viruses (World Health Organization [WHO], 2014).
Symptoms:
Symptoms of encephalitis includes high fever, headache, sensitivity to light, stiff neck and back, vomiting, and, confusion. In severe cases, seizures,
paralysis and coma are present. Mostly infants and elderly people are at risk of severe illness (WHO, 2014). Encephalitis is a infection of the central
nervous system (CNS). It also has a fatal outcome or severe permanent damage including cognitive impairment and epileptic seizures. It is often acute,
although symptoms may progress rapidly, causing severe debilitation to patients, including healthy children. Lewis and Glaser define ... Show more
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An example of a types of encephalitis is Rasmussen's encephalitis. Neurosurgeon Theodore Rasmussen and his colleague found Rasmussen's
encephalitis in the 1950's. Rasmussen's encephalitis is a rare neurological disorder. It is characterized by unilateral inflammation of the cerebral cortex,
drug–resistant epilepsy, and progressive neurological and cognitive deterioration. Studies support the idea that Rasmussen's encephalitis is probably
driven by a T–cell response to one or more antigenic epitopes (Varadkar, Bien, Jensen, Bauer, Pardo, Vincent, Mathern, & Cross, 2014). Another type of
encephalitis is Japanese encephalitis. Japanese encephalitis is a disease of the central nervous system caused by zoonotic mosquito–borne flavivirus.
Japanese encephalitis is an arbovirus that is transmitted by mosquitos and vertebrate hosts, particularly pigs and birds. Humans become infected when
bitten by an infected mosquito ( Yun, & Lee,

The Epidemic Of West Nile
WEST NILE ENCEPHALITIS
Serah Hinga
MICROBIOLGY
Instructor: Mrs. April Champa Date: 10/17/2016
West Nile Encephalitis is a West Nile Virus that causes inflammation of the brain. The viral family's name is flaviviridae and genera flavivirus
(Tortora. Funke. Case, 2010, p 376). The flavivirus genome consists of positive RNA single strand. However, the virus has acquired several mutations
and research is ongoing (Tortora, Funke, Case, 2010 p 223). West Nile virus is an arthropod–borne virus and is transmitted to human beings through the
bite of infected mosquitoes. It is the leading cause of domestically acquired arthropod–borne disease in the United States. (Nicole, 2014 para.1).
According to the World Health Organization (2011), "Approximately 80% of people who are infected will not show any symptoms. However, less
than 1% of the people who are infected will show severe symptoms resulting to a serious neurological illness like encephalitis." (Center for Disease
Control (2015) West Nile Virus was first isolated in West Nile District of Uganda in 1937. In 1950's, there was an outbreak of West Nile Virus in
Egypt and Israel. (Tortora, Funke. Case, 2010, p 223) About 50% of children in Egypt have West Nile Virus. It is also common in the Middle East,
where some suggest that Alexander the Great died from WNE. Moreover, its effect is also in Asia and Africa. The first case of West Nile Virus in the
United States was 1999 and was implicated by several

Rotavirus Disease Essay
Spread of rotavirus infection can be controlled on farms by isolating the affected foals, strict hygiene and disinfecting stalls and equipment.
Treatment
To control dehydration and electrolyte loss isotonic fluids @ 60 to 80 ml/kg body weight should be administered, according to the hydration status.
Paste of astringent bismuth sub salicylate @ 20 mg/Kg body weight, orally for 3 to 4 times in a day should be given. Administration of activated
charcoal @ 0.25 to 0.5 g/kg body weight once daily helps in binding toxins and firming the feces. Exogenus lactase @ 120U/kg body weight twice a
day should be given. Foals showing colic should be administred flunixin meglumin @ 0.25mg/kg body weight. Oral administration of antaacid
omeparazole @ 2–4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The major clinical signs observed over the course of disease included recumbency 100%, hyperesthesia 81%, loss of tail and anal sphincter tone
57%, fever 52%, and ataxia and paresis of the hindquarters 52% of cases. Mean survival time after the onset of clinical signs was 4.47 days (range, 1
to 7 days). Supportive treatment given had no effect on survival time and did not correlate with the detection of Negri bodies at necropsy. Other
diseases which present clinical symptoms similar to rabies are tetanus, equine herpesvirus, botulism, lead poisoning, moldy corn poisoning, protozoal
myelitis, and trauma to the brain or spinal cord. Post–mortem diagnosis can be made by submitting the intact head refrigerated by wet ice but not
frozen to diagnostic laboratory. Diagnosis is performed using the fluorescent antibody (FA) test to stain sections of the brain for the presence of rabies
virus. A positive test means treatment should be started for anyone who has come in contact with the rabid animal. There is no treatment of the rabies
virus. Immediate cleansing of the wound area may prevent infection. Post–vaccination of the animal may not be useful as the horse may die before
immunity has time to develop. If a horse has been previously immunized, an immediate booster should be given. Strict quarantine and observation for
six months are mandatory in all cases. If clinical symptoms develop, the horse should be

The Link Between Zika And Climate Change
The Link Between Zika and Climate Change In 2015 researchers made a discovery that the same mosquitoes that spread many diseases including the
Zika virus were living all in Washington, D.C. Before this, researchers and scientists believed that these mosquitoes could not survive north of South
Carolina. Even though the D.C. population of Aedis aegypti mosquitoes is most likely not carrying the Zika virus, this discovery was a shock to
scientists. As this virus spreads, scientists will keep studying how the environment and climate changes the way these diseases are spread. Before
2015 the Zika virus had only appeared in outbreaks around Africa and the Pacific Islands. However, after the first cases in Brazil it has spread quickly
through the

Zika Informative Speech Outline
Matthew Wilson
Professor DeHay
CSS 1302–21
3 October 2016
Zika Virus Speech Outline
1)Introduction
a)Mosquitoes can harbor the Zika virus.
b)The Zika virus is a flavivirus that originated in tropical Africa.
c)Thesis – New information is available about the transmission, symptoms, and risks associated with the Zika virus from scientists and medical
personnel who are working to reduce its spread worldwide.
2)Zika is a contagious virus that can be transmitted through both mosquito–to–person, and person–to–person interaction.
a)Mosquito to person interaction
i)Two–thirds of the world's population lives in Aedes infested areas (Ibrahim, 2). ii) In urban and suburban regions, Zika is generally transmitted in a
human–mosquito–human cycle. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
5)Scientists recommend specific measures to avoid contracting the Zika virus.
a)For everyone, insect repellant with DEET and protective clothing is recommended.
b)The CDC now issues a level 2 travel alert warn people travelling to Zika infested regions (Schmidt, 163).
c)The use of insecticide spraying and larvicides has proven effective in preventing and controlling the outbreak of the virus (Baden et al, 1559).
6)Conclusion – Scientists and medical personnel around the world are continuing to learn about the transmission, symptoms, and risks of the Zika
virus. Recently, Congress committed $1.1 billion to combat the spread and effects of the virus (Taylor, 1). Americans are hopeful that scientific
advances can quickly zap the threat of Zika here at home. References
Baden, L. R., Petersen, L. R., Jamieson, D. J., Powers, A. M., & Honein, M. A. (2016). Zika virus. The New England Journal of Medicine, 374(16),
1552–1563.
Ibrahim, N. K. (2016). Zika virus: epidemiology, current phobia and preparedness for upcoming mass gatherings, with examples from World Olympics
and pilgrimage. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 32(4),

