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- 1. CHAPTER 3 (Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development)
- 2. In the study of human development and the complex changes that occur in each of the stages, it is necessary to have set of explanations that will guide one's understanding and the interest to particular phenomenon. Theories about human development depending on its intention can offer description, prediction, rationalization, and justification on those that are happening within the individual brought about by factors that have identified. Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development
- 3. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1. Learning Paradigm 2. Socio Cultural Theories 3. Ethology 4. System Approach
- 4. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm a. Classical Conditioning b. Operant Conditioning c. Social Cognitive Learning Theory
- 5. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm learning theories work on the assumption that people undergo the stages of development through the process of interaction with one's environment via observation, conditioning reward, and punishment system.
- 6. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm learning theories work on the assumption that people undergo the stages of development through the process of interaction with one's environment via observation, conditioning reward, and punishment system. Ex. children eventually develop high level of appreciation in reading books (early literacy) due to the deliberate reward system by parents.
- 7. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm a. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning explains human development based on the pairing of two stimuli which lead to a learned behavior (response). With the association of classical conditioning with behavioral orientation, it largely denies the influence of cognitive and affective processes in development of behavior. Observable responses are the one’s given much attention.
- 8. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm a. Classical Conditioning A.Classical conditioning explains human development based on the pairing of two stimuli which lead to a learned behavior (response). With the association of classical conditioning with behavioral orientation, it largely denies the influence of cognitive and affective processes in development of behavior. Observable responses are the one’s given much attention. Since children's initial responses are reflexive or automatic they are considered as unconditional response (UR). this response is expected to be aroused when a specific stimulus is presented which Pavlov called the unconditional stimulus (US). it is called unconditional (stimulus and response) since it has not been paired with other stimuli or response
- 9. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm b. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning explains development based on the association of responses. The response that follows another response is an important predictor of this association.
- 10. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 1) Learning Paradigm c. Social Cognitive Learning Theory Social cognitive learning theory assumes that development is centered with one's interaction with other people. Imitation and modeling are central in the premise of bandura as to the learning new behavior.
- 11. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 2) Socio Cultural Theories a. Social Cultural Theory of Lev Vgotsky b. The Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget
- 12. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 2) Socio Cultural Theories This perspective highlights the influence of the collective experiences of people found in the same cultural orientation. It assumes the centrality of culture such as language and communication as well as social norms in the developmental process.
- 13. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 2) Socio Cultural Theories a. Social Cultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky An iconic concept that he introduced was the zone of proximal development which identifies the gap between assist and non assist development of children's cognition.
- 14. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 2) Socio Cultural Theories b. The Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget highlights the cognitive stimulation that adults provide in the movement through stage of cognitive development-sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
- 15. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 3) Ethology a. Konrad Lorenz b. Attachment Theories
- 16. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 3) Ethology Ethology- evolutionary and social-biological - This perspective accounts for two interacting factors that explains human development. These are genetics and adaptation to one's changing environment. due to the process of maturation inherited characteristics and fold according to one's readiness.
- 17. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 3) Ethology a. Konrad Lorenz he was able to discover how animals are able to develop behavioral patterns which have adaptive values for one's survival. he believes that species are genetically constructed in order to specifically process certain information.
- 18. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 3) Ethology b. Attachment Theories Attachment theories such as John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Melanie Klein we're also inspired by the ethology perspective. the basic tenant of attachment theory is that children develop a sense of emotional bond with the immediate care given most especially two mothers which becomes a prototype in developing social connection in the future. the ability to initiate sustained and social relationship are based on quality of initial relationship the mother has established.
- 19. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 4) System Approach a. The Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner b. The Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner
- 20. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 4) System Approach This perspective aims to put an integrated view about human development. integrated two looks at into all the possible factors genes cultures and learning as fused in explaining the changes across lifespan.
- 21. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 4) System Approach a. The Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner A. the contextualism theory of Richard Lerner can be considered as one of the most influential personality most especially during the establishment of this school of thought. Lerner highlights the embeddedness off the organism or the individual within the contex.
- 22. PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: 4) System Approach b. The Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner In the field of human developmental science in his proposition there are four system that work in the development of an individual. These are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the latest additional was the chronosystem.
