Analysis Of Avian Avulavirus

Analysis Of Avian Avulavirus
Africa and the rest of the world, there is need to examine whether these strains are arising from the
vaccine strains in use and refocus vaccination regimes towards effective, genotype–matched and
thermostable live vaccine strains. This requires a careful selection and evaluation of appropriately
immunogenic virus molecules for effective vaccination regimes.
Avian avulavirus morphology and antigenic viral proteins
When observed under electron microscope, the Avian avulavirus is pleomorphic in shape, generally
rounded with nucleocapsids varying from 100–500nm, spherical diameters and 100nm length in
filamentous forms. The virus is a single–stranded, negative–sense, non–segmented enveloped RNA
virus (Alexander and Senne, 2008). The genome is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In some AAV–1 viruses, HN is synthesized as a biologically inactive precursor (HN0) molecule that
is activated by cleavage of a 90 residue at the C–terminus (Crennell et al., 2000). F–protein spikes
influence the viral pathogenicity and provides for an acid pH–independent fusion of the virus to the
host cell membrane (Morrison, 2003). Thus, infected cells bearing HN and F proteins can fuse with
other adjacent cells forming syncytia visualized as cytoplasmic effects and tissue necrosis caused by
the virus (Baker et al., 1999; Lamb et al., 1992). F–protein is synthesized as a 1792 nucleotide
precursor molecule (F0) that codes for 553 amino acid residues. The enzymatic cleavage by host–
tissue–proteases at position 117 activates it producing a disulphide–linked F1 and F2 polypeptides
oriented at N–and C–terminus respectively of the precursor molecule (de Leeuw et al., 2005; Nagai,
1995). HN and F glycoproteins are the main targets of the immune response that provide
immunoprotection against challenge with virulent strains and thus form antigenic variants selected
in vaccine candidates (Seal et al., 2000; Morrison, 2003). Besides, many mutations have been
identified in the neutralizing epitopes of HN and F gene and this warrants re–evaluation of currently
used vaccines and vaccination practices (Munir et al., 2012).
Classification of Avian Avulavirus serotype–1
The causative agent of ND, is now classified as a species Avian avulavirus
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Case Study : Newcastle Disease Virus
Small Animal Management
SA–1105–201
11/9/2016
Newcastle Disease Virus
Morgan Kyle
Crystal Curico
Andrea Drumbore
Erica Levins
Devan Mazza–McDonald
Rhianna Smith
Kylie Tuller
There was a local hatchery farm who was commonly known for breeding and raising poultry for
food. There were many complaints against the facility about the living conditions for the animals as
well as the safety for the staff. Inspector Joe was called in to investigate the accusations against this
farm hatchery. Upon arrival, the inspector was greeted by the manager of the hatchery and then he
explained to the manager why he was there. Although the manager was reluctant to have an
inspector investigate he proceeded to guide him to where the chickens were located. As soon as the
inspector walked in he saw the animals were being housed in wire crates with feces all over them. It
looked like they had not been cleaned fully for weeks. He took a closer look at the individual cages
and noticed that in some of the drip pans there was greenish discolored diarrhea. This concerned him
a lot. Then he proceeded to observe the chickens. There was discharge coming from their noses and
there were some chickens that were even gasping for air. He even saw a few with a twisted neck and
paralysis as well. He had seen these signs in a few cases before. The inspector had a strong feeling it
was Newcastle disease. While thinking of what other diseases this might possibly be, only a

The Epidemic Of Ebola Virus
Children around the world fear the dark because they do not understand it. Much like a child's fear
of the dark, the panic caused by the Ebola virus is largely due to misunderstanding and is often
blown out of proportion. The Ebola virus is discussed in the media because it generates hysteria,
even though it is nowhere near as threatening as it is often claimed to be. Do not make the
assumption that the virus itself is not lethal, as indeed it is one of the deadlier pathogens in the
world; however, a variety of factors contribute to making the Ebola virus a less than perfect killer; in
order to know why, it is important to understand what exactly the Ebola virus is.
In the most basic sense, Ebola has RNA as its genetic material and belongs to the virus family
Filoviridae, the same family as the Marburg virus. According to Peters and Peters (1999), Marburg
virus was first discovered in 1967. It was the first virus of the Filoviridae family uncovered; Ebola
was the second, being discovered in 1976. Ebola was initially encountered in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, where several outbreaks of Hemorrhagic Fever were documented. Teams
sent to deal with these outbreaks found an almost total cessation of transmission. Survivors,
however, provided an excellent source of data.
The survivors demonstrated that the reason for this cessation was that the virus had killed most of
the medical staff in affected areas. The hospitals in regions such as the Congo are often subpar,

The Ebola virus (EBOV) Essay
1. Introduction
The Ebola virus (EBOV) is a dangerous virus which has a chance of mortality when infected up to
90%. This makes it one of the most deadly viruses for humans in the world. 1, 2 It does not stop
there. Various EBOV outbreaks have fatally infected tens of thousands of chimpan–zees, duikers
and gorillas. It those areas it is a great threat to the wildlife.3
EBOV belongs to the order of the nonsegmented negative–sense (NNS)RNA type viruses, the
Mononegavirales and it is part of the family Filoviridae. EBOV is a member of the genus
Ebolavirus. This genus has five distinct species: Bundibugyo ebolavirus, Zaire ebolavirus, Su–dam
ebolavirus, Taï Forest ebola virus and Reston ebolavirus.4 The Ebola virus should not be confused ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Interferon signaling is the release of proteins by the host cell to communicate to the immune system
that there are pathogens present in the host cell. Second in combination with NP and VP35 it takes
part of the formation of the nu–cleocapsid and third, it is shown that without VP24 there is far les
VP30 in virus–like particles. The last shows VP24 is nessecary for a fully functional
nucleocapsid.13
The polymerase cofactor VP35 is a protein in the nucleocapsid that just as VP24, possesses the
ability to inhibit interferon signaling.14 Also it probably regulates the transcription and
replication.15
VP30 is also in the nucleocapsid and possible has a direct interaction in the transcription of EBOV
RNA. Also it probably regulates replication. 15
The RNA Polymerase L protein is a part of the replication and transcription cycle. It is also believed
that it regulates the enzymatic activities for replication and transcription
The NP plays an central role in virus replication. Also it is necessary, together with VP24 and VP35,
to build nucleocapsid–like structures.6 Although NP is so important for the virus, its exact role is
still unknown.
Figure 1:6 A. This is a schematic diagram of EBOV genome The proteins depicted are the three
prime untranslated region (UTR), nucleoprotein (NP), the viral proteins (VP) 35 and 40, the
glycoprotein (GP), VP30, VP 24, the RNA–dependent RNA polymerase (L) and the five prime
untranslated region.7, 16 The transcription starts at the

