1. Using Motion Probes to Enhance Students’ Understanding of Position vs. Time Graphs
A Project Presented to the Faculty of the College of Education
Touro University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
MASTERS OF ARTS
In
Educational Technology
by
Jefferson Hartman

2. Chapter II
A graph depicting a physical event allows a glimpse of trends which cannot be
easily recognized in a table of the same data (Beichner, 1994). After teaching science to
eighth graders for several years most teachers will notice that many students consistently
have trouble with graphing, specifically line graphs. Most students understand the
concept of the x and y axis and plotting points, but do not make sense of what the line
they created actually means. Many students struggle with interpreting graphs for several
reasons. The first reason is insufficient exposure to graphing type tasks throughout their
earlier education. The California State Science Standards require that 8th grade students
understand the concept of slope. This is a mathematics standard that should be addressed
before students reach 8th grade, however, in practice, most students are not taught slope
until they take algebra either in 8th or 9th grade. Some students never take algebra at all.
This is a significant issue considering that there is a direct relationship between
understanding the concept of slope and interpreting graphs. Students often lack the
understanding of the vocabulary needed to describe the meaning of a graph. Terms like
direct relationship, inverse relationship, horizontal and vertical all seem to be
straightforward words, but continue to be absent from students’ repertoire. A person who
creates and interprets graphs frequently will become comfortable using the appropriate
descriptive terminology. A student with little experience graphing must put forth
significant effort in simply translating the vocabulary. The last reason students struggle
with graphing is that they are not accustomed to thinking in an abstract way. The most
important cognitive changes during early adolescence relate to the increasing ability of
children to think abstractly, consider the hypothetical as well as the real, consider

3. multiple dimensions of a problem at the same time, and reflect on themselves and on
complicated problems (Keating, 1990). Eight grade students are 12-13 years old; they
have not necessarily developed this thinking process. Interpreting graphs requires the
observer to look at a pattern of marks and make generalizations. Again, Algebra is the
first time many students are required to think in this manner.
Adolescents taught in middle school are perfect candidates for inquiry-based
learning projects because of their natural curiosity. According to the National Institutes of
Health (2005), inquiry-based instruction offers an opportunity to engage student interest
in scientific investigation, sharpen critical-thinking skills, distinguish science from
pseudoscience, increase awareness of the importance of basic research, and humanize the
image of scientists. As a student acquiring new knowledge, one might wonder if they
will ever use the information they are learning at a particular time. For example, how is
learning the foot structure of a shore bird of Humboldt County going to help in the
future? This is a learning process that requires one to look for patterns and transfer
context from one situation into another. Learning certain facts through lab and field work
directly helps with upcoming assessments. But perhaps even more important, it creates a
conceptual framework that is transferable to other fields of science. Many students have
limited experiences in their life which, in turn, limits the prior knowledge they bring to
the classroom. Novice science thinkers seek answers that reflect their everyday life
which may not resemble valid science concepts. Involving students in a science project
or experiment forces them to learn the basic vocabulary and concepts but also immerses
them in the process of asking questions, making hypotheses, finding evidence,
supporting claims, and interpreting and analyzing results. After students develop these

4. inquiry skills they will be better able to solve problems based on empirical evidence and
avoid misconceptions.
Misconceptions often arise when students are asked to interpret graphs. Students
have trouble extracting information from graphs because everyday experiences have not
prepared them to conceptualize. New technology called probeware (sometimes analogous
to MBL) helps students make connections between real experiences and data presented in
graphical form. According to the Concord Consortium (n.d.), probeware refers to
educational applications of probes, interfaces and software used for real-time data
acquisition, display, and analysis with a computer or calculator. By using the MBL
approach, as explained in chapter 1, the drudgery of producing graphs by hand are
virtually eliminated.
When researchers(Bernard, 2003; Lapp and Cyrus, 2000; Thornton and Sokoloff,
1990) compared real-time graphing of a physical event and traditional motion graphing
lessons, two findings emerged. There was some proof of a positive correlation between
real-time graphing and improved comprehension of graphing concepts as compared to
traditional methods of teaching motion graphing (Thornton & Sokoloff, 1990). However,
there was also some evidence suggesting that there was no correlation between the real-
time graphing teaching method and improved comprehension of graphing concepts
(Bernard, 2003). This evidence lends well to future research that answers the question of
which teaching method equips the students with the best skills to interpret the
relationship between physical events and the graphs that represent them.