Human Beings And The Human Body
The Earth is surrounded by different kinds of living creatures since thousand years ago from humans up to small tiny bacteria that live inside this
planet. But before we go on do you know what is a bacterium or bacteria? So basically Bacterium or bacteria are small tiny living organism that can
only be seen using microscope and it won't be able to show its body if we look at it using our naked eyes. All of the living creatures that are found
in earth may have some interactions with other creatures like humans and animals, even interactions between human beings and small tiny
bacteria in many different ways. Human beings and small tiny bacteria could have any interaction in many different ways; due to its tiny size the
bacteria are able to come inside the human body from holes from your body, wound, through air and water. Human beings has always been terrify
since hundreds years ago by Bacteria because it can affect anyone, and when it affects a person it may cause infections, disease, and if fatal it may
cause death. As a result thousands of people more than 23 thousand people die each year in the United States of America according to Centres For
Disease Control And Prevention (CDC). Living in Indonesia, a country a large country with full of diversities of plants and animals that's risky of
getting harmful diseases like the an outbreak in Brazil called The Zika Virus that's carried by mosquitoes there's a 75% chance of people infected by
this disease. Before we carry

ZIKV Research
Zika virus ZIKV is a flavivirus that has several modes of transmission across humans. Classically, the mosquito is the vector of transmission and yet,
more recent literature shows that the outbreak of ZIKV viruses were sexually transmitted from infected individuals to uninfected individuals.
Concerned for the general health of the population, Lim et. all attempt to understand the overall enhancement of ZIKV infection by preexisting
antibodies against other flaviviruses, more specifically, against dengue (DENV) and West Nile virus (WNV). The importance of this research allows
the scientific community to ensure that vaccines created against a specific virus will not cause more harm when infected by another flavivirus,
considering the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This portion lacked in results which did not further explore the reasoning why only DENV caused neutralizing effects. To confirm that FcyR
receptors bind through their main ligand, IgG antibodies, Lin et. all compared the ADE of the DENV and WNV using three various approaches
to confirm interaction. First, the researchers introduced an environment where only IgG can be involved in the binding to FcyR receptors. The
IgG portion was not clear as to what the cells could check whether the receptors on cell completely bound to IgG. It follows that IgG depleted
plasma did not enhance infection, and confirmed that IgG is the principle reason for ADE in these immunized plasma. This portion was further
explored due to uncertain IgG FcyR binding and an inhibitor is needed to bind to the FcyR receptor. The results showed that IgG + FcyR inhibitor
against DENV and WNV plasma had no fold enhancement of viremia, which supports that IgG needs to bind to FcyR to activate the ADE of a
secondary infection. The antibodies could be used to block binding to different types of the FcyR receptors. It was confirmed that FcyRIII is not
expressed on the K562 cells but FcyRIIA can bind to IgG to induce the ADE in the K562 cells that used in the experiment. Another plasma dilution
was used to cross the two antibodies that could block FcyR receptors: CD32 antibody blocks IgG binding to FcyRIIA and CD16 blocks IgG binding to
FcyRIII. Only IgG+ anti–CD32 antibody

ZIKV Response Paper
Great concerns have been made by the public on the outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV), a mosquito–borne flavivirus, on the influences it may bring to
human fetal. Numerous research have been made analysing the impact on human fetal if their mothers are being infected by ZIKA virus during
pregnancy and there are still more to be revealed. Freitas et al. (2016) reports the ocular findings in infant with microcephaly (birth defect with
abnormal smallness of head) while Mlakar et al. (2016) reveals the consequences of ZIKA with microcephaly.
Driggers et al. (2016)
Calvet et al.(2016)
This annotated bibliography will discuss how the Zika virus contributes to the increased risk of congenital microcephaly.
This article examines the ocular abnormalities of infants in connection with microcephaly, that may be caused by speculated inborn ZIKA virus
infections. The research was done by involving twenty–nine infants that suffered from microcephaly, suspected to be due to inborn ZIKA infections.
Together with their mothers, they underwent ophthalmologic evaluations using a wide–field digital imaging system. ZIKA infection symptoms were
presented during pregnancy of 23 out of 29 mothers. Furthermore, 17 eyes of 10 children, out of 29 infants (58 ... Show more content on
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The research aimed at detecting and sequencing ZIKA virus from amniotic fluid of fetuses with microcephaly in Brazil. It is done by involving two
pregnant women whose fetuses were detected with microcephaly. Serum, urine, and amniotic fluid samples of the two women were collected for
series of examinations and tests. Zika symptoms including fever and rash were observed from the two women at 18 week and 10 week of pregnancy.
Zika virus genome has been detected in both women's amniotic fluid but not in any of their urine or serum. ZIKA virus is shown to be able to cross
the placental barrier and cause impacts on human

The Epidemic Of West Nile
West Nile Encephalitis has infected more than 25,000 horses since its 1999 entrance into the United States. This relatively new infectious disease is the
most widely distributed arbovirus, causing infections across the continent from Africa, to Australia, Southern Europe, and North America. Cases have
even been reported in Mexico and Canada. This paper will focus on the main symptoms, treatments, vaccination types, and prevention. JH van der
Kolk and EJB Veldhuuis Kroeze classifyWest Nile Virusas, "a member of the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae, and has a broad vertebrate host
range" (Infectious Diseases of the Horse pg141). West Nile was first identified in humans in Uganda, Africa's West Nile district in 1937. The first
identified case in an equine was in 1960. The first confirmed case of West Nile within the United States happened in Queens, New York in the
October of 1999 affecting both birds and horses. We are not entirely sure how West Nile made the trip over to the U.S., (there are over 13 different
theories) but the favorite seems to be per smugglers. In 2001, the virus moved rapidly north to south, which has been contributed to migration routes of
birds carrying the virus. West Nile arrived in California in 2003, less than four years after reaching North America.
West Nile virus is transmitted by numerous mosquito species and can vary geographically. The American Association of Equine Practitioners says, "The
virus and mosquito host interactions result in