Rabies Virus
History of the Virus
The rabies virus is a major public health hazard all around the world, despite the strategies that have
been put in place to fight this infection. It is estimated that the disease kills an average of 35,000
people every year, mostly in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. It is a viral disease which directly
leads to the death of the infected individual or animal. Human beings contract the infection from a
bite from a rabid animal, but human to human transmission normally occurs as a result of organ
transplantations. The rabies virus is all over the globe except a handful of nations in which there are
effective quarantine systems, natural barriers such as rivers and mountains or rigorous eradication of
the disease. By 1995, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The remaining three include the EBLV (European bat lyssavirus) both 1 and 2 and the Australian bat
lyssavirus genotype 7. Other viruses that belong to this genus are the Obodhiang and the Kotonkan
viruses. The genotype one strain of the RABV was discovered to undergo genetic adaptation per
host and the environment. That is why in specific areas, the disease was transmitted by only one host
species (Shantavasinkul et al., 2010). Since the dog or canine is the most widely spread carrier in the
world, it explains why the disease was able to spread worldwide. The canine is the biotype of the
RABV and thus facilitated the spread of the disease. Some novel Lyssaviruses have been identified
as putative genotypes and were found in

Infectious Diseases : Disease Control And Prevention
Introduction The human body is comprised of an abundance of microorganisms that are considered
part of our normal and healthy microbiota.8 Most of these microorganisms are typically not
injurious, but under certain conditions or when a patient is immunocompromised, some
microorganisms may produce infectious diseases.7 Infectious diseases are ailments caused by the
opportunistic pathogens already present in our bodies or other harmful microorganisms that were
acquired from traveling, hospitals, outdoors, or encountering another infected human.8 According to
Woolhouse and Gowtage–Sequeria, there are 1,407 recognized species of human pathogen, 58% of
which are zoonotic and 177 are regarded as emerging or reemerging.13 The leading public health
institute is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and they are responsible for
securing and progressing the health of the public by researching known and identifying new
infectious diseases, preventing and regulating the spread of infectious diseases, providing accurate
information to healthcare communities and to the general public, and implementing strategies to
reinforce our public health system.3 Infectious diseases play a crucial role in public health because
without the knowledge and analysis of them our population would not have the proper information
to assure their health and our healthcare communities would not know what precautions to take
when treating a patient with an infectious disease.3 According to

Tracking the Ebola Virus
These past years I spent my time tracking the virus of Ebola as well as its various strains all over the
world. At first I didn't know of the disease, only of the mysterious deaths. I had heard a rumor of a
man by the name of Monet who had become mysteriously sick with a disease that none have seen.
This information led me to Nairobi, Kenya where the man was supposed to be. When I arrived at
Nairobi Hospital I didn't encounter the man of my search. I questioned a nurse, who asked not to be
named, and she stated "A very sick man named Monet came to the hospital looking very zombie like
and died but not before exploding over the waiting room and the doctors and nurses who were
operating on him. Also Dr. Musoke was infected and is now unconscious." I then started to search
for Dr. Silverstein who had cared for Dr. Musoke. When I found Dr. Silverstein I told him what I
why I was there. Though he was reluctant to reveal information, I convinced him to tell me that Dr.
Musoke was positive for a virus known as Marburg. Apparently He had never heard of Marburg so I
went to investigate. My sources found out that Marburg is an African virus but was first discovered
in Marburg, Germany. In 1967 a factory that was working with African green monkeys from
Uganda. The virus spread throughout the monkeys causing monkeys to crash and bleed out, and
soon after the virus jumped species and infect first a man called Klaus F. The virus spread killing
seven of the thirty one people who were

History Of Ebola
The Fear that Drives Innovation
Society does not learn and grow through age alone, knowledge is cultivated through curiosity and
mistakes. Caveman at first did not understand that fire was not only a source of light, but also for
intense heat. When the first caveman discovered fire and the elusive light that came from the source,
he had to touch. Consequently, he learned that the fire was hot, and if he got too close he would be
burned to a crisp. Medicine has also taken this concept and used it for their own teachings as well.
At first, people did not understand the origin of Ebola, but through devastation and mass panic,
scientists have learned more about modern medicine than they ever had before. This knowledge has
led to the improvement ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ebola was, at first, very hard to label due to the many striking similarities it holds with another
disease named Marburg. Both viruses show very similar traits and symptoms, and can only be
pinpointed at a microscopic scale, which makes it hard to differentiate between the two (Altman
103). Although Ebola has shown to be a very difficult virus to resolve, modern science has
researched and found some information about it. Scientists now know that there are a total of four
strains of the virus, with three affecting humans while only one affects primates (Frey 333). All of
Ebola's strains, along with the other similar disease known as Marburg, all are in the same virus
family dubbed as Filoviridae ("Ebola Virus" 368). Ever since Ebola was found in Africa, scientists
have been working diligently to find a vaccination and hopefully a cure, but their efforts have gone
unsuccessful. Ebola can code the infection into a host with only twelve proteins, which is a
significantly smaller amount than many illnesses today (369). This complication with the virus has
contributed to the reason why there is no cure. Although this is a great detriment to the scientific
community, this has not deterred the search. This has in fact motivated the community to help aid
the infected with supplies and educate villages as to how to be clean and