5. Theoretical Rational
The “real” world manifests itself through a combination of all the events a person
has experienced. This idea is explained by Piaget’s (1980) learning theory called
constructivism. According to Piaget, fifty years of experience taught us that knowledge
does not result from a mere recording of observations without a structuring activity on the
part of the subject (p. 23). This statement gives reason for a teacher to design their
curriculum in a way that guides the students into a cognitive process of discovery through
experimentation. With the teacher acting as a facilitator, students are encouraged to
make their own inferences and conclusions with the use of their prior knowledge. For
Piaget (1952, 1969) the development of human intellect proceeds through adaptation and
organization. Adaptation is a process of assimilation and accommodation, where, on the
one hand, external events are assimilated into thoughts and, on the other, new and
unusual mental structures are accommodated into the mental environment (Boudourides,
2003). Assimilation refers to the integration of new knowledge into what is already
known. Accommodation refers to making room for new knowledge without a significant
change. There is a need for accommodation when current experience cannot be
assimilated into existing schema (Piaget, 1977). It is a teacher’s job to make sure
students do not fill the gaps of knowledge with incorrect thoughts while learning from a
“self-discovery” lesson. In order to prevent students from developing misconceptions the
teacher must make sure students do not miss or misunderstand significant events or attach
importance to information that is not meaningful to the study in progress.
This idea of experimentation can be thought of as inquiry-based learning.
Inquiry-based learning is a pedagogy of constructivism. Students develop a genuine idea

6. of the “real” world when they make discoveries on their own rather than have a teacher
lecture to them. According to Kubieck (2005), inquiry-based learning, when authentic,
complements the constructivist learning environment because it allows the individual
student to tailor their own learning process.
Inquiry-based Learning
Inquiry is probably the most chosen word to describe the goal of science. Inquiry-
based learning is often characterized by the types of procedures used. Chiappeta (1997)
described strategies and techniques that have been used successfully by science teachers:
asking questions, science process skills, discrepant events, inductive and deductive
activites, information gathering and problem solving. By asking meaningful questions,
teachers cause students to think critically and ask their own questions. Processing skills
like observing, classifying, measuring, inferring, predicting, and hypothesizing help a
student construct knowledge and communicate information. Chiappeta stated that a
discrepant event puzzles students, causing them to wonder why the event occurred as it
did. Piaget (1971) reinforced the idea by stating that puzzlement can stimulate students
to engage in reasoning and the desire to find out. In inductive activities, students
discover a concept by first encountering its attributes and naming it later. The exact
opposite is a deductive activity which first describes a concept followed by supportive
examples. Much of the prior knowledge needed to ask those important inquiry questions
comes from gathering information through research. Presenting a teenager with a
problem solving activity engages them in authetic investigation.
Like Chiappeta (1997), Colburn (2000) agreed that inquiry-based learning is a
widely accepted idea in the world of science education. Colburn reported his own

7. definition of inquiry-based instruction as “the creation of a classroom where students are
engaged in essentially open-ended, students centered, hands-on activites” (p. 42).
Colburn explained that even though inquiry is important, many teachers are not using it.
He also gave ideas of what inquiry looked like in the classroom. Some reasons why
teachers do not use inquiry include: unclear on the meaning of inquiry, inquiry only
works with high achievers, inadequate preparation and difficulty managing. Colburn and
Chiappeta identified similar inquiry-based instruction approaches:
• Structured inquiry provides students with an investigation without divulging
the expected outcome.
• Guided inquiry is similar to structured inquiry except students come up with
their own procedure for solving the problem.
• Open inquiry takes it one step farther and asks students to come up with their
own question. Learning cycle is similar to deductive activity explained above.
Inquiry-based learning is suitable for all levels of students because inquiry tends
to be more successful with concepts that are “easier”. Colburn (2000) acknowledged that
to help all middle level students benefit from inquiry-based intructions, the science
education research community recommended:
• orienting activites toward concrete, observable concepts
• centering activites around questions that students can answer directly via
investigation
• emphasizing activites using materials and situation familiar to students
• chooing activites suited to students’ skills and knowledge to ensure success