Infectious Disease: Malaria Essay
Section 1
Malaria
General Information
Malaria is a common infectious disease found mainly in the tropics but in rare circumstances can be found in temperate areas. Depending on the
circumstances malaria can be either life threatening cause serious illness.
It is caused by parasites of the Plasmodium species(in text reference). These parasites are carried by mosquitoes which become infected after biting
someone who has malaria. Malaria is then passed on to others when the infected mosquito bites another person. In rare cases malaria can be passed to
another person through blood transfusions, organ donations or shared needles.
On average there are around 300–500 million people who become infected with malaria every year, with most of the ... Show more content on
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Signs and Symptoms
Symptoms that are usually associated with yellow fever include fever, poor appetite, nausea, chills, muscle pains in the back and headaches abdominal
back pain. These symptoms usually subside after five days. These symptoms sometimes reoccur. Abdominal pain and liver damage starts causing
yellow skin. There also is a higher chance of kidney problems. About 15–15% then proceed to the 'toxic' stage of which around 50% then die around 14
days after catching yellow fever.
Dengue Fever
General Information
Dengue fever is a mosquito–transmitted virus, it is a Flavivirus which is the same genus as yellow fever. There are five different varieties of the virus
and being infected usually gives lifelong immunity to that particular variety and short–term immunity to the other varieties. However this also
increases the risk of having a severe reaction to the other types, this risk rises with exposure to another type and so on.
Symptoms and Treatment
Symptoms from the virus include headaches, back pain, joint pains, fever and a skin rash, which is similar in appearance to measles. A small
percentage of infections the disease develops into a life threatening dengue haemorrhagic fever, which results in bleeding, low levels of blood platelets
and blood plasma leakage. The other life threatening possibility is dengue shock syndrome; this

A Report On Aedes Albopictus
3.BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT
Aedes albopictus is considered to be the most invasive mosquito species in the world (1, 2) and there is an increased potential for its introduction into
mainland Australia given the established populations discovered, since 2005, in the Torres Strait, the region that sandwiches between Papua New
Guinea (PNG) and northern Australia (3). The aedine mosquito species have been culpably involved in the transmission cycles of pathogens of public
health importance (1). Aedes albopictus is known to have both field and laboratory proven vector competence for a number of emerging and
re–emerging viruses including chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and dengue virus (DENV). CHIKV and DENV are arthropod–borne (arboviruses) viruses
transmitted by the Aedes genus (4). Dengue is considered the most important arboviral disease in the world affecting 390 million people every year (5,
6), and CHIKV has continued to conquer new territories; charting an unprecedented worldwide expansion (7–11). In Australia, dengue outbreaks occur
regularly in northern Queensland where there is Aedes aegypti (12–14). Between November 2008 and May 2009, more than one thousand confirmed
autochthonous cases of dengue were recorded in Cairns, north Queensland, and Aedes aegypti, the only competent dengue vector, at the time, was
implicated. There is increasing global concern about recent outbreaks of pathogenic arboviruses from diverse viral families including

Zika Virus. Tremetra Whiteside . Brown Mackie College .
Zika Virus
Tremetra Whiteside
Brown Mackie College
SCI1850 Environmental Science
Dr. Samuel
April 22, 2017
Table of Contents
Zika Virus4
History and Background 4
Environmental Health and Effects4
Treatments 4
Prevention 5
Conclusion 6
Figures7 Abstract
Zika virus was discovered by scientists in the Zika rainforest in a remote part of Uganda in 1947, in the serum of an infected rheseus monkey. With five
thousand two hundred thirty– four known cases of the infectious virus documented in the United States. There is currently no vaccination for the flu like
virus. The chief concern of the healthcare administration is to continue to take preventive measures to prevent contracting the virus. Within the same
flavivirus family ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In 2014, two Polynesian mothers and babies were infected. In 2015, from February through April, seven thousand cases in northern eastern states as
well as Brazil and Colombia were reported. In 2016, Zika Strategic Response, is a plan aimed to helping affected countries focusing on managing and
preventing the spread of the virus, received donations from thirteen donors in the amount of $23.9 million dollars. In 2017, candidates are being
evaluated during trials of a possible vaccination.
Environmental Health and Effects
Consequently, the spread of the Zika virus from its originating countries of Africa and Asia, to American countries has linked the virus as an ongoing
epidemic. Due to climate changes, warmer winter temperatures, there is an increase of egg survival (Ali, 2017). Warmer spring, summer, and fall

temperatures may also lengthen the season transmission of the virus in temperate regions as well. In addition, the spread of the flu– like virus in
humans is is also due to natural disasters, such as, earthquakes and hurricanes destroying homes forcing residents to sleep outside exposing themselves
to infected mosquitoes. International travelers are also at potential risk of contracting the virus, especially in industrialized countries. Furthermore,
pregnant women or women of child bearing age should refrain from traveling to countries that are known for the Zika mosquito infestation.

Zika Research Paper
The morning after Christine Grounds gave birth to her son, Nicholas, she awoke to find a neurologist examining her baby. "Did you know he has
microcephaly?" she remembered the doctor asking matter–of–factly. Confused, she replied, "What is microcephaly?" The purpose of this paper is to
discuss the Zika virus; how Zika is diagnose and treated; typical symptoms; and how to prevent the virus.
What is the Zika virus? How is it diagnose? According to the World Health Organization, (WHO), Zika is a virus caused by a mosquito–borne
flavivirus and was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in monkeys by a network that monitored yellow fever. It was later identified in humans in 1952
in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. A diagnosis of Zika is... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are many ways to prevent Zika, such as wearing long sleeve shirts and long pants and treating your clothing and gear with permethrin or buy
pre–treat items. Use Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)–registered insect repellents with one of the following active ingredients: DEET, picaridin,
IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus or para–menthane–diol, or 2–undecanone. Always follow the product label instructions. Do not use insect repellents on
babies younger than two months old and do not use products containing oil of lemon eucalyptus or para–mentane–diol on children younger than three
years old. When at home stay in places with air conditioning and window and door screens to keep mosquitoes outside. Take steps to control
mosquitoes inside and outside your home and use mosquito netting to cover carriers, strollers, and cribs for babies younger than two months old. You
should sleep under a mosquito net if air conditioning or screened rooms are not available or if sleeping outdoors. To prevent sexual transmission of
Zika use condoms or abstain sex. Pregnant women should abstain for having sex for six months if their partner has traveled to a region where a Zika
outbreak exists because the virus transmits in semen. Having unprotected sex with someone who has been exposed with the Zika Virus while pregnant
can cause birth defects of the brain called microcephaly. Microcephaly stunts a baby's head growth, causing devastating, sometimes