Research Paper On Ebola Fever
Ebola Fever is a very infectious disease that ravages through the body. Many people have contracted
the Ebola Fever but this one case is special. Her name is Siannie, she is 28– years old, she is a
mother of three and has terrible case of ebola. Her daily life was slow and painful. She thought she
was going to die. With the new vaccine, she was able to enter the ELWA 3 Ebola Treatment Unit in
her town and within a month she was and cured from ebola. When she got back to home she found
out that her husband wants nothing to do with her. Now she has to bring up her kids alone. She was
given a job at the center to help counsel the other patients, but eventually she will be out of work.
Ebola destroys homes, families, and friendships.
Ebola fever ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There was no way to cure ebola until recently. Before the new breakthrough doctors treated people
with ebola by a simple blood transfusion from ebola survivors and the antibodies in their blood
would hopefully kill off the ebola virus. Although this treatment could not cure all cases of ebola, it
did drop the fatality rate from 80 percent to a mere 12.5 percent(K. Mupapa et al.). The reason for
this treatment has still yet to be explained(K. Mupapa et al.). Hannah Nichols who joined MNT with
experience writing medical and health content for patient, health care professional, obstetrician,
gynecologist and midwifery audiences in the specialist area of stem cell processing and research,
has information about this ebola epidemic. The other ways to treat ebola include balancing the
patient's fluids and electrolytes, maintaining their oxygen status and blood pressure, treating a
patient for any complicating infections(Nichols). Ways to prevent ebola include ensuring all health
care workers wear protective clothing (such as masks, gloves, gowns and goggles), implementing
infection–control measures (such as complete equipment sterilization and routine use of
disinfectant), isolation of Ebola patients from contact with unprotected persons(Nichols). There was
no FDA approved vaccine that could be used. Doctors were stuck isolating patients and trying to
balance their body fluids. Since ebola is only contracted from direct contact of body fluids, such as
spit or blood, putting a mask on the patient with ebola could help prevent further spreading of this
disease. But if someone were to get ebola a few years back then they would have to goto the hospital
and be isolated

Rabies Virus Research Paper
Rhabdovirus (rabies) is a viral disease that is transmitted through the saliva or tissues from the
nervous system from an infected mammal to another mammal. It's an RNA virus who's genome
encodes 5 proteins designated as N, P, M, G, and L. The arrangement of these proteins and the RNA
genome determine the structure of the rabies virus. It belongs to the order of mononegavirales which
are virus with a non–segmented negative stranded RNA genome. Under the rhabdoviridae family is
the lyssavirus genus which rabies virus falls under. Rabies is a zoonotic disease (meaning it can be
transmitted between animals and humans).
The target host for this virus are all warm blooded mammals except Lagomorphs (rabbit).The most
common mode of transmission is through the bite and virus–containing saliva of an infected host.
Another form is through contamination of mucous membranes (i.e., eyes, nose, mouth), although
aerosol transmission, and corneal and organ transfer has rarely been documented. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
During this period this newly infected animal does not show symptoms. This said period is called
the incubation period. The rabies virus has a variable of incubation period running from 30 days to
18 months. When the virus eventually reaches the brain it begins to multiply creating an
inflammation and then starts the first sign of rabies. Which is later moved to the salivary glands.
Studies have shown that ferrets, dogs and cat can be excrete this virus in its saliva couple days
before the disease is obvious. The excretion of this virus before and after the beginning of clinical
signs varies because different factors which include the site of exposure, immunity in the bitten
animal and the type of rabies affect

Write An Essay On Ebola Virus
Name: TaLissa Battieste_
Causative Agent: Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever
Disease: Ebola Virus
Classification of the causative agent:
The Ebola virus is a member if the family filoviridae and the order mononegavirales and is the
causative agent of the Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever. These are enveloped viruses that have mini–
genomes consisting of a single RNA molecule of negative or anti–MRNA sense. There are five
different Ebola virus genomes (BDBV, EBOV, RESTV, SUDV and TAFV) that differ in sequence
and the number and location of gene overlaps.
History:
Most cases of the Ebola virus are located on the African continent. It was first identified in a
province of Sudan and in a nearby region of Zaiire in 1976 after significant epidemics in Yambuku
and Nzara, both in Africa. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Different strains of Ebola may have slight changes in their structure, indicating that virulence is
mutagenic. The virus contains a nucleocapsid which gives it some virulence as well.
Mode of transmission:
Ebola is transmitted in humans through the direct contact of blood or bodily fluids of a person
infected with the virus. Examples of these fluids include diarrhea, sweat, vomit, semen, urine, and
breast milk. The virus can enter through breaks in the skin or mucous membranes including the
nose, mouth and eyes. Ebola is not an airborne disease that is transmitted through sneezing and
coughing however large droplets from a person who is sick could be infectious.
Incubation Period of the Disease:
The time interval from infection with the virus to the onset of symptoms, better known as the
incubation period is 2–21 days. The average period is 8–10 days. Humans are not infections until
they develop symptoms. Ebola is an acute viral infection with a rapid onset, brief period of
symptoms and resolution within days.
Signs and

Essay On Classification Of Avian Avulavirus Serotype-1
Classification of Avian Avulavirus serotype–1 The causative agent of ND, is now classified as a
species Avian avulavirus serotype–1 (AAV–1). Recently, the 10th annual International Committee
on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV, EC 48, Budapest, Hungary, August 2016), categorized the virus as a
member of the genus Avulavirus of the paramyxoviridae family (Alexander, 1997) in the order of
mononegavirales (Knipe and Hetsley, 2001; Mayo, 2002; Murphy et al., 1995; Afonso et al., 2016).
The order mononegavirales has undergone several changes in 2017 ICTV report. It's comprised of
eight families hosting viruses with non–segmented, linear, single–stranded and negative–sense
RNA. The designated Paramyxoviridae family is now where the causative agent of ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Several antigenic and genetic diversity are recognized (Aldous et al., 2003; Alexander, 1997; Kim et
al., 2007) using molecular–based techniques for analyzing the genome sizes (Knipe and Hetsley,
2001). The classification schemes adopted for Avian Avulavirus–1, is based on the sequences and
phylogenetic analysis of HN, L, M and F genes and these have been advanced to group isolates
(Aldous et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2010; Pedersen, 2010). Depending on the
researcher's preference, nominal differences arise in the grouping of isolates. Using genotypes or
genetic lineages proposed by Aldous et al., Avian Avulavirus–1 is placed in serotype–1 with six
lineages and 13 sublineages (AVV–1) (Aldous et al., 2003), to which three other sublineages were
added (Snoeck, et al 2009). Most ND vaccines are grouped under Class II, genotype I and II while
genotype III – X are velogenic that might be used as challenge viruses in vaccination experiments.
Using the genome size scheme, Avian Avulavirus–1 is placed into six lineages (1 to 6) (Alexander
and Senne, 2008). Detailed analysis reveals sub–lineages in lineage 3 and 4 (a to d) and in lineage 5
(a to e). On the other hand, using genomic characterization and restriction site mapping of HN, F
and L