8. In terms of being prepared and managing for inquiry-based instruction, teachers must
trust the process, take their time and allow students to adjust to open-ended activities.
The proposed study is a structured inquiry activity where students are faced with learning
the abstract concept of graphing by doing simple activites like moving forward and
backwards in front of a motion probe while observing the corresponding graph being
created.
Colburn (2000) as well as Huber and Moore (2001) explained how to develop
hands-on activities into inquiry-based lessons. Huber and Moore contended that the
strategies involve (a) discrepant events to engage students in direct inquiry; (b) teacher-
supported brainstroming activites to facilitate students in planning investigations; (c)
effective written job performance aids to provide structure and support; (d) requirements
that students provide a product of their research, which usually includes a class
presentation and a graph; and (e) class discussion and writing activites to facilitate
students in reflecting on their activites and learning. Chiappeta (1997) had the similar
idea of utilizing discrepant events, like balancing a ping pong ball above a blow drier, to
prompt student puzzlement and questioning. Huber and Moore suggested using these
strategies because the activites presented in textbooks are step by step instructions, which
is not characteristic of true inquiry-based learning.
All of the literature above supported the idea that inquiry is widely accepted in the
science community, but also suggested that it is not being used effectively. It outlined
what inquiry-based lessons should look like and gave strategies on how to utilize the
learning theory. Deters (2005) reported on how many high school chemistry teachers
conduct inquiry based labs. Of the 571 responses to the online survey from high school

9. chemistry teachers all over the U.S., 45% indicated that they did not use inquiry labs in
their classrooms (p. 1178). This seemed to be a low number even though the National
Science Standards include inquiry standards. Teachers gave reasons for not using
inquiry: loss of control, safety issues, used more class time, fear of abetting student
misconceptions, spent more time grading labs and students have many complaints.
Deters reported on students opinions regarding inquiry-based labs by collecting
comments from student portfolios from an private urban high school. The students
concerns included: more effort and thinking are required and the fear of being in control.
The positive student aspects included: develop mastery of material, learn the scientific
process, learn chemistry concepts, improves ability to correct or explain mistakes,
increased communication skills, learn procedural organization and logic, and better
performance on non-inquiry labs. Since planning and conducting inquiry-based labs
requires a significant effort, conducting them can be overwhelming. Deters suggested
that if students perform even a few inquiry-based labs each year throughout their middle
school and high school careers, by graduation they will be more confident, critical-
thinking people who are unafraid of “doing science”. As part of the proposed study,
students were required to reflect on the graphing activity by reporting on their perceived
success.
Computer-supported learning environments make it easier for students to propose
their own research focus, produce their own data, and continue their inquiry as new
questions arise, thus replicating scientific inquiry more realistically (Kubieck, 2005).
WISE 4.0 Graphing Stories is a computer-supported learning environment that works
with a motion probe. Students produced their own data by moving in front of the device.

10. This data was simultaneously represented in a graphic format. Students were asked to
replicate the motion by changing the scale of their movements. Along with producing a
graph of their motion they are also asked to match their motion to a given graph. Some
graphs were impossible to create, which in turn promotes direct inquiry. The goal of the
Graphing Stories program was to teach students how to interpret graphs utilizing an
inquiry-based strategy in computer-supported environment.
Interpreting Graphs
Drawing and interpreting graphs is a crucial skill in understanding many topics in
science, especially physics. McDermott, Rosenquist & van Zee (1987) stated that to be
able to apply the powerful tool of graphical analysis to science, students must know how
to interpret graphs in terms of the subject matter represented. The researchers were
convinced that many graphing problems were not necessarily caused by poor mathematic
skills. Because most of students in the study had no trouble plotting points and
computing slopes, other factors must be responsible. In order to describe these factors
contributing to student difficulty with graph the researchers supplied questions to
university and high school students over a several year period. The students from
University of Washington were in algebra or calculus-based physics courses. The high
school students were in either physics or physical science classes. The researchers
identified several specific difficulties from each these categories: difficulty in connecting
graphs to physical concepts and difficulty connecting graphs to the real world. When
students tried to connect graphs to physical concepts they had difficulty with:
1. discriminating between slope and height of a graph
2. interpreting changes in height and changes in slope