Yellow Fever Research Papers
Most people don't know that 10% of people that get Yellow Fever die from it. However some viruses are more harmful than others which may scare
some people. The many symptoms of Yellow Fever may make this viral infection seem frightening even though there is a treatment available, the
history is quite unique, but how it is spread may surprise people. There are two different conditions of Yellow Fever, mild and severe. Mild cases'
symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, back pain, body aches, vomiting, and weakness in the arms, legs, and muscles. More severe cases'
symptoms consist of vomiting blood, bleeding from nose, mouth, and ears, slow heart rate, liver failure, kidney failure, seizures, and comas. A person
with Yellow Fever can easily be diagnosed by doctors by the color of their skin. A person with Yellow Fever shows skin that is starting to turn yellow
from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Patients with mild symptoms should rest, drink fluids, take pain relievers, and stay inside away from mosquitoes. If infected staying inside prevents
other mosquitoes from getting the virus. However patient with severe symptoms may need oxygen administration, medicines to increase blood
pressure, transfusion of blood, dialysis, or a breathing tube. All patients should stay away from Aspirin, Ibuprofen, and Naproxen because these may
cause bleeding. Treatment would not have been available if not for the scientist who did studies and came up with vaccines. In 1900 Dr. Carlos
Finlay did a study that proved that Yellow Fever is spread by mosquitoes. Later in 1930, Max Theiler created avaccine that controlled the virus. Yellow
fever was brought to the Americas on ships due to the slave trade. The first case recorded was located on the Yucatan Peninsula in the 17th century.
During the 18th century Yellow Fever was spread to North

Dengue Virus Infection : The Common Health Problems Essay
Dengue virus infection is one of the common health problems of the people in tropical and subtropical geographic countries. A viral diseases known to
cause dengue fever to severe hemorrhagic fever that is transmitted by an infective female mosquito, genus Aedes but there are other species known that
capable of carrying the dengue virus, the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, and Aedes polynesiensis. However, theAedes aegypti is the most
common mosquito that spread the virus. There are two modes of transmission of the virus, the horizontal transmission which is transmitted by human to
the mosquito where the mosquito takes a blood meal from infected human host. The vertical or transovarial transmission where infected female
mosquito transmitted the virus to the uninfected human host by taking a blood meal (1). The life cycle is a basic mosquito to human transmission.
Here, the mosquito ingested the virus when taking blood meal of the infected host and passes through salivary gland and resided at the intestinal tract.
After the incubation period of approximately 10 days, the mosquito releases the virus through injecting to the uninfected host by taking a blood meal
(2).
The genus Flavivirus from family flavivirae is a viral pathogens responsible to cause the dengue virus. Flavivirus is a virion that consists of a
positive–single stranded RNA with lipopolysaccharide envelope which measures 11 kb in length. It consists of three genome structural proteins– the
capsid, membrane

A Science Fiction Movie On The Big Screen Essay
When watching a science fiction movie on the big screen about the end of the world being brought on to humanity via disease or virus, it is easy to
take it lightly and brush it off as another Hollywood concoction. There is some truth and seriousness attached to the fabricated plots that are served to
us though these movies. Recently there has been news of contagious breakouts such as Ebola and Methicillin–resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
that affect the populations in hospitals and particular locations of the world. There is an international concern in the Zika virus by the recent outbreak at
different countries. Regardless of their place of origin they travel quickly and respect no boundaries or regions. These scenarios if not handled
properly can quickly compromise the health of the general population and result in the death of otherwise healthy individuals. A major problem we
are all facing is the misinformation and lack of education when pertaining to matters of newly emerging viruses and diseases. People need to show
more interest in being informed about newly emerging viruses and diseases that can not only cause harm but death. In this paper, I plan to discuss the
complex issues involved in the emergence of the Zika virus and will aim to provide information about how it is diagnosed and what the treatment
options are for those exposed. My hope is that the lessons learned from distinct countries who are currently experiencing the outbreak can provide
valuable

Case Study At The Hospital For Tropical Diseases, Thailand
Study design and population This prospective study was conducted at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Thailand. Patients admitted to the hospital
between May 2013 and July 2015 who met the study criteria were approached for participation. The study's inclusion criteria were: (1) patients at least
15 years old; (2) presenting with clinical criteria for dengue defined as acute fever with at least two of the following symptoms: headache, retro–orbital
or ocular pain, myalgia, arthralgia, rash, a positive tourniquet test (defined as the presence of в‰Ґ20 petechiae per 1 square inch), or leukopenia
(defined as a white blood cell count [WBC] <5.0 Г— 103 cells/Ојl); and (3) having a confirmed dengue viral infection. Patients with a history of ...
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All dengue patients in this study received standard care according to the WHO treatment guidelines for dengue by treating physicians [1, 3]. Type and
amount of fluid intake and urine output were also recorded daily during hospitalization. Patient data including baseline characteristics, clinical
parameters, laboratory findings, hemodynamic parameters, IVCd, IVCc, cardiac biomarkers, ECG, chest X–ray, type of fluid, daily fluid intake and
urine output per day were recorded in a pre–defined case–report form. Severity of dengue was summarized on the date of discharge according to the
WHO's 2009 definition [3].
Case definition of dengue According to the WHO's 2009 definition for dengue [3], dengue patients were classified into non–severe dengue and severe
dengue based on clinical and laboratory criteria. Patients with non–severe dengue were sub–categorized into three groups depending on the presence or
absence of warning signs. Non–severe dengue without warning signs was defined as having acute fever with at least two of the following criteria:
nausea, vomiting, rash, myalgia, arthralgia, a positive tourniquet test, or leukopenia. Warning signs included: (1) abdominal pain, (2) persistent
vomiting (vomiting with signs of dehydration), (3) clinical fluid accumulation (pleural effusion, ascites, or serum albumin of (–– removed HTML ––)
15 cm, (6) bleeding from mucosal areas including nose, gums, gastrointestinal tract or vagina, or (7) an elevated

Essay about Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism – Viral Hemorrhagic Fever
Abstract
Viral hemorrhagic fever is one of the most feared diseases of today's time. Although most people have heard of anthrax, smallpox and the plague, viral
hemorrhagic fever has become a potent weapon used for bioterrorism, silently killing its victims and instilling fear in the rest of the population. Viral
hemorrhagic fever can be divided into 4 families. Although each family of viral hemorrhagic fever may have some of its own unique characteristics,
the four families are generally fairly similar regarding the high fevers and hemorrhages they cause. Because of past outbreaks of viral hemorrhagic
fever, scientists have reason to believe that terrorists have easier access to the deadly viruses ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reason why the Ebola and Marburg viruses are grouped together is because they have similar symptoms. The incubation period is about 1 week,
which means it takes about 1 2 week for symptoms to occur (Wener n.p.). The symptoms can range from something as mild as headaches and sore
throats to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), which means clotting of the blood. Other symptoms include fevers, arthritis, prostration,
bleeding diathesis, thrombocytopenia and platelet dysfunction. Some nonspecific clinical effects include nausea, pain in the stomach, diarrhea,
encephalitis and rashes (Schlossberg 53). Furthermore, viral hemorrhagic fever can potentially lead to neurologic, hepatic, pulmonary, and renal
disorders (Wener n.p.).
What makes Ebola such a serious disease is that fact that 90% of the people who are diagnosed with this disease die, and the few surviving patients
suffer from hair loss and sensory problems (Wener n.p.). On the other hand, Marburg hemorrhagic fever has a 23–70% mortality rate. The history
behind the Marburg hemorrhagic fever helps explain why VHF is so dangerous to the public and can easily be spread all across the globe. Marburg
hemorrhagic fever was first discovered in 1967 in Marburg, Germany when lab workers were contracted with the disease after handling imported
monkeys from Africa (Center for Disease Control n.p.). Because Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever are both zoonotic, they can be transmitted from