Essay about The Ebola Virus
The Ebola Haemorrahagic Fever, or Ebola for short, was first recognized as a virus in 1967. The
first breakout that caused the Ebola virus to be recognized was in Zaire with 318 people infected and
280 killed. There are five subtypes of the Ebola virus, but only four of them affect humans. There
are the Ebola–Zaire, Ebola–Sudan, Ebola–Ivory Coast and the Ebola–Bundibugyo. The fifth one,
the Ebola–Reston, only affects nonhuman primates. The Ebola–Zaire was recognized on August 26,
1976 with a 44 year old schoolteacher as the first reported case. The Ebola–Sudan virus was also
recognized in 1976 and was thought to be that same as Ebola–Zaire and it is thought to have broken
out in a cotton factory in the Sudan. The Ebola–Ivory Coast was ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Along with the easy which the Ebola virus spreads, the symptoms that go along with the virus make
it difficult for doctors to treat and diagnose. The symptoms of Ebola are a fever, headache, joint and
muscle aches, vomiting, stomach pain, sore throat, diarrhea, weakness and occasionally read eyes,
rashes, hiccups, and internal and external bleeding and since these symptoms are not specific to
Ebola, it is difficult to clinically diagnose and can often be confused with other viruses. The ELISA
testing, short for enzyme–linked immunosorbent assay, and virus isolation are a couple of examples
of the types of laboratory testing that can be done to diagnose and Ebola patient. Because of how
easily it can be transmitted, it is extremely difficult to treat and there is no approved, official
treatment. As of now, there is not standard treatment but usually the patients are given fluids and
oxygen, have their blood pressure monitored and other necessary treatment. To prevent transmission
and spreading the virus, the doctors use extreme caution and wear head to toe protective gear and
isolate the patient. Even though the Ebola virus is common in Africa, there has been no known
outbreak in the United States. Another difficulty facing scientists and the treatment for Ebola is that
the natural reservoir for the virus unknown. The natural reservoir of a virus is it's long term host of
the

Rabies Is A Virus?
Rabies belongs to the order Mononegavirales, family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus. (7) Six other
lyssaviruses also cause rabies (Lagos Bat, Mokola Virus, Duvenhage Virus, European Bat Virus 1 &
2, and Australian Bat Virus). (7) This is not, however, an exhaustive list as public health experts
suspect other pathogens will be discovered. (7) Because rabies is a virus (and not a bacterium), this
microbe is neither gram positive nor negative.
Microscopic Appearance
Under a microscope, Lyssavirus looks like a bullet shaped porcupine. The virus is a negative–sense,
single–stranded RNA, approximately 180 nm in length and 75 nm wide. (8) The genome includes
five proteins: L (transcriptase), N (nucleoprotein), NS (transcriptase–associated), matrix protein (M)
and a lipid–containing envelope. (8) Together, these proteins perform various roles within the
ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex and the viral envelope. Combined with the viral RNA, the N, L,
and NS proteins form the RNP complex. (8) The M protein allows viral budding (helping the virus
to exit the host cell) and gives rabies its bullet–shaped morphology (physical form). (8) The G
protein produces virus–neutralizing antibody (which help defend the cell from the host's immune
system). The G protein also surrounds the viral envelope with spikes that assist with attachment to
other cells. (8) The internal ribonucleokapsid is helical (three dimensionally curved) in shape and
includes the proteins N, polymerase L and P. This

The Current Outbreak Of Ebolavirus
On the 8th of August 2014 the World Health Organisation declared the current outbreak of
Ebolavirus to be an international health emergency. This epidemic is the largest ever seen of the
disease, and is located in West Africa – particularly in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. At present
it has led to over 5,000 deaths, with more than 14,000 people having been infected.
Ebola virus disease (EVD) has been portrayed by some as a major threat to health outside of West
Africa, though this is disputed. There is currently no fully tested prophylaxis nor treatment available,
and the disease has a relatively high case fatality rate. The combination of these factors has resulted
in the disease being prominently discussed in the media around the world, and has generated a large
amount of public interest. The question we are addressing is what would possibly lead to an
outbreak in Europe, and discussing the controls and surveillance presently employed.
Background of the virus
EVD is a disease predominantly affecting humans and other primates. It is caused by members of
the Ebolavirus genus in the Filoviridae family, which are single stranded RNA viruses. There are
five species of Ebolavirus, with the current outbreak being caused by Zaire Ebolavirus (ZEBV). The
different species vary in their fatality rates and geographical distributions (2).
The present outbreak began in a village called Guedecko (????) Guinea, with the disease quickly
spreading to the capital, Conakry, as well

Ebola Virus Disease ( Evd )
Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. EVD outbreaks have a case
fatality rate of up to 90%. Ebola first appeared on July 27, 1976, the very first person to contract the
Ebola virus began to show symptoms. Ten days later he was dead. The latter was in a village
situated near the Ebola River, from which the disease takes its name., with a total of 602 reported
cases and 431 deaths. The first victim to contract Ebola was a cotton factory worker from Nzara,
Sudan. Soon after this first man came down with symptoms, so did his co–worker. Then the co–
worker 's wife became sick. The outbreak quickly spread to the Sudanese town of Maridi, where
there was a hospital. Since no one in the medical field had ever seen this illness before, it took them
awhile to realize that it was passed by close contact. By the time the outbreak had subsided in the
Sudan, 284 people had become ill, 151 of whom had died.
On September 1, 1976, another, even more deadly, outbreak of Ebola struck – this time in Zaire. The
first victim of this outbreak was a 44–year–old teacher who had just returned from a tour of northern
Zaire. After suffering from symptoms that seemed like malaria, this first victim went to the
Yambuku Mission Hospital and received a shot of an anti–malarial drug. Unfortunately, at that time
the hospital did not use disposable needles nor did they properly sterilize the ones they used. Thus,
the Ebola virus spread through used needles to many of the hospital