11. 3. relating one graph to another
4. matching narrative information with relevant features of the graph
5. interpreting the area under a graph
When students tried to connect the graph to the real world they had difficulty with:
1. representing continuous motion by a continuous line
2. separating the shape of a graph from the path of the motion
3. representing a negative velocity on a velocity vs. time graph
4. representing constant acceleration on an acceleration vs. time graph
5. distinguishing among types of motion graphs
The three difficulties of particular interest to the proposed study included matching
narrative information with relevant features of a graph, interpreting changes in height and
changes in slope and representing continuous motion by a continuous line. One of the
tasks in Graphing Stories was to write a story to match a graph and vice a versa. When
utilizing the Vernier motion probes, students actually saw how their continuous motion
was represented by a continuous line on the graph. Students also noticed that when they
moved faster the slope was steeper and when they moved slower the slope was not as
steep. McDermott et al. stated that it has been our experience that literacy in graphical
representation often does not develop spontaneously and that intervention in the form of
direct instruction is needed.
Research done by Beichner (1994) showed many similarities to other studies. He
identified a consistent set of difficulties students faced when interpreting graphs:
misinterpreting graphs as pictures, slope/height confusion, difficulty finding slopes of
lines not passing through the origin and interpreting the area under the graph. He

12. analyzed data from 895 high school and college students. The goal of the study was to
uncover kinematics graph problems and propose a test used as a diagnostic tool for
evaluation of instruction. Implications from the study included:
1. Teachers need to be aware of the graphing problems.
2. Students need to understand graphs before they are used a language of
instruction.
3. Teachers must choose their words carefully.
4. Teachers should give students a large variety of motion situations for careful,
graphical examination and explanation.
Beichner stated that students must be given the opportunity to consider their own ideas
about kinematics graphs and must be encouraged to help modify those ideas when
necessary. Instruction that asks students to predict graph shapes, collect the relevant data
and then compare results to predictions appears to be especially suited to promoting
conceptual change (Dykastra, 1992). Incorporating the MBL approach and real-time data
collection seemed key to the focus of this study.
Many eighth grade students have not been exposed to the idea of slope prior to
being expected to produce and interpret motion graphs. Even though algebra classes
require students to take part in problems calculating slope, students do not understand the
idea of slope as rate of change. Crawford & Scott (2000) found that by observing tables
and graphs, students learn to describe and extend patterns, create equations with variables
to represent patterns, and make predictions on the basis of these patterns. In order to help
students conceptualize slope as a rate of change, Crawford & Scott suggested three
modes of learning: visualization, verbalization, and symbolization. Instead of calculating

13. slope from an equation, they stated it was useful to start with a graph then produce a table
of data and an equation that matched the rate of change. Once the students understood
that slope describes the rate of change it was particularly useful to have students compare
graphs and slopes for two rates side by side. Using information from media that students
were exposed to, like news from the internet, as an application for teaching slope can
increase interest and connect it to the real world. Often times collected data does not fit
perfectly onto one line and require a scatter plot to make sense of it. For example, even
seemingly random data like that shown in Figure 1 can be described through slope.
Figure 1. Line of best fit for land speed records. Reprinted from Making Sense of Slope
by A.R Crawford & W.E Scott (2000). The Mathematics Teacher, 93, page 117.
Crawford & Scott (2000) stated that from their own experiences teaching algebra,
they observed many students calculate slopes and write equations for a line without
understanding the concept of slope. They asserted that when assessing student
understanding of slope, it was imperative for assessments to ask students to provide

14. rationale through written or oral responses. This rationale provided rich information
regarding a student’s understanding of slope.
Hale (2000) reinforced ideas from McDermott, Rosenquist & van Zee (1987) and
Crawford & Scott (2000) when she stated students have trouble with motion graphs even
when they understand the mathematical concepts. The author restated the student graph
difficulties stated in McDermott et al. (1987). Hale’s goal was to report possible
underlying causes and provide promising remedies to these problems. When
discriminating between the slope and the height of a graph, students often make the
“simple mistake” of misreading the axes. A discussion in this situation may reveal that,
“a student’s principles may be reasonable, but they may not generalize to the given
situation” (Hale, 2000), p. 415. When comparing two types of graphs, like a position
graph and a velocity graph, students often expect them to look similar. Personal
experience has shaped the way students understand distance, velocity and acceleration.
Hale argued that we cannot simply ask students to abandon their concepts and replace
them with ours. Monk (1994) offered the following remedies:
• an emphasis on conceptual as opposed to procedural learning-on understanding
the ideas as opposed to knowing how to do the procedures
• an emphasis on relating the mathematical ideas to real situations
• classroom formats that encourage discussion, especially among students, in
contrast to lecturing and telling by the teacher
Along with these proposed solutions, Hale suggested that teachers put emphasis on using
the physical activity involved with an MBL setting. In order for students to repair their