Editor's Notes
- Jamila Hakima B. Umpa, LPT Development - kaunlaran
- phenomenon(Kababalaghan/hindi pangkaraniwang bagay). …these are essentials in identifying appropriate actions most especially in developing instructional materials and conducting learning assessment. although theories have different premises(lugar) and assumptions(palagay) they are having similarities as well as allowing them to form a school of thought with regards to the experience and process of development. for instance, a set of theories explain how people develop cognitive(nagbibigay malay) abilities, the changes that have in between these stages, and the elements found to contribute in this development. cross-culturally validate(patunayan) existing knowledge and identify the context by which these knowledge can be appreciated have become essentially the focus of human development scientist. Also it is becoming more prominent that interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach have been taking place in recent researches. Interdisciplinary- relating to more than one branch of knowledge. Multidisciplinary- combining or involving several academic disciplines or professional specializations. Crossing section
- peridaym
- 1 learning paradigm learning theories work on the assumption that people undergo the stages of development through the process of interaction with one's environment via observation, conditioning reward, and punishment system. The extent by which stimuli are associated with one another leading to thebacquisition and modification of behaviour is the primary cause of development. this process may be conceived in either intentional or unintentional experience. for instance children eventually develop high level of appreciation in reading books (early literacy) due to the deliberate reward system by parents. the favorable consequences of such behavior lead to constantly engaging and such activity. on the other hand stimulus response relationship may be established without conscious and tension to do so. Teachers without noticing it may frequently say how mathematics can be difficult. Consequently children develop negative perception and eventually attitude towards that subject. the major premise of learning theories generally revolves around the understanding of the relationship of stimulus and response. the relationship of the two affecting the development of the learner may be complicated rather than simple linear. there could be numerous stimuli present in one's environment where one's change in behavior leading to development may be associated with. Classrooms for instance that has many cognitively stimulatingdecorations may facilitate learning aside from the instructional strategies and effort of the teachers and once interaction with classmates. hence learned behavior (response) as a result of presentation of stimuli can be associated with those that present in the specific environment. using learning paradigma therefore requires a systematic identification of a stimulus or stimuli that can influence directly or indirectly in the development of an individual. in order for teachers to be effective in influencing the development of learners whichever domain mistake conscious actions in doing so.
- assumption(palagay) …The extent by which stimuli are associated with one another leading to the acquisition(pagkuha) and modification(pagbabago) of behaviour is the primary cause of development. this process may be conceived(maglihi/mag-isip) in either intentional or unintentional experience. for instance children eventually develop high level of appreciation in reading books (early literacy) due to the deliberate reward system by parents. the favorable consequences of such behavior lead to constantly engaging and such activity. on the other hand stimulus response relationship may be established without conscious and tension to do so. Teachers without noticing it may frequently say how mathematics can be difficult. Consequently children develop negative perception and eventually attitude towards that subject. the major premise of learning theories generally revolves around the understanding of the relationship of stimulus and response. the relationship of the two affecting the development of the learner may be complicated rather than simple linear. there could be numerous stimuli present in one's environment where one's change in behavior leading to development may be associated with. Classrooms for instance that has many cognitively stimulatingdecorations may facilitate learning aside from the instructional strategies and effort of the teachers and once interaction with classmates. hence learned behavior (response) as a result of presentation of stimuli can be associated with those that present in the specific environment. using learning paradigma therefore requires a systematic identification of a stimulus or stimuli that can influence directly or indirectly in the development of an individual. in order for teachers to be effective in influencing the development of learners whichever domain mistake conscious actions in doing so.
- ….the favorable consequences of such behavior lead to constantly engaging in such activity. on the other hand stimulus(pampasigla) response relationship may be established without conscious and tension to do so. Teachers without noticing it may frequently(madalas) say how mathematics can be difficult. Consequently children develop negative perception and eventually attitude towards that subject. the major premise(lugar) of learning theories generally revolves(umikot) around the understanding of the relationship of stimulus and response.