Essay On Lyssavirus
Syndrome recognition and notification "Rabies virus, the type species of the genus Lyssavirus of the
family Rhabdoviridae, order Mononegavirales, is the causative agent of rabies" (Detrick, et al.,
2006).
This bullet–shaped, enveloped RNA virus is one of the most formidable, zoonotic, neurologic
diseases due to the prognosis almost invariably fatal in both humans and animals. Rabies is a
genotype 1 Lyssavirus and can be found throughout the world, with the exception of Taiwan,
Australia, New Zealand, Iceland, the United Kingdom, Japan, the majority of Western Europe, Fiji,
Hawaii and Guam (Sykes, 2014).
Classical rabies is the most prevalent strain of rabies, endemic to more than 150 countries
worldwide and responsible for more than 55,000 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Australian bat Lyssavirus is very similar to that of rabies and has been responsible for the death of
three humans since it was detected in 1996. All three cases were in the state of Queensland after
they were reportedly bitten or scratched by bats infected with ABLV. The existence of ABLV does
not affect the rabies–free status and there have been no known cases of the rabies virus occurring in
terrestrial mammals (NSW Government Health, 2016). There are seven genotypes of Lyssaviruses,
belonging to the family Rhabdoviridae, known to exist worldwide; however, through experimental
inoculation, dogs and cats have shown a relative insusceptibility to bat–derived Lyssavirus as
opposed to inoculation with terrestrial rabies virus strains. This suggests differences in mammalian
infections with bat–derived Lyssavirus to that of terrestrial strains (Greene, 2012).
Lyssaviruses Belonging to the Family Rhabdoviridae (Greene, 2012)
Genotype Description of strains (Abbreviations) Geographic Location (Reservoir Hosts)
1 Classical rabies virus, including street and fixed varieties Worldwide, terrestrial (carnivores and

Rabies Virus Research Paper
Ms. Rhodenizer Advanced Biology 11 April 2016 The Rabies Virus For many people, being outside
in the great outdoors can be very fun and relaxing. It can be a time to get away from your busy
schedule, a constant work routine, or simply just to get some fresh air. There are numerous activities
and projects an individual could possibly do outside. Including playing sports, hunting, hiking and
even just relaxing. Many times though, when people are outside in contact with nature, they are also
in contact with various animals. Even though animals can be cute, cuddly and even resourceful, they
can still be very dangerous. Animals can be dangerous if they have been exposed to a certain type of
virus or disease than can be transferred from animals ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is well described in writings by Egyptians dating back to 2300 B.C.In the earlier part of this
century, New Jersey had a large problem with canine rabies. In 1939, the worst year for recorded
cases of dog rabies, 675 dogs and four humans died of rabies. In 1942, a rabies program focused on
the mass vaccination of dogs and pick–up of stray animals was initiated. As a result of these efforts,
New Jersey experienced its last case of the canine rabies strain in 1956. In 1960, the first case of
rabies in bats was detected in the State. Since 1966, the number of rabid bats per year has ranged
from 20 to 55 and between 2% and 5% of the bats submitted to the state laboratory for testing were
positive for rabies." The rabies virus has been around for a long time and they have been almost all
over the

The Ebola Virus Essay
Disease name Ebola hemorrhagic fever (Ebola HF)
Four identified subtypes of Ebola: (4)
· Ebola–Zaire, Ebola–Sudan, Ebola–Ivory Coast (cause disease in humans)
· Ebola–Reston (cause disease in non–human primates only) Means of Transmission Person–to–
person transmission
Direct contact of blood, secretions, semen, vomit, diarrhea (1) or organs of infected person
Sexually transmitted – "Transmission through semen may occur up to 7 weeks after clinical
recovery, as with Marburg haemorrhagic fever." (2)
Direct contact of deceased body at burial ceremonies (3)
Indirect Contact: touching contaminated objects such as needles
Aerosol transmission:
"Not implicated in human outbreaks, although transmission in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They, like humans, are believed to be infected directly from the natural reservoir or through a chain
of transmission from the natural reservoir." (3) Etiological agent: Filoviridae
"Together with Marburg virus, Ebola makes up the family Filoviridae, of the order Mononegavirales
( the non–segmented, negative–sense, single–stranded RNA viruses" (5)
Four identified subtypes of Ebola: (4)
· Ebola–Zaire, Ebola–Sudan, Ebola–Ivory Coast (cause disease in humans)
· Ebola–Reston (cause disease in non–human primates only) General Characteristics: Appearance:
thin and filamentous; comma shaped or branched (1)
"Both Ebola and Lassa virus exhibit the following characteristics: (5)
· insensitivity to antiviral effects of INF
· dominant role of cellular immunity in recovery
· highly glycosylated proteins affecting immune recognition
· moderate cytopathic effects after isolation in mammalian cell culture
· proclivity for infecting macrophages
· immunosuppressive effects following infection

The Filoviridae Family Corresponds To The Order Of...
The filoviridae family corresponds to the order of Mononegavirales. This growing family of
pathogens are filamentous, enveloped viruses with a genome that is negative–stranded RNA (1
& 2). This family is known to be one of the most pathogenic viruses affecting humans and is mostly
found in bats (their main reservoirs) (3 & 4). It is believed that these viruses are transmitted from
person to person through body fluids or through objects that have been previously contaminated
with body fluids (5). After transmission and incubation period (three to
21 days), the initial symptoms are headache, fever, vomiting and diarrhea. After, the virus may cause
viraemia, coagulopathy, haermoorhagic fever and liver/ multi–organ failure; which in many cases ...
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The envelopes of EBOV and MARV are composed of glycoproteins (GP). GP are essential for the
entry of the viruses into the host cell by attaching to its cell surface (10). GP is a homotrimer of GP1
(membrane protein) – GP2 (transmembrane protein) heterodimer linked by disulfide bonds (11 &
12). The mechanism on how GP1 and GP2 drive the introduction of the virus into the host cell is not
well understood yet (7). However, it is known that is characterized by three steps: attachment,
uptake, and membrane fusion (7). GP1 is involved in adhesion of the receptor with the host cell
surface, whereas GP2 is involved in the virus–host cell membrane fusion and entry (13). In most
cases GP1 is believed to bind to different glycosaminoglycans
(GAG) from the host cell i.e. heparin sulfate, to be able to efficiently enter the host cell (2).
GAGs are negative, unbranched polysaccharides found in mostly all cells surfaces but differ in
composition between species (4). It is believed that GAGs are not the only possible way of
attachment for filoviruses to the host surface, meaning that there are other host factors that aid in
viral entry (2). After attachment, virions get into the host cell through micropinocytosis followed by
endosome trafficking which leads to membrane fusion (7). A low pH due to the endosomal events is
what leads to the initiation of membrane fusion (7).
G protein–coupled receptors (GPCR) are the biggest and most diverse family of protein in