David Thao-Travel Medicine Assignment
Phar 6724 – 2018 David Thao–Travel Medicine Assignment Assume that you will be traveling to one of the countries listed below for an extended
rural farm stay (>4 weeks) during the Spring of 2016. You will be traveling with your significant other and two children (ages 4 and 12). The purpose
of this assignment is to familiarize the student with travel vaccination requirements and malaria prophylaxis. This assignment does not have to be
written in the form of a narrative. To successfully complete this assignment, you should do the following: 1)List the recommended vaccines suggested
by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention for adult travelers to the above area(s). The CDC Web site is located at www.cdc.gov. Do not include
routine vaccines recommended for adults residing in the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of this information may be found on the CDC web page in fact sheets. You may also wish to consult a general medical microbiology textbook or
medical review. в—ЏHepatitis A: Infected liver cells and cause inflammation. Signs and symptoms of Hepatitis A include tiredness, blackening of
urine, itching, abrupt nausea and vomiting, fever, joint pain, and decrease appetite. в—ЏHepatitis B: Instigated by Hepatitis B virus and a chronic
disease with duration lengthier than 6 months. Frequently lead to liver failure. Symptoms naturally appear 1–4 months after infection and young
children may not display obvious symptoms. Symptoms comprise of dark urine, decrease hunger, nausea and vomiting, and yellowing of the skin or
eyes. в—ЏTyphoid: Instigated by Salmonella paratyphi and Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi. Salmonella paratyphi have a lesser number of severe
symptoms. Typhoid fever is common and ranges around 103 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit. A patient will experience exhaustion and weakness, headaches
and loss of

Annotated Bibliography on Mosquite-Borne Diseases
Annotated Bibliography
Hunter, A., Denman–Vitale, S., Garzon, L., Allen, P. J., & Schumann, L. (2007). Global infections: recognition, management, and prevention. The Nurse
Practitioner, 32 (2), 34–41. The authors discuss many known infections from all over the world including Malaria and West Nile. They mentioned the
differences between these mosquito–borne diseases such as who the primary victims that it affect, which time of day these mosquitoes come out to
attack, which season it will most likely occur and many more. Also, the ways in which these diseases can be managed and prevented is present in the
reading. This article provides phenomenal information and evidence that really contrast the two deadly diseases carried by mosquitoes.
Iwamoto, M., Jernigan, D. B., Guasch, A., Trepka, M. J., Blackmore, C. G., Hellinger, W. C., . . . Petersen, L. R. (2003). Transmission ofwest nile virus
from an organ donor to four transplant recipients. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348 (22), 2196–2203. Medical professionals conducted an
investigation to prove that four recipients obtained the West Nile virus through organ transplants from the same donor who also received various blood
donations from donors with viremia. The donor`s organs was diligently examined and no visible problems were found until the recipients developed
flu–like symptoms in which was

The Destruction of Yellow Fever
A disease that has yet to be conquered" (Barrett & Higgs, 2007). Such a quaint, simplistic phrase that yet effectively describes the disease commonly
known today as yellow fever. Over the course of history, the yellow fever virus (YFV) has decimated populations in various regions all across the
globe. While the overall gross impact of yellow fever has declined over the years, the virus still poses a significant threat present day, especially to
those in the developing world. The World Health Organization currently estimates that approximately 200,000 cases of yellow fever occur around the
world each year, resulting in 30,000 fatalities (Bundschuh et al, 2013). Presently, yellow fever remains without a legitimate cure, and the best defence
against the virus lies with preventative action. WHO identifies its three major yellow fever prevention strategies as vaccination, mosquito control, and
epidemic response (WHO Yellow Fever Fact Sheet, 2014). This being said, through the combined efforts of scientists, medical workers, governments,
and international agencies alike, the yellow fever virus has been confined to endemic areas throughout Africa and Latin America (Barrett & Higgs,
2007, p.209). With regards to the epidemiological nature of yellow fever, geographic factors and influences clearly play a significant role.
Environments, both physical and human (ie. social), directly correlate to how the virus behaves, adapts, and survives. Through the analysis its biology,
its

Essay On Hepatitis C
ABSTRACT
Hepatitis C virus remains one of the largest health care burdens to the world. It is one of the most common communicable diseases in Australia.
Ledipasvir, Sofosuvbir, and their combination (trade name – Harvoni) are Theapuetic Goods Acts) approved drugs for the treatment of CHC infection.
Ribavirin is another drug used for treatment of CHC, and is employed in combination therapy.
This paper provides an overview on Hepatitis C: its epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. The literature review of the
specific drug treatments (Ledipasvir/Sofosbuvir and Ribavirin) including the mechanism of action, safety, efficacy and place in current practice of the
drugs is discussed. The efficacy and safety of Harvoni was evaluated in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
BACKGROUND
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major issue in today's society. This flavivirus infection was discovered in 1989, before which it was called a non–A,
non–B hepatitis. The world health organization (WHO) estimates that 3% of the world's population has already been infected with HCV and there are
almost 170 million carriers who are at risk of developing HCV.
This disease can either be acute or chronic and the patient may remain asymptomatic, thus remaining undiagnosed. However, chronic infection can
cause liver failure or cancer of the liver which could be fatal.1
The Chronic hepatitis C is a treatable infection and the complications associated with liver functioning can be successfully treated by viral eradication.
The aim of this review is to study the epidemiological trends in the incidence of HCV infection in Australia and also the safety and effectiveness of
Ledipasvir and Sofosuvbir, Ribavirin and Interferons in the treatment of HCV

Essay on Impact of West Nile Virus on Humans
The Impact of West Nile Virus on Humans (or Why We Should Worry)
West Nile virus can infect humans, but there are more drastic ways that it affects our lives. The virus normally lives in birds and is transmitted among
them and other animals by mosquitoes. There is no other definite method of transmission, and people do not have to worry about contracting the virus
through contact with infected humans or animals. Hundreds of species of birds and many mammals, including several endangered species, are
vulnerable to the virus. Many domestic animals are also susceptible, but the virus does not create any symptoms in most of them. There is no way of
getting rid of the virus once an animal has been infected, but a vaccine for horses has ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
About 20% of people develop mild symptoms, including fever, nausea, and swollen lymph nodes, within a couple weeks of being bitten by an infected
mosquito. Only one out of 150 infected humans display more
WNV's Impact on Humans 2 serious symptoms, such as high fever, disorientation, vision loss, numbness, and paralysis. Because West Nile is a virus, it
cannot be cured by antibiotics. People who display serious symptoms are given supportive treatment, which may include intravenous fluids and
respiratory support until they recover (CDC, 2004).
Animals found in the wild are also susceptible to West Nile virus. It is fatal to up to 285 species of birds, which are the reservoirs that the virus
normally lives in (CDC, 2005). Members of the avian family Corvidae, which includes crows, ravens, magpies, and jays (CDC, 2003), are especially
vulnerable to West Nile virus, as seen during the 1999 New York epidemic, when hundreds of crows died from the virus. Other animals that have been
found carrying the virus include squirrels, chipmunks, skunks, and bats (Lee, 2003). Although humans do not have to worry about becoming infected
by West Nile virus by handling infected animals, they should be aware that reports of animals that have died from the virus is an indication that there
are mosquitoes that are carrying the virus in the area. Some endangered or threatened species are also susceptible to West Nile virus, including Asian
elephants, great Indian rhinoceros,