- Cognitive- pagbibigay malay Since children's initial responses are reflexive(pasarili) or automatic they are considered as unconditional response (UR). this response is expected to be aroused(napukaw) when a specific stimulus is presented which pavlov called the unconditional stimulus (us). it is called unconditional (stimulus and response) since it has not been paired with other stimuli or response. An example of reflexive response is the sucking behavior of infant. This response is automatic innocence that when an infants mouth or lips are touch once automatic response is to suck (UR). WHEN THE US IS PAIRED repeatedlywith another original neutral stimulus conditioning takes place. The cyclical presentation of these stimuli creates an association between them which lead to the same response. However the response this time is no longer unconditionedinstead it is already a product of conditioning therefore conditioned response. The neutral stimulus paired with the us is no longer neutral but conditioned already. Is touching the mouth or lips is subsequently followed by an act of feeding nipple as the cs, repetition of search sequence will conditioned the infant that whenever the mouth is being touch it is followed by another stimulus such as the nipple eventually these conditioning process can happen in other stimuli.
- Cognitive- pagbibigay malay reflexive(pasarili) aroused(napukaw) …An example of reflexive response is the sucking behavior of infant. This response is automatic innocence that when an infants mouth or lips are touch once automatic response is to suck (UR). When the us is paired repeatedly with another original neutral stimulus conditioning takes place. The cyclical presentation of these stimuli creates an association between them which lead to the same response. However the response this time is no longer unconditioned instead it is already a product of conditioning therefore conditioned response. The neutral stimulus paired with the US is no longer neutral but conditioned already. Is touching the mouth or lips is subsequently followed by an act of feeding nipple as the CS, repetition of search sequence will conditioned the infant that whenever the mouth is being touch it is followed by another stimulus such as the nipple eventually these conditioning process can happen in other stimuli.
- …Like the classical conditioning responses are conditioned when repeatedly followed one another. more importantly BF skinner give much attention on the functions of reinforcement in the process of conditioning. Reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that increase the probability of its repetition. Therefore the intentions of giving reinforcement is for the person to repeat the behavior. Reinforcement however should not necessarily be presented in a positive manner. Tantrums among children are mostly reinforced in contrast to being punished. Since parents have the tendency to give what children wants in return to behaving well. when there is a cycle of experience between crying and getting what a child once it will establish and eventually strengthen the connection between them. Children's interest toward attending school depend on the quality of experience they have. When attending school or learning becomes rewarding to students they develop stronger desire to learn further. attendance in the school is child's response and the experience that followed it determines whether one will have interest to continue. when school or learning experience has become challenging or difficult to the learners it becomes detrimental(nakakasama) to further encourage them to become engaged.
- Premise- saligan Albert Bandura Theory- people learn through observing, imitating, and modeling others’ behavior. …equally important is the role of modals who becomes the reference of children on what behavior they will imitate. social cognitive learning theory involves four processes attention, retention(pagpapanatili/memory), motor reproduction, and motivation. attention pertains(nauukol) to the extent(lawak) of one's exposure to others behavior in order for one to notice it. since people are exposed to many behaviors everyday it is not possible that people pay attention to all of them. Instead those behaviors that are of significance have more impact to one's behavior. Retention is the process of storing to and recalling from memory appropriate available circumstances. this is crucial since memory can be prone to for getting as it can only keep it in the working memory for a specific period of time. it is possible that stored behavior in the memory will be forgotten and imitation become impossible already. When it is still available in the working memory reproduction may follow. This pertains to the opportunity to exhibit the behavior. Aside from possible environmental limitation physical and personal capabilities of the person may intervene or contribute into actualizing the behavior. lastly the consequence of the production behavior may determine whether such behavior will be repeated. a favorable consequence will lead to a validation of repeated behavior while unfavorable or undesirable consequences will lead to avoidance behavior. Parents siblings classmates teachers among others can serve as models of behavior. children's behaviour can be a reflection of the kind of behaviors this people are showing. The judgment children's have about moral issues could be an extension of adults modal judgment. Aggressive behavior as well as prosocial behaviors can be strengthened by showing appropriate behaviors that are consistent with the desired outcome. if the intention is to teach children to become socially responsive by offering help to those who are in need this can be encouraged by showing wide range and kinds of helping behaviors. In doing so children can have range of repertoire of behavior that can cause once attention and eventually become conditioned to do such constantly.