Diagnosis And Therapeutic Strategies Of Ebola Virus
From the first outbreak in DRC in 1976 to the recent epidemic in West Africa (2013 – 2015), there
has been a considerable amount of research done to further the development of the diagnosis and
therapeutic strategies of the Ebola virus. Methods for detecting the virus have improved drastically.
From the initial stage of simply identifying the virus as a whole, diagnosis can now define the
specific species of the virus. Diagnosis processes developed over the years are those that involve
Cell Culture, Antibody Detection, Protein Antigen Detection, Conventional RT–PCR, and Real Time
RT–PCR, which is the current standard for EVD diagnosis. In terms of the therapeutic process, there
is still no cure or vaccine that has been approved or cleared for use on human patients with EVD.
The therapy hence largely depends on the immunity of the patient and general treatment of
symptoms as they occur.
INTRODUCTION
EBOV (Ebola virus) is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the family Filoviridae; under the
electron microscope, it appears filamentous (Strong, et al. 2006). The genus Ebolavirus comprises of
five EBOVs; EBOV being identified as the causative agent of the recent outbreak (Broadhurst,
Brooks & Pollock, 2016). Ebola virus disease is caused by three Ebolaviruses – EBOV included. In
humans, the disease is clinically characterized by severe hemorrhagic fever with a 90% fatality rate.
Since its first outbreak (largely in Zaire and Sudan) in the 1970s, two more outbreaks have been

Ebola Virus Chapter Summary
This book took place in the late 1980's, and it is based upon an outbreak of the Ebola virus in a
monkey house located in the Washington, D.C. suburb of Reston, Virginia. The first occurrence of
an Ebola–like virus (Marburg) takes place in Kenya and a French expatriate named Charles Monet is
the first to die from this disease. His terrible and excruciatingly fatal death is described in the most
horrific details by Preston. The hospital staff who treated Monet became infected with the virus as
well, traveling fast throughout the hospital and carried on more deaths. The Marburg virus was first
to explode in a vaccine factory in Germany in 1967. Over the next several chapters, the book
describes outbreaks that occurred four years before Monet's death. Preston then goes on to
explaining how ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some of the people who were infected first in the story were visiting a site in Kenya called Kitum
Cave. A U.S. scientific expedition goes there in hopes of finding the origins of these viruses.
Unfortunately for the U.S. scientists and military, the mission is unsuccessful, but the doctor who
put the expedition together was able to stow the equipment used when the cave was treated as a Hot
Zone. This experience and equipment made the eventual decontamination project at Reston possible.
The story ends with the book's author visiting Kitum Cave to explore the place that is still suspected
to be home to Ebola's host. Through all his research and writing on the book, he has learned how to
keep himself as safe as possible during his explorations. Rather than searching for the actual origin
of the virus, however, he is searching for the origin of the story. It's scary to think that this has
happened in our own society, and one little mistake can go a long, horrific road. Always remember
to vaccinate and keep your immune system strong, because you never know what dangers are
coming your

Avian Paramyxovirus
). In the current virus taxonomy NDV, or avian paramyxovirus type 1 (APMV–1), is classified with
the other avian paramyxoviruses, in the genus Avulavirus, sub–family Paramyxovirinae, family
Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales (Lamb et al., 2005). All APMVs, except avian
metapneumovirus, are classified in the genus Avulavirus of the family Paramyxoviridae and are
divided into nine serological types (APMV 1–9) (Nayak et al., 2008). In 2007 in survey A.I program
the biological, serological, and genomic characterization of a paramyxovirus recently isolated from
Rockhopper Penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) suggested that this virus represented a new APMV
group, APMV10. This penguin virus resembled other APMVs by electron microscopy but, its viral
HA activity was not inhibited by antisera against any of the nine defined APMV serotypes. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This isolate, named APMV10/penguin/Falkland Islands/324/2007, be the prototype virus for
APMV10 (Miller et al., 2010). During A.I monitoring program in 2010, isolation of HA virus from
cloacal swabs in 9–11 days S.P.F eggs collected from live common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) but
was not an AI virus. The virus was negative by HI test using reference antisera against APMV–1 to
APMV–10 (except APMV–5, which was not available).Sequence analysis(Accession number
JQ886184) from this new APMV suggested that editing in the P gene is the same as shown with
mumps or simian virus 5. For these viruses, the P gene encodes V mRNA, and the addition of one or
two non templated G residues in the editing site produces W or P mRNA,

A Essay About A Hole
A Hole in my Heart In this image I see my family gather together near my sister's casket. If we look
even closer, we will notice that everyone is not crying, but is putting a smiling face. It feels as if
everything was already even though it hurt inside. It almost seems that we can hear my sister saying,
"Everything will be okay, I am still near you." I chose this photo because one, it depicts year I will
be writing about and it's when my sister passed away. This photo is very important to me because
even though all of my family members weren't all there, we will were able to take one last photo
with my sister. This is the year twenty fourteen. I chose to write my inquiry paper about this year
because not only that it put a whole in my heart with what happened to my sister, but a lot of people
the world were lost because of a disease outbreak, and loosing of a comedic actor. It was an
important year in my life because my world turned upside down with the lost of my sister. It was big
change after lost her. In the year twenty fourteen, I never knew in my life that it would be the
beginning of a fall in my family. We never knew that a piece of us would be torn away so quickly.
Out of all the things that had happened in my life. The most heartbreaking was the moment that my
sisters pulse slowly started to decrease. At the time six ten am was the exact moment my heart broke
into tiny pieces. I knew there wasn't any other way to get her back, I knew that it was it. Before the