Zika Virus Analysis
Zika Virus swept the media in 2016. It reminded everyone of the 1999 West Nile virus because of the similarities amongst the symptoms of the two
viruses. Contrastingly, Zika Virus has a slightly different mode of transmission. The virus is a member of the flaviviridae family and flavivirus genus
and is a positive, single stranded, RNA virus (Kuno, 1). Zika Virus has been known to severely affect pregnant women. In pregnant women, Zika Virus
causes a birth defect resulting in abnormally small brain sizes in babies called microcephaly. Mosquito born Zika Virus transmission has been reported
in 68 countries and 14 of those countries have reported microcephaly associated with Zika Virus (Kelley,1). A mosquito infected with Zika Virus that
bites... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this study, they are targeting two functions for NS1A, the version of the NS1 protein associated with influenza A virus. The two functions being
studied are involved in viral replication, which are a double– stranded RNA– binding and binding to an effector domain. The binding properties of
NS1B, the version of NS1 protein that is associated with influenza B virus, are also under study. Because of these functions, the binding sites of both,
NS1A and NS1B will be targeted for new drug development; ultimately, to create a more effective antiviral to treat the influenza virus. Along with Dr.
Krug's study, other researchers are also studying the connection of NS1 and Influenza A

Japanese Encephalitis Essay
Viral encephalitis is considered as the most common infection in the CNS as it causes acute inflammation and infection to the brain (S. K. Saxena,
2008) . Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a serious mosquito borne disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belonging to the family
Flaviviridae (Cha et al., 2014). The Japanese encephalitis virus cause significant morbidity and mortality by infecting CNS and spinal cord. Japanese
encephalitis virus (Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) is an enveloped virus having 40–50 nm in diameter and it contains single stranded RNA as genome
(Vashist, Bhullar, & Vrati, 2011). JE was first reported from Japan as a clinical entity in 1817 later the JEV was isolated in 1934 from a fetal human
case(Erlanger, Weiss, Keiser, Utzinger, & Wiedenmayer, 2009).... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The blood sucking Culex mosquitoes – principally Culex tritaeniorhynchus is responsible for the transmission of Japanese encephalitis to the human
population (Tiwari, Singh, Tiwari, & Dhole, 2012). Most infections are sub clinical and arise in rural areas, however transmission is also reported from
urban and peri urban centers(Solomon et al., 2000). Non–specific febrile illness including rigors and diarrhea followed by vomiting and headache were
significantly considered as the symptomatic infection of JEV(V. Saxena, Mishra, & Dhole, 2009). In addition to this Convulsions occur predominantly
in children than adult.JE is a severe and lethal condition and it requires rapid diagnosis to treat JE patients(Kumar et al., 1990; Lincoln & Sivertson,

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Dengue Fever
Dengue Fever is a well–known arbovirus infection persistently affecting the tropical and subtropical areas sharing similar characteristics of
overcrowding, clammy warm climate, poor economic and moving toward industrialization. (1) The incidence of dengue fever is escalating each year
mostly in Southeast Asia, America and the Pacific's adding to the world's burden of the disease (1,2) Dengue virus is a member of flavivirus genus
family that includes also West Nile virus, yellow fever, zika and Japanese encephalitis virus (1). Four serotypes of dengue virus identified DENV 1–4
transmitted by the Aedes aegypti and Ades albopictus mosquitoes (3) Clinical diagnosis ofdengue fever remains a challenge and requires high index of
suspicion. This could be attributed to the non–specific signs and symptoms in acute phase which mimic many other febrile illnesses (1). It has a
spectrum of symptoms ranging from mild self–limiting symptoms (fever, headache, retro–orbital pain, weakness, myalgia, arthralgia, nausea, vomiting,
rash and sore throat) to severe life threatening; dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DSH) (3,4). The disease has an
incubation period of 2–7 days and has been classified into primary and secondary infection, depending on whether there is no previous exposure to
dengue virus or flavivirus related vaccine (primary) or there is past exposure (secondary) (1,4).
While no definitive treatment for dengue fever and no vaccine available, early detection

West Nile Virus Essay
More and more recently, we have been finding new "emerging" diseases that continually baffle scientists as to how they came to be. Many of these
diseases have not left the public eye yet, such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, and the yearly strains of Influenza; however, we must remain vigilant of every
disease that plagues humanity – including the all but forgotten West Nile Virus. Much like Influenza, West Nile Virus has its own season. It tends to
rear itself in the summer and fall, so it can potentially be mistaken for a more harmless disease by today's standards such as Influenza. West Nile virus
originally began by infecting small parts of Africa, but with the convenience of today's airplanes, ships and cars, it soon found its way all over the
world – even in the United States (mayoclinic). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mosquitos tend to be the main culprits; specifically female mosquitos, who carry the disease in their saliva and inject it into our bodies as they bite
us in order to prevent the blood from coagulating. If you do not live in an area that is highly populated with mosquitos, and you are under 60 years
old, you are of a much lower risk factor, but for those who live near many mosquitos or are 60 or older, the risk of getting West Nile Virus and
suffering from its complications is much higher (mayoclinic).
Unlike with many diseases, West Nile Virus can be very easy or very difficult to diagnose in a patient. For instance, a patient may be asymptomatic,
meaning they show no symptoms of having West Nile Virus, and it can be hard to say if this will ever change. Some patients will have mild
symptoms including pyrexia (fever), cephalgia (headache), body aches, nausea, emesis (vomiting), and sometimes lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph
glands) or a skin rash on the chest, stomach and back, which can last from several days to several weeks