- 2. sociocultural theories This perspective highlightsthe influence of the collective experiences of people found in the same cultural orientation. It assumes the centrality of culture such as language and communication as well as social norms in the developmental process. They become the lenses that shadow the affective cognitive and behavioral experiences and changes within the individual. this is highly evident in the type of values one learns through interacting with other culture bearers such as family members most especially the elders school personnel community members and even classmates. the process of allowing children to internalise cultural belief and practices is through words symbols and representation via social interaction. developmentally culture reflects the parental practices interpersonal relationship processes like friendship formationand expression of adhesion towards others political and social preferences and among others.
- …They become the lenses that shadow the affective cognitive and behavioral experiences and changes within the individual. this is highly evident in the type of values one learns through interacting with other culture bearers such as family members most especially the elders school personnel community members and even classmates. the process of allowing children to internalise cultural belief and practices is through words symbols and representation via social interaction. developmentally culture reflects the parental practices interpersonal relationship processes like friendship formationand expression of adhesion towards others political and social preferences and among others.
- A. Sociocultural theory of lev vygotsky is one of the prominent(kilalang tao) developmental theory under this perspective. He is known as the father of socio-cultural perspective. he emphasize the important rule of social interaction particularly and facilitating cognitive development of children. An …cognition.
- B. The cognitive theory of development of jean piagee also provides a support in freezer explaining the premise(saligan) of this perspective. Piagee highlights … operational. in providing cognitive stimulation content materials and activities reflect the culture and their corresponding artifacts. for instance language plays a significant role in achieving cognitive developmental milestones from preoperational to concrete operational stage. Considering the spurt on the language development on the parallel each of these stages itcan accelerate the processing of information as well as in making meaning with one's environment. language facilitate the manipulation of ideas in the mind such as capability to create connections between and among them. More importantly it is through language that new information is acquired. Vygotsky- sphycological development in children Piagets- child development
- 3. Ethology evolutionary and social biological This perspective accounts for two interacting factors that explains human development. These are genetics and adaptation to one's changing environment. due to the process of maturation inherited characteristics and fold according to one's readiness. it therefore emphasized the nature of an individual. although there could be some observed exceptional developments it explains the normative development of people. normative development pertains to the observance of developmental behaviors according to a certain age. Reason this pertains to cognitive social moral motor or physical changes. the other factor of adaptation changes brought about by development is a result of one's need to adapt therefore they serve survival function. consequently development becomes a pattern of behaviour that are responsive to better engage with the demands of once developmental stage. This is regardless of one's cultural preference and influence. In most cases children learn to walk at about 18 months and begins to talk at 2 years. despite possible variations humans go through the same milestones all throughout life and almost in the same phase. this is because these behavioral changes is essential to better cope in the demands of the developmental stage. this prospective has progressed to a field called evolutionary developmental psychology that converge the views on human adaptation and survival the darwinian perspective with the changes that take place across the lifespan.
- Ethology- the study of human behaviour and social organization from a biological perspective. Readiness- kahalagaan …it therefore emphasized the nature of an individual. although there could be some observed exceptional developments it explains the normative development of people. normative development pertains to the observance of developmental behaviors according to a certain age. Reason this pertains to cognitive social moral motor or physical changes. the other factor of adaptation changes brought about by development is a result of one's need to adapt therefore they serve survival function. consequently development becomes a pattern of behaviour that are responsive to better engage with the demands of once developmental stage. This is regardless of one's cultural preference and influence. In most cases children learn to walk at about 18 months and begins to talk at 2 years. despite possible variations humans go through the same milestones all throughout life and almost in the same phase. this is because these behavioral changes is essential to better cope in the demands of the developmental stage. this prospective has progressed to a field called evolutionary developmental psychology that converge the views on human adaptation and survival the darwinian perspective with the changes that take place across the lifespan.
- A. one of the most influential scientist who have initially advance the ecological perspective was Konrad Lorenz who is nobel prize on 1973 winner for physiology. he …information. this gives the readiness of almost all species to respond to their needs most especially this that are physiologically in nature. Animals develop reflexive reactions that are endogenous in their system. he later on extended his work in making inference about human behavioral patterns assisting similarities with those that he found with other animals species. similar to the animal behavior patterns are the reflexive reactions of infants which is essential to communicate their needs. he also observed great similarities on the proportion of head with the body of animals and human infants together with other features that makes them look cute. He called it babyishness. This explains the favorable attentions if not affection to newborn infants.