Mononegavirales: The Agent Of Ebola Disease
There are diseases that can spread person to person. These are called infectious diseases. Ebola is
one of them. Ebola is a very dangerous disease that is life threatening. A bacteria called
Mononegavirales is the agent of ebola, or the one that carry and spread the disease. Fruit bats and
humans are host of Ebola. People believe that bats caught the disease and then humans ate those bats
and humans then caught the disease. Younger or older people can catch this disease. This disease
was found in West Africa and in lives in hot or warm climates.
Mononegavirales is the agent of Ebola. Mononegavirales is a very dangerous bacteria. ¨The order
Mononegavirales is the taxonomic home of numerous related viruses. Members of the order that are
commonly known are, for instance, Ebola virus, human respiratory syntactical virus, measles virus,
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Humans are the ones that carry the disease. The disease can kill the host/human. Ebola is extremely
rare. There has been zero cases in the U.S. Ebola affects all ages and even animals. If you have it
you can not be near anyone until you do not have it anymore. If you have it and you go out you can
infect others. Some people die from the disease so sometimes that can leave until they die.
The environment of Ebola is in West Africa. It lives in hot and warm climates. The disease first
came from fruit bats that some people ate and then caught the disease. If it is in a cold climate it will
not be able to live for a while. The reason it is in Africa is because Africa is a warm and hot place so
it would be a perfect place for Ebola to live.
Ebola is an infectious disease that can take lives. If you have it you can't be the rest of the people
until it is gone or you die. So if you get it it can be life threatening. It can be bad for people that have
been close to someone that has caught the disease because you have a chance that you have the
disease. So Ebola is a very bad disease that anybody can

The Four Families of the Filovirus Ebola
The filovirus Ebola consists of 4 families: Marburg, Ebola Zaire, Ebola Sudan, and Ebola Reston. It
is a rather simple virus in structure; each contain a single strand RNA strand and 7 different proteins,
3 which are only slightly understood and 4 that are completely unknown. The virus harms the
immune system like the HIV virus, but Ebola causes an explosive attack. The virus is associated
with the measles and mumps family, pneumonia viruses, parainfluenza viruses which include colds,
and respiratory system related viruses. Unlike common viruses which are ball–shaped, Ebola's shape
represents that similar to a shepherd's crook, a long snake–like thread that looks like a worm.
Because the Ebola virus has a distinct structure, it has been classified as a "thread virus" in its own
family of viruses, the filoviruses.
Meet the sisters:
Marburg– (1st discovered)
She originated from an African organism but received a German name. First identified in an old city
of central Germany in 1967, Marburg devastated the town, killing 1 out of 4 victims and causing
effects that resembled rabies. Scientists analyzed the virus structure and found strands and strands of
tangled rope, some wrapped in looks similar to donuts. In this way, for some time, Marburg was
called stretched rabies, its worm–like shapes stretched out unlike the rabies virus which is bullet–
shaped.
Effects–
Marburg attacks human tissue like nuclear radiation, damaging the nervous system and especially
the brain. Victims

Microbial Infections
Introduction The hypothesis about microbial infections as origin of mental disorders has long been
discussed and recently been enhanced in case of the pathogenesis of schizophrenia (Krause, et al.
2010). It is known that environmental factors and genetic predisposition contribute to such disease
episodes (Gershon, et al. 1987; Tsuang, et al. 2001). Borna disease virus (BDV) might represent
such a cofactor (Bode 1995; Bode, et al. 1995). This virus has been found worldwide and has been
discussed to be occasionally zoonotic (Bode and Ludwig 2003; Ludwig and Bode 2000; Richt and
Rott 2001). It is non–cytolytic, causing persistent infections, with predilection sides in old brain
areas (limbic system); it replicates in the nucleus of (preferentially) neurons and infects a variety of
animal species (Liu, et al. 2014; Ludwig, et al. 1988). The virus has a single–stranded, non–
segmented genome (less than 10kb) and is of negative polarity. A new family Bornaviridae within
the order Mononegavirales has been created (De La Torre, et al. 1996; Mazaheri–Tehrani, et al.
2014; Sauder, et al. 1996; Zocher, et al. 2000). Recently, the finding of endogenous Borna–like N
protein elements (EBLNs) pointed to its ancient existence (Belyi, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Gaziano 2011). No information on BDV infections exists in East European countries by the use of
these sensitive test systems. The aim of the following study was to test Lithuanian in–patients with
primary psychosis upon their admission to the mental hospital for BDV parameters (CIC and Ag),
and to compare the data with those of blood donors regarded as controls. Furthermore, to evaluate
whether psychiatric symptoms among in–patients would correlate with BDV–specific CIC and Ag
in comparison to those without such

Health Case Study
results in death or survival with no disabilities so there are no other methods of prevention to
discuss.
The primary issue with EVD is that the locations in which this disease usually appears is not
prepped for the rapid treatment and management of many of these cases. The patients are
hypovolemic, vomiting, require constant aid to prevent hyper–perfusion of the organs and all the
while require PPE (Bah et al., 2015). Not only is this strenuous on any health–care personnel, it
requires intense staffing, education, and proper screening methods that will target and isolate cases
as they appear. The most important intervention here for survival is rehydration using anti–emetics,
IV fluids and anti–diarrheal medications (Bah et al., 2015). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The mode of transmission is either wild animal contact with humans or human to human contact
(Gidado et al., 2015). In the second cornerstone of this model, the host, there are two facets to
discuss. The non–human host is primarily the Pteropodidae fruit bat, which is a natural EVD host
(WHO, 2017). It was found that the process of bringing fruit bats back to eat may have exposed
humans to the virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Leroy et al., 2015). The host that can
resist the disease more with humoral and cell–mediated responses earlier on has a higher chance for
survival (Lee et al., 2008).
The third and final cornerstone of the model highlights the agent's environment that allows it to
survive. While on dry surfaces, Ebolavirus has been known to only survive for a couple of hours,
there are bodily fluids like saliva, breastmilk, stool, and tears that can maintain the survival for days
(Bausch, 2007). One of the most prevalent forms of transmission is through semen and other
sexually transmitted fluids. There was ebolavirus found in some cases of semen up to 90 days after
onset of the disease (Bausch, 2007). Sexually transmitted fluids and blood accounted for in direct
contact is primarily the method by which the ebolavirus can survive and essentially procreate and
spread (Bausch, 2007). Other environmental factors incorporate the fruit bat population; having an
influx or