Emerging Diseases Research Paper
BIOL 390Emerging Infectious DiseasesAssignment 1 – 20 points 1)Pick from the following emerging/reemerging diseases: Brucellosis, Clostridium
difficile; Antibiotic–resistant Gonorrhea; Highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5); Japanese encephalitis; MERS–CoV; Naegleria fowleri; Powassan
Virus; and Zika. List your disease in the blank. Then, research the disease from www.cdc.gov and answer the following questions. Japanese
encephalitis 2)Describe the microbial agent that causes your disease (3 points). According to the CDC (2015), the Japanese encephalitis virus is a
flavivirus just like the yellow fever and West Nile virus. Flaviviruses are mostly transmitted through bug bites, such as an infected mosquito.... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mosquitos are the main transmitter of this virus. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), pigs and birds are also part of the transmission
cycle, which increases the risk of infection to people living near these animals. According to WHO, there are twenty–four countries that have a risk of
infection, particularly in the South–East region of Asia and the Western Pacific. 4)What are the symptoms of your disease (5 points)? Most cases of
Japanese encephalitis have no symptoms or just a mild headache or fever; however, according to the World Health Organization, 1 in 250 patients
develop chronic symptoms like severe headaches, fever, stiffness of the neck, disorientation, seizures, and eventually death. Most of these symptoms
are caused by encephalitis (swelling of the brain), hence the name of the virus. 5)How is this disease transmitted (3 points)? According to the CDC
(2015), this virus is mainly spread from infected mosquito bites particularly from Culex tritaeniorhynchu. Humans are not part of the transmission
cycle; however, pigs and birds are part of the cycle. Therefore, there is increased risk to people who live in close proximity to these

The Zika Virus (ZIKV)
The Zika virus was first discovered in 1947 in a rhesus monkey in a forest in Uganda. This virus also known as ZIKV, is a type of Flavivirus, which is
a form of a fast evolving RNA virus. From there, Zika was then discovered all around the African continent in countries such as Nigeria (1971, 1975),
Sierra Leone (1972), Gabon (1975), Uganda (1969, 1970), Senegal (1988–1991) and CГґte d'lvoire (1999). Additionally, Zika was also discovered in
Asia as well. Cities like Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Micronesia and Cambodia all were plagued with this disease (Freire, Lamarino, Faye et al.).
Over time, the virus Zika has indeed mutated so that it could infect more hosts and cause deadlier symptoms and evolve into the virus that we know
today. As Zika migrated across the globe, its symptoms seemed to progress with its travel. As the virus traveled it mutated and evolved to include a
vast array of different symptoms and accelerated its ability to affect more populations. In today's society, the symptoms of Zika are a lot more severe
and more prevalent than ever in the past. Scientists link this rise in severity and prevalence of symptoms to an increased number of transmission routes
and symptoms. Thirty years ago, we did not see the neurological symptoms that we see today. Zika was thought of as just a mild... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
It was not considered to be a danger to humans. Then in April of 2007, an influx of Zika took place in Micronesia, where about 50 people were
diagnosed with the virus. This outbreak demonstrated the potential Zika had as an emerging disease with rapidly evolving symptoms and modes of
transmission. Because of this, mosquitos were associated as vectors for the disease to carry it across not only continents but around the globe as well.
Over time, it spread from countries in Africa and Asia to South America and then the United

West Nile Virus Essay
By learning about different viruses in class, it sparked my interest in further researching a common virus known to the word called West Nile virus.
Affiliated with the genus Flavivirus, this virus can be transported globally due to being classified as a mosquito–borne arbovirus1. Mosquitoes,
belonging to the genus Culex, can facilitate the transportation of this pathogen by consuming the blood of an infected bird, being the main reservoir, and
then passing it on to another animal or human1–3. Mosquito activity is at its peak during the months of summer and autumn, therefore these months
depict the most cases of West Nile virus4. Humans play no role in the transportation as they are coined dead end hosts due to not being able to produce
enough ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Majority of the infections, around 80%, can be categorized as asymptomatic but this is not the case for all5. West Nile fever, indicated by fever,
headache, nausea etc, can develop in approximately 20% of the infected people5. In rare cases, less than 1% of disease ridden individuals can
actually develop more serious conditions like meningitis, encephalitis, and acute flaccid paralysis5. Classified as neuroinvasive diseases, these
clinical conditions are more prone to occur in older individuals exceeding the age of 605. This doesn't exclude the population ranging from newborns
to middle aged as it hasn't been proclaimed that they are immune to developing some of these disorders6. Overall, people infected with this virus will
either experience mild symptoms or might have to deal with more serious problems.
Surviving the neuroinvasive diseases does not mean that the battle is to be presumed over. Through many reports, it has been stated that people still
experienced symptoms of the West Nile virus even a year after the diagnosis was made3. Long term consequences of the disease can be mental health
problems such as depression, tremors, headaches, muscle and motor weakness and etc3. But researches have yet to come to a conclusion whether these
consequences are due to the damage done by the virus or the body's own immune

Daclatasvir Research Paper
2.Pharmacodynamic properties
Daclatasvir (BMS–790052) is a п¬Ѓrst–in–class, highly selective nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) replication complex inhibitor with high potency and
broad genotypic coverage.
A. Mechanism of action
Daclatasvir is an HCV NS5A replication complex inhibitor. NS5A is a viralprotein with no enzymatic activity that is essential for HCV RNA
replication and assembly. Its role in replication appears to be the formation of a membranous web along with viral protein NS4B, and this web
provides a platform for replication. Futhermore, NS5A is composed of 3 domains; domains I and II are essential for HCV replication and domain III
plays a role in virion assembly [24,25]. Also, NS5A contains phosphorylation sites, which act as regulators... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
domain 1) of the protein [28]. The initial rapidity with which daclatasvir reduces HCV RNA in the serum(s2 logm reduction within 6 h of
administration, with a slower decline thereafter) suggests that it block virion assembly and release as well as viral RNA synthesis [29].
B. Antiviral activity
Daclatasvir displayed potent inhibitory activity against all HCV genotypes tested (genotypes 1–6) [18, 19]. In replicon assays, the half~maximal
effective concentration (EC5O) values of daclatasvir against HCV genotypes 1a, lb, 2a,3a, 4a and 5a were 50, 9, 71–103, 146, 12 and 33 pmol/L,
respectively [28]. Daclatasvir displayed additive or syneregistic inhibitory activity in replicn assays when used in combination with peginterferon–a and
ribavirin, NS3/4A inhibitors (danoprevir or asunaprevir) or NSSB inhibitors [EMS–791325 (beclabuvir) or NM–107] [28, 30]
Daclatasvir inhibited JFH–l genotype 2a replication in cell culture with an ECSO 0f 28 pmoUL [31]. Daclatasvir was speciп¬Ѓc for HCV as evidenced
by the lower potency (EC50 of 9–12 nmollL) against the related п¬‚avivirus bovine viral diarrhoea virus

Zhikv Case Studies
1. What is the purpose of the study and what questions were asked?
Zika virus epidemic in the Americas is linked to increased prevalence in microcephaly in infants infected with the Zika virus (ZIKV) in utero. The
purpose of the study was to develop a vaccine to for women of childbearing age and their sexual partners to prevent infection and Viremia due to ZIKV.
The authors created a DNA vaccine that can produce pre–membrane and envelope proteins that offer immune protection in mice and primates. This
study showed that DNA vaccine is an effective way to protect against ZIKV.
2. How did the study address these questions?
The authors created a gene–based vaccine since DNA vaccines have several advantages: the ability to quickly test several