15. misconceptions they must be put in a learning situation, like in the proposed study, where
they are confronted by them.
Probeware
In order to become literate in science students must be able to observe the world
around them. This starts when an infant picks up an object and places it in their mouth.
They are curious and use their mouth, fingers and toes to answer questions. In the
beginning of the school year, a teacher may ask students, “How do you observe the world
around you?” Most students correctly respond with, “ We use our senses.” The sense of
touch is great way for determining hot and cold but no so good for determining the exact
temperature. We can extend our sense of touch with a thermometer. A themometer
probe is a thermometer that is connected to a computer and can make hundreds of
accurate reading in a short amount of time. Probeware refers to to any computer aided
device that accurately takes data (temperature, pH, motion, light intensity, etc.);it often
simulanteously creates a graphical representation. Several studies investigated how
probeware can enhance students abitliy to interpret graphs.
Creating graphs and working with mathematical functions is often the first time
students work with a symbolic system that represents data. Pullano (2005) pointed out
several difficulties associated with graphical representations of functions. “Slope/height
confusion” and “iconic interpretation” are common misconceptions. When asked in a
distance vs. time graph, students will often choose a lesser slope to represent a car going
faster. Is the car B traveling faster on less slope because it looks like a hill with less
incline? Students exhibit “iconic interpretation” which means viewing a graph literally

16. rather than as a representation of data. A positive slope followed by a negative slope
looks like a mountain rather that an object moving forward and backward.
10
Car A
8
6
distance
Car B
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
time
Figure 2 A distance versus time graph for two cars. Adapted from Using Probeware to
Improve Students' Graph Interpretation Abilities by F. Pullano (2005). School Science
and Mathematics, 105(7).
In Pullano (2005), the goal of the study was to detemine the effects a probe-based
instructional intervention had on eighth-grade students abilities to accurately interpret
contextual grap functions locally, globally, quantitatively and qualitatively. Ultrasonic
motion detectors, themometers, air pressure sensors and light intensity sensors were used
by small groups to collect physical phenomena. The results follow:
1. Students developed a formal understanding of slope which is the rate of change of
one variable with respect to another,
2. By incorporating appropriate language and ideas learned from previous graphing
activities, students used prior knowledge to correctly interpret graphs of
unfamiliar contexts.

17. 3. The iconic interpretation exhibited in pre-activity interview was absent from final
interviews. (page 374)
Pullano’s study had a very clear explanation of two graphing misconceptions, which
shaped the proposed research design of this study.
Many people have difficulty with math because they do not see a way to connect
it to their life. In a dissertation by Murphy (2004), she stated that the goal of her study
was to help a large number of students to understand the concepts of calculus in a way
that they could use effectively to address real problems. She first identfied two common
misconceptions: graph as pictures or “GAP” and slope/height confusion. In GAP,
students think of a line graph as a road map with the vertical axis as the north/south
component and the horizontal axis as the east/west component. Students can correctly
interpret a map, but incorrectly apply this interpretation to other more abstract,
representations of motion (Murphy, 2004). When asked to draw a graph representing a
walk to and from a specific location students often create a the graph similar to Figure 3
but should look like Figure 4. In slope/height confusion, students focus on the height of
the graph rather than the incline of the slope when interpreting graphs. Both of these
misinterpretations have been reported in middle school and high school students, college
and university undergraduates and middle school teachers.

18. 5
4
3
distance
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time
Figure 3. The wrong way to represent a walk to and from a specific location. Adapted
from Using Computer-based Laboratories to Teach Graphing Concepts and the
Derivative at the College Level by L.D. Murphy (2004) Dissertation. University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA, p. 10.
4
3
distance
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time
Figure 4. The right way to represent a walk to and from a specific location. Adapted
from Using Computer-based Laboratories to Teach Graphing Concepts and the
Derivative at the College Level by L.D. Murphy (2004) Dissertation. University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA, p. 10.