Deadly Ebola Virus
Most people would say that there are two different versions of viruses. One version of viruses
infects people's computers and completely ruins them (which personally happens to me way to
often, by the way), but the other version of viruses is a lot more deadly. These viruses affect all sorts
of living things and could cause them to get very sick. Viruses replicate themselves inside an
organism's living cells and they then spread to other organisms. Viruses usually spread in a similar
fashion to how if you have the flu and you cough on somebody, then they will get sick as well.
According to a website called Virology Blog, we do not consider viruses to be living things because,
quite frankly, viruses are passive and do not fit the definition ... Show more content on
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The Rabies virus is, along with the Ebola virus, in Group V and the Mononegavirales order. The
Rabies virus is also in the Rhabdoviridae family and the Lyssavirus genus. According to Wikipedia,
the Rabies virus can affect both humans and animals. The Rabies virus can spread by organisms
coming into contact with the saliva of an animal that has the Rabies virus. This could also work with
the saliva of a human that has the Rabies virus, but it is a little bit less common. How the Rabies
virus spreads was first discovered in the year 1932, when a Government Bacteriologist from
Trinidad in the West Indies named Joseph Lennox Pawan found out that vampire bats that had the
Rabies virus could actually spread the Rabies virus to other animals and humans. The Rabies virus
itself was first discovered about a year before this and by the same Government Bacteriologist,
Joseph Lennox Pawan. In September 1931, he discovered sharply outlined pathognomonic inclusion
bodies called Negri bodies, named after an Italian pathologist named Adelchi Negri, in the brain of a
bat with unusual habits and

The Hot Zone by Richard Preston
The Hot Zone, by Richard Preston, is a non–fiction story about the deadly virus (Ebola) spreading
throughout the world. Certain strains of this virus are 90% fatal, and cause horrible symptoms, such
as facial drooping, muscle aches, reddened eyes, and puking. The Ebola virus was traced back to a
man named Charles Monet. After Monet, the virus spread rapidly, and it was leaving no survivors.
Charles Monet was a Frenchman who moved to western Kenya, Africa, and worked for a sugar
factory. Monet mostly kept to himself, and he spent most of his time with prostitutes. On New Year's
Day, in 1980, Charles and one of his "mistresses" went on a hike up Mount Elgon. The two parked
down in a valley, just below a cave, known as Kitum Cave. They went into the cave to explore, and
eventually came across a pillar filled with bats. The bats were insect eaters, and they excreted
'guano', an ooze of digested insects. Perhaps Monet put his hand in the guano. Monet went back to
work at the factory, and as he was there, a form of foreign life was duplicating itself inside of
Monet's body. On January 8th, Charles experienced a throbbing headache. As the days progressed,
his headache would not go away. On the third day of his migraine, he began to show other
symptoms, such as vomiting, high fever, and he even had mental changes; he began to act lifeless
and passive. When one of his co–workers went to go check on him and realized the state that Monet
was in, he took him to a private hospital on

A Short History Of Disease Chapter Summary
As the second part of this reflection paper, I selected a book 'A Short History of Disease' by Sean
Martin. He is a writer and filmmaker also known for his other famous books like The Knights
Templar, Alchemy and alchemists, the Gnostics. His films include Lanterna Magicka: Bill Douglas
& the secret history of cinema. The most alluring thing which conceives me to cull this book is a
history of the disease, as a medical professional, it's always tantalizing to know from where all these
begins and this book reaches up to my expectations as it started from the first ever recorded disease
in the history of mankind. He isn't lying when he say this a history of the disease. He starts from the
earliest bacteria to evolve on the earth, long before there was anything around to infect. This book is
divided into seven chapters, each chapter describes the history of diseases in a particular era.
Chapter One: Prehistory, Chapter Two: Antiquity, Chapter Three: The Dark and Middle Ages,
Chapter Four: The New World, Chapter ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Smallpox believed to be brought by a Portuguese explorer in 1506 who also bring tuberculosis. This
disease brings to America by African slaves which kill more than half of the population of Indians,
from there this disease spread to Mexico, Colombia, Cuba, Peru, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and
Yucatan. In the 17th century, this disease spread to North America killing large numbers of people.
Great pox which is known as syphilis nowadays is another disease after smallpox which dominates
this era. This disease is supposed to be traveled with a crew of Columbus who introduce this disease
in Europe. This disease traveled to India with Vasco de Gama who also introduce the world with a
new type of skin disease which is known as scurvy. Another disease which shows its glimpse is
epilepsy. Arabs consider it as 'divine disease' and Babylonian consider it was caused by 'touch of

The Horror Of The Zombie Apocalypse
The zombie apocalypse, a scenario everyone has thought of at some point. The zombie virus is a
disease that can spread quickly through the population and causes the dead to reanimate and cause a
hunger for flesh. Abnormal behavior, agitation, terror, and delirium can also be used to describe a
zombie, but are actually some symptoms of Rabies. Now, Rabies does not reanimate the dead, but it
does change the personality of the organism it infects to an aggressive one. In this essay, I will
explore the history, symptoms, and causes of Rabies. Rabies is a viral disease that causes severe
swelling of the brain in humans and other mammals (Prabhavathy, H., & Palanivel, K. M. 2015).
Rabies is caused by lyssaviruses and is spread when a diseased animal cuts or bites another
mammal. Bat bites are the most common source of rabies in humans, in the Americas, less than five
percent are caused by dogs (Prabhavathy, H., & Palanivel, K. M. 2015). With an extensive treatment
known as the Milwaukee protocol, few people have survived the rabies infection after the
manifestation of the symptoms (Prabhavathy, H., & Palanivel, K. M. 2015).
The rabies virus is the type species of the Lyssavirus genus, in the family Rhabdoviridae, order
Mononegavirales. Once within a muscle or nerve cell, the virus begins to duplicate (Jinyang, Z.,
Qinqin, H., Yuzhu, S., Qiang, C., & Xueshan, X 2015). The spikes on the membrane of the virus
intermingle with a particular cell receptor, acetyl (Jinyang, Z.,

Analysis Of Avian Avulavirus

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