Philippines : The Country 's Overview
The Country's Overview Philippines is an archipelago located in Southeast Asia near the equator. The Philippine archipelago consists of 7,107 islands
divided into three major groups of islands which is Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. As of 2016 the Philippine population is estimated to about
102,624,209 (World Fact Book). The Philippine nationality is termed Filipino and its population is made up of various ethnic groups. The national
language is called Tagalog, it also the name of the major ethnic group of the country. According to Philippine Statistic Authority the population of urban
area accounts for 45.3% of the country's total population (Urban–Rural Classification). In contrast, the population in rural area is comprised of 54.7%
and considered to be the majority population of the entire country. The Philippine climate is predominantly tropical marine where wet season occurs
from November to April and is caused by the northeast monsoon. Similarly, the second set of rainy season, is caused by the southwest monsoon
during May to October (World Fact Book). Additionally, the Philippine economy has been relatively resilient to global economic struggles because the
country is less exposed to troubled international securities. The lower dependence on exports is what makes the country relatively resilient, relying
only domestic products, as well as large remittances from millions of migrant and overseas Filipino workers (World Fact Book). The existing account
balance has

Yellow Fever Research Paper
The Flying Fever: Yellow Fever A scientist is studying the social skills of spider in the Amazon jungle. Suddenly, the scientist is bit by a mosquito.
The scientist slaps the mosquito away and carries on with his studies. After three days, the scientist experiences a fever, muscle aches, nausea, and is
very dizzy. The scientist was bit by a Yellow fever carrying mosquito. He is in the third day of contraction. The scientist decides he must find a way
out of the jungle. If the scientist does not get help soon he could go into the toxic phase of Yellow fever. The life–threatening stage of Yellow fever
includes yellowing of skin and eyes (jaundice), decreased urination, bleeding of nose, eyes, and mouth, slow heart rate (bradycardia) liver and kidney
failure, and brain dysfunction (Jameson, 2017). Yellow fever was the cause of 5,100 deaths in 2015. Almost half of all people that contract the Yellow
fever virus die. Yellow fever is a vector–borne illness. It is transferred from the salivary gland of the female mosquito that feed off of monkeys and
then to humans through biting. It is estimated that there are around 200,000 cases of yellow fever that occurs annually. It is... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The most effective way is vaccination. Vaccination can protect a person for 10 years. Vaccination has been seen to cause side effects. Such as mild
headaches, fatigue, and soreness around the injection site. The best ages vaccination is people aging from 9 months to 60 years old. Another method
of yellow fever prevention is mosquito protection. One way to prevent mosquitos is to avoid nonessential outside activities during the most active
mosquito months. Another way is to wear clothes that cover all of your skin when going outside. If you are in a house that does not have good screens
then bed nets should be used to keep out mosquitos while you sleep. Finally, always use mosquito repellent when going outdoors (CDC,

How Did The Zika Virus Affect Brazil
The Zika Virus: impacts on Brazil February 1, 2016 the World Health announced a PHEIC (Public Health Emergency of International Concern) that
declared the Zika virus was a global health emergency. Brazil being the most affected country in the world right now has cases where pregnant
women with the virus have given birth to children with smaller heads causing their brains to not develop correctly.The Zika virus is a flavivirus
(Karimi) that is related to the common dengue virus and West Nile disease. A flavivirus is a group of RNA (a ribonucleic acid), that are mostly
carried by mosquitoes, flies, fleas, etc. The virus carried causes severe human diseases, that are most commonly related to the Dengue and West Nile
disease. The disease... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The government approximates that at least 1.5 million Brazilians have been infected in the last few months("Areas with Zika").The mortifying
consequences of the Ebola disease is still fresh in the public's minds, there is a lot of concern increasing around the world over the political, social,
and economic impact of Zika virus for now that is affecting Brazil. Amidst the country's hardest political and economic challenges in years. As
scientists learn more about Zika itself, it is not going to play out for Latin America's largest economy. Public Health Officials have only a little amount
of control over the virus. It is a mild disease, about three quarters of those with the virus develop flu–like symptoms, which last about one week, while
the remainder can't be seen or felt(CBS). This means that if the disease keeps spreading and adults keep getting sick, productivity will decrease
hurting Brazil's economy in the process. Not only is it hurting the economy but it's going to create problems along the "social classes". Poverty is
one of the major critical factors in determining where the virus will hit the hardest and where it will not affect society as much. In Brazil, the events
affecting different communities that are both being confronted by Zika can vary overwhelmingly depending on wealth. Poor communities are more
likely to be impacted by the Zika virus (Combs).The real actual danger comes when the efforts being made to avoid panic for the public stand in the
way of good public health policy. Providing infection screenings for free and travel bans can possibly create a sense of security, a false one, leading
people into perceiving that they're safe and to falsely make them believe that they aren't at risk. This is thereby increasing the odds of infection. Simple
steps should be taken to advise the public, such as government

Case Analysis : Entebbe Bat Virus
General Introduction:
Entebbe Bat Virus in an infectious disease caused by a Flavivirus and is closely related to yellow fever. Entebbe Bat Virus is a (+) single–stranded
RNA (ssRNA) genome virus. It's an enveloped virus with icosahedral nucleocapsid. It's genome has approximately 10,000 to 12,000 kilobases).
Entebbe Bat Virus was first isolated from a little free–tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus) in Uganda in 1957, but wasn't detectable after initial isolation.
In 2011, Entebbe Bat Virus was isolated from a free–tailed bat captured from the attic of a house where it had been originally found. Infectious virus
was recovered from the spleen and lung, and the viral RNA was sequenced and compared with that of the original isolate (Kading et ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since Enebbe Bat Virus is in the Genus Flavivirus, the structure is Icosadedral–like with a Psuedo T=3 symmetry with a diameter of approximately 50
nm. The capsid protein is enveloped. The genomic arrangement is a linear (+)ssRNA. Its genomic segmentation is Monopartite (Flint).
Genome
The genome of Entebbe Bat Virus is a (+) single–stranded RNA ((+)ssRNA) with a linear characteristic to it. The genome encodes 3 structural proteins
(Capsid, prM, and Envelope) and 8 non–structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5 and NS5B). The genomic RNA is
modified at the 5вЂІ end of positive–strand genomic RNA with a cap–1 structure. The (+)ssRNA doesn't have a poly–A tail, and it possess a UTR
promoter site on the 5' end and the 3' end if its RNA genome.
Replication Cycle
Entry into cell
Entebbe Bat Virus is an enveloped virus, which means that it has to bind its envelope proteins to a cell surface protein on the cell that it's going to
infect. In flavivirus virions, the fusion peptide is buried in dimmers of the fusion glycoprotein E. At low pH, the dimmers are disrupted, the proteins
rotate to form trimers, and the fusion peptide is directed toward the cell membrane The viral envelope protein E attaches to host receptors, which
mediates receptor–mediated endocytosis.. The viral nucleocapsid, as RNP, is released into the cytoplasm, where the RNA synthesis begins. The
mechanism by which the contacts between the viral nucleocapsid and M

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