19. Murphy (2004) compared two methods of teaching derivatives to students in
introductory calculus by using computer graphing technology. The first method, MBL,
although shown to be useful, was expensive and inconvenient. The second method
utilized a Java applet. The student moved a stick across the screen and the computer
produced a position graph. Murphy stated that earlier researchers had speculated that the
motion sensor approach relies on whole-body motion and kinesthetic sense, which
suggested that the Java approach, in which motion of the whole body over several feet is
replaced by moving a hand a few inches, might not be successful. Prior to and after the
instruction the sixty students were given an assessment and an attitude survey. Twenty
eight students used the Java applet and thirty two students used the MBL method. The
preinstructional measures indicated that the two groups were similar in graphing
knowledge. The achievement tests indicated that both methods of instruction helped
students improve their abitlity to interpret motion graphs. Murphy was in favor of the
using the Java applet for her classes in the future because the cost is substantially less
than that of the the motion sensors. Like Pullano (2005), Murphy clearly demonstrated
graphing misconceptions.
In order for students to gain the benefits of probeware, teachers must be trained to
use the technology. Vonderwall, Sparrow and Zachariah (2005) described the
implementation and results of a project designed to train teachers to use an inquiry-based
approach to science education with the help of emerging handheld technology. Both
elementary and middle school teachers learned how to integrate probeware into inquiry-
based science lessons. The professional development session lasted two weeks during

20. which teachers used Palm probes to measure water quality indicators such as pH,
pollution levels, water temperature and dissoved oxygen. The projects had several goals:
1. expose teachers to inquiry-based science and emerging technologies
2. improve the access to underserved and underrepresented populations with
emerging technologies
3. augment an inquiry-based science curriculum using probeware
4. give access to information and ideas developed in the session by creating a
website
The purpose of the study was to find the answers to these questions:
1. What are teachers’ percieved proficiency about inquiry-based lessons utilizing
probeware?
2. Are these technologies accessible?
3. Is a professional development program useful?
4. What are teachers’ experiences and perspectives on probeware used in inquiry
based lessons?
With focus on high-need schools districts in Ohio, twenty three teachers
participated in the program. A pre and post Likert scale survey and open-ended question
discussion were implemented to answer the questions above. Teachers were also asked
to implement inquiry-based lessons in their own classrooms and report any benefits or
problems. The results indicated that many teachers changed from feeling not proficient
prior to the program to feeling moderately proficient after the program. In terms of
accessibilty (1 = no access and 5 = very accessible) to technology, teachers answers
ranged between 1.3 to 4.0. During the open-ended questions regarding the usefulness of

21. the program as professional development, all of the teachers felt the program was very
helpful. Although some of the teachers reported problems and issues with the
implementation of the inquiry-based lesson with probeware, the general feeling was that
they valued the fact that students could collect, read and analyze real-life data.
Vonderwall et al. (2005) reported that all teachers reported increased student motivation
and excitement by using technology to learn science concepts. Similarly, this study will
feed on students’ motivation for technology use to reinforce inquiry.
Metcalf and Tinker (2004) reported on the feasibility of probeware through cost
consideration, teacher professional growth and instructional design. Teaching force and
motion and energy transformation is difficult and can be eased with use of probeware.
The goal of this study was to develop two units that implement alternative low-cost
hardware in order to make technology based science lessons accessible to all. Metcalf
and Tinker (2004) stated by demonstrating student learning of these difficult concepts
with economical technologies and practical teacher professional development, we would
have a powerful argument for a broad curriculum development effort using this approach.
Metcalf and Tinker suggested using handheld computers and “homemade” probes rather
than a full computer system and a probe to reduce cost. In this study, students used a
motion detector called a SmartWheel, a do-it-yourself force probe, a temperature probe
and a voltage/current meter. Thirty different classes, between 6-10 grade, with the
number of students ranging from 6-47 participated in the study. Each unit (force and
motion and energy transformation) took between 9 and 20 days to complete. Pre and
post-tests were used to assess student preformance. Surveys and interviews were used to
collect teacher insight. When analyzing the student data, Metcalf focused on specific test