- …this can be traced back and their relationship open birth particularly in the infant nipple relationship. Using the strange situation technique ainsworth observed three kinds of attachment styles namely secured insecure avoidant and insecure ambivalent. They generally described the degree of anxiety and stress an infant experience when separated and reunited with one's mother. Klein, on the other hand focused on the building of prototypical relationships through the nipple experience. This is whether the nipple is generous or otherwise. teachers in school may understand that students may find it challenging to establish relationship with their classmates or other school personnel due to the mental representation they have about social relationship. in same manner children may experience separation anxiety during the first few days of schooling due to the stress and anxiety they have about new environment. children may experience a challenge in adapting to new environment while others may appear to easy adjust with this new environment.
- 4. System approach This perspective aims to put an integrated view about human development. integrated two looks at into all the possible factors genes cultures and learning as fused in explaining the changes across lifespan. hence it takes the views that the human person is a product of an interaction of nature and nurture. the person is not exclusively taken as a biological individual but also taken into consideration the context by which the individuals is situated. while certain developments may be normative to most people it is expected that changes may be influenced by for instance the nourishment one is exposed to. because of the context it is supposed to provide a holistic view about the individual and not having a limited view using a single perspective. The context of developmental mayinclude but not limited to socio political events history religion educational system parental involvement and among others that may have direct or indirect impact on the individual. The different subsystems organismic psychological and environmental provide the complexity of those changes can elucidate about the individual rather than seeing them from a linear or simplistic view.
- …Hence, it takes the views that the human person is a product of an interaction of nature and nurture. the person is not exclusively taken as a biological individual but also taken into consideration the context by which the individuals is situated. while certain developments may be normative to most people it is expected that changes may be influenced by for instance the nourishment one is exposed to. because of the context it is supposed to provide a holistic view about the individual and not having a limited view using a single perspective. The context of developmental mayinclude but not limited to socio political events history religion educational system parental involvement and among others that may have direct or indirect impact on the individual. The different subsystems organismic psychological and environmental provide the complexity of those changes can elucidate about the individual rather than seeing them from a linear or simplistic view.
- …for him it is not possible to understand the individual with having knowledge into the situations by which the individual is in. since the context may not necessarily to be the same from time to time and person-to-person, it can be expected that development strongly have variations among individuals. in fact he believes that development has larger room of being malleable that highly be deterministic pattern of changes. Adapting the principle of probabilistic epigenesis he strongly Argued that the sequence and outcome of development is rather probable than certain. Putting this in the context of education, the theory provides implication with regards to seeing learners as having unlimited possible capabilities when given the opportunity to learn and acquire sufficient and appropriate knowledge. because of the concept of plasticity in development it is possible that a specific talent can be further honed if some degree of environmental support are actually felt.
- B. The ecological system theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner, in the contemporary time is one of the most influential theories in this school of thought if not. in …chronosystem. the microsystem is composed of the changes that take place within the individual; the mesosystem constitutes the immediate environment of a developing child who has a direct influence to child suggest the parents neighbor friends and school personnel;the exosystem is composed of social institution that may have indirect impact on to the child like the school policies employment setup mass media and other similar agencies; the macrosystem is sociological political cultural and economic in nature that when modified may have impact on the development of the child. all these are encompassing in the chronological system which pertains to the time component. For instance when a law macrosystem is past modifying the number of working days of employees it will have impact in the policies of labor organization exosystem to which one's parents maybe employed. If this happens parents mesosystem will be able to spend more or less time with the child. Possibly the child's basic needs micro system will be attend appropriately. Discharge is bond only in a given period of time chronosystem. after some time it is possible that this kind of employment setup will change according to the need of time. the prospective discuss are considerably improving and involving throughout time they are continuously tested empirically to various kinds of situation and cultural orientation in order to propose for a grand theory of human development this is essential in order to have consensus consensus. if not universal understanding about the changes people go through in the lifespan further empirical testing are needed in order to validate the extent by which these theories can improve id explanation to wide range of situation.