22. questions. For the force and motion unit, they found a 28% improvement on a question
that asks students to choose the graph that represents the motion of a cart moving forward
and backwards. For the energy transformation unit, they found an 11% improvement on
a question that asked about heat flow on a temperature vs. time graph. Metcalf and
Tinker (2004) stated that post-interviews with teachers found that student learning was
enhanced through the use of the probes and handhelds for data gathering and
visualizations. Some other findings from teacher interviews include: the probes worked
well, teachers were excited about the using technology in the classroom and were eager
to use it again in their classrooms. Teachers were successful in conducting investigations
utilizing probes and handheld technologies and students made the correlation between
phenomena and modeling, which in turn reduced misconception. The idea that
probeware helps students learn the difficult concepts of force and motion supports the
goal of the proposed study.
All four studies reviewed reported a decrease in graphing misconceptions because
of the use of probeware. Pullano (2005) and Murphy (2004) used substantial evidence
through literature review to clearly describe two graphing misconceptions: GAP or iconic
interpretation and slope/height confusion. Both Metcalf and Tinker (2004), and
Vonderwall et al. (2005) focused some of their attention on professional growth.
Technology does not have much chance for success if teachers do not know how to
implement it. Only two studies, Murphy and Vonderwall et al., presented their results in
an easily understandable format. Metcalf and Pullano’s conclusions were not completely
clear or convincing. Murphy as well as Metcalf and Tinker focused much attention on
the issue of cost and making technology accessible to all. Although MJHS has a

23. partnership with UC Berkeley and has access to laptops and motion probes, it is
important to always consider the cost issue because resources have a tendency to
disappear. Vonderwall et al. and Metcalf and Tinker found success with Palm handheld
computers. The proposed study utilized Vernier probes, which filled the same niche as
the Palm handhelds.
Summmary
According to constructivism, people learn through experiences. Sometimes the
experiences contribute to correct concepts of reality and sometimes experiences
contribute to misconceptions. Hale (2000) maintained that these difficulties are often
based on misconceptions that are rooted in the student’s own experiences. It is the job of
teachers to find these misconceptions and correct them. Interpreting graphs correctly
seems to be a problem for many middle school students. They have trouble gleaning
information from them and producing graphs that represent the corresponding data
correctly. These issues may be caused by the inability to reason in an abstract manner or
because they have limited experiences from which to draw. Teachers have strategies to
help combat these graphing misconceptions. Inquiry-based learning as cited by
Chiappeta (1997) and Colburn (2000) is the most widely accepted vocabulary word to
describe science education. Inquiry-based learning, a pedagogy of constructivism,
focused on the idea that students learn by doing. The teacher acts as a facilitator and
guides the students gently as they migrate through an investigation in which they ask the
questions, decide the procedure, collect and interpret data, make inferences and
conclusions. Inquiry-based learning comes in many forms, but all require that students
have most of the control of their learning. Deters (2005) claimed that even though

24. inquiry-based lesson requires significantly more effort by the teacher and the student, the
effort is worth it. If a student takes part in a few inquiry-based lessons each year during
their middle and high school experience, the fear of “doing science” will be eliminated.
The Graphing Stories project is an inquiry-based activity aimed at correcting student
misconceptions that arise when they must interpret graphs. Interpreting graphs is one of
the most crucial skills in science, especially physics. McDermott, Rosenquist & van Zee
(1987) maintained that students who have no trouble plotting points and computing
slopes cannot apply what they have learned about graphs from their study of mathematics
to physics. There must be other factors, aside from their mathematical background that
are responsible. It is the job of the teacher according to Beichner (1994) to be aware of
these factors and use a wide variety of inquiry-based strategies like the activities in
Graphing Stories. It takes advantage of probeware, specifically Vernier motion probes,
which has been shown by research to help students interpret graphs correctly. The
common misconceptions students have while interperting graphs, according to Pullano
(2000) and Murphy (2004), are iconic interpretation and slope/height confusion. In order
for probeware to be successfully implemented there must be teacher training and
sufficient funds. Metcalf and Tinker (2004) stated that by demonstrating student learning
of these difficult concepts with economical technologies and practical teacher
professional development, we would have a powerful argument for a broad curriculum
development effort using this approach. Some of the implications of the proposed study,
utilizing the MBL approach, are that teachers must identify graphing misconceptions,
design and implement appropriate inquiry-based techniques that present a wide variety of
graphing activites, and have confidence that the experiences they provide accurately

25. model how a student preceives the “real” world.
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