19 c Europe, Part 2, 1850-1871; General Observations

Nineteenth Century Europe
PART 2
1850-1871
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Major Themes for Part 2
6. THE BREAKDOWN OF THE
CONCERT AND THE CRIMEAN WAR
The Weakening of the Concert of Europe
The Crimean War
The Aftermath
7. FRANCE: THE SECOND EMPIRE
From Republic to Empire
The Domestic Politics of the Second Empire
Colonial and Foreign Policy
8. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
The National Movement to 1859
The First Steps Toward Unity
The Completion of Italian Unity, 1860-1871
9. THE GERMAN QUESTION, 1850-1866
The Evolution of Prussian Policy
From Düppel to Königgrätz
The Consequences of the War
10. THE REORGANIZATION OF
EUROPE
Great Britain from Palmerston to Gladstone
Russia under Alexander II
The Showdown between France and Germany

Gustave Courbet. Les casseurs de pierres (The Stone Breakers), 1849

The climate of opinion that prevailed after 1850 was marked by disillusionment with
the values and methods of the past, distaste for ideals and abstractions, and exaggerated
veneration of concreteness and tangibility. The new generation prided itself on its
realism.
This was encouraged and reinforced by the contrast between the failure of political
idealism in 1848 and the triumphs of science and industry in the years that followed. The
European public could hardly fail to be impressed by scientific progress because they saw
its utility demonstrated daily in fields like metallurgy,• where chemists discovered how to
remove phosphorus from iron ore,…”
Gordon A. Craig, Europe Since 1815, Third Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1971. p. 145.

realism.
remove phosphorus from iron ore, and medicine, where Lister’s germ theory decreased
the incidence of death by blood poisoning,…”

realism.
the incidence of death by blood poisoning, or embodied in such useful by-products of
scientific investigation as linoleum (1860),• celluloid (1863),• cement (1850),…”

realism.
the incidence of death by blood poisoning, or embodied in such useful by-products of
scientific investigation as linoleum (1860),• celluloid (1863),• cement (1850),• and
vulcanized rubber (1869).”

After 1850, “immovable object” survived the “irresistible force”
Industrial
Revolution,
the bourgeoisie,
constitutionalism,
republicanism

“Their respect for these achievements tended to make them receptive to the
generalizations that scientists now began to make about human life and the universe. To a
disillusioned generation seeking comfort in tangible things, the indestructibility of matter
made a direct appeal. It was easy to be so impressed by it that one began to regard it as
the ultimate reality, in terms of which all things had to be explained. Similarly, the
formulation by Charles Darwin (1809-1882)…”
Ibid.

“Their respect for these achievements tended to make them receptive to the
generalizations that scientists now began to make about human life and the universe. To a
disillusioned generation seeking comfort in tangible things, the indestructibility of matter
made a direct appeal. It was easy to be so impressed by it that one began to regard it as
the ultimate reality, in terms of which all things had to be explained. Similarly, the
formulation by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) of the theory of the origin of the species,
with its emphasis upon the survival of those species that are selected by nature because of
their ability to adjust themselves to the conditions of the continuing struggle for
existence, was so seductive that those who accepted it were apt to apply it not only to the
sphere of biology but also to sociology and politics, economic activity and international
diplomacy.• One of the outstanding characteristics of this period and the one that
succeeded it was, thus, a deepening materialism, which, as we shall see, assumed some
dangerous forms.”
Ibid.

More Western and Central European states were joining Britain
and Belgium in Rostow’s Stages 3 and 4.

“This materialism was encouraged by the almost uninterrupted economic expansion of
the period, as the indices of production, trade and finance showed steady acceleration.• In
agriculture, the increase of yield was largely due to the use of artificial fertilizers, made
possible by the chemical researches of Liebig,…”
Craig, op. cit., p. 146.

possible by the chemical researches of Liebig, Chevreul, and Dumas, by the importation
of Chilean nitrates and guano,…”

possible by the chemical researches of Liebig, Chevreul, and Dumas, by the importation
of Chilean nitrates and guano, which increased rapidly in the 1850s, and by the discovery
of European deposits of phosphates. All this made possible intensive cultivation, which
increased grain production in Great Britain by 20% in ten years and in France by 10% in
the same period and which, together with the beginning of the importation of American
and Australian grains, freed Europe from the threat of famine which had been constantly
present in the past. The growth of truck farming and cattle breeding was equally
impressive, while the studies of fermentation made at the end of the 1850s by Louis
Pasteur (1822-1895) facilitated the improvement and profitable expansion of dairy
farming, wine culture, and the brewing of beer.…”

in ten years and in France by 10% in the
same period and which, together with the
beginning of the importation of American
and Australian grains, freed Europe from
the threat of famine which had been
constantly present in the past. The growth
of truck farming and cattle breeding was
equally impressive, while the studies of
fermentation made at the end of the 1850s
by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) facilitated
the improvement and profitable
expansion of dairy farming, wine culture,
and the brewing of beer.
More spectacular was the progress of
industrial production, as can be seen from
even the briefest consideration of
progress in textiles and the heavy
industries. The textile industry in these
years was characterized by increasing
mechanization; and the introduction of
such devices as the sewing machine •
(first used successfully in the United
States in the 1840s but widely adopted in
Europe in the following decade) enabled
the production of cotton goods to increase
by 25% between 1850 and 1860.”

“Simultaneously, the application of machinery to coal mining, in the form of improved drills,
water and ventilation pumps, and hydraulic extraction devices, doubled French coal
production and tripled that of Germany in the ten years after the revolution, and similar gains
were registered in other industrial countries. This expansion in turn had an immediate effect
on metallurgy, which, by the end of the period, had become almost exclusively dependent on
coal and coke rather than on wood. The superiority of the new furnaces and the general
introduction of the Bessemer process (1856),…”
Ibid.

introduction of the Bessemer process (1856), which removed carbon and other impurities by
blowing air through the molten iron, and the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process (1865),•
which did this more effectively and made possible the use of scrap iron and low-grade ores,
was reflected in the doubling of European iron and steel production in the twenty years after
1860….”
Ibid.

1860.
These advances were facilitated by the changes that were taking place in this period in the
field of transportation. Oceanic transport was revolutionized by the increased use of steel and
steam,…”
Ibid.

1860.
steam, by the introduction of the screw propellor in the 1850s…”
Ibid.

1860.
steam, by the introduction of the screw propellor in the 1850s and the compound engine in
the 1860s,…”
Ibid.

1860.
the 1860s,• and by the shortening of well-traveled routes by such notable achievements as the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869;…”
Ibid.

1860.
the 1860s,• and by the shortening of well-traveled routes by such notable achievements as the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869;• and the new British, French, German, and American
lines founded in the 1840s and 1850s carried a mounting volume of trade. The world freight
total in 1840 was about 10 million tons; in 1870 it was 25 million tons. The progress of
railway transportation was no less remarkable, the European network alone growing from
about 14,000 miles of track in 1850 to about 32,000 miles in 1860 and 78,000 miles in 1870.”
Ibid.

As a result of improvements in rolling stock, standardization of the gauge in all
European countries except Russia and Spain, the growing adoption of steel rail and the
adoption of new signaling and braking devices, the safety, speed and volume of railway
travel grew throughout the period. The part this played in stimulating industrial and
agricultural production is obvious.
Two other factors helped this ballooning production and exchange of goods: the
expansion of the money economy resulting from the discovery of deposits in California
and Australia, which doubled the stock of monetary gold during the period, and the
introduction of credit devices and new legislation that lent more flexibility to the fiscal
system. No single innovation or reform was more important in this latter respect than the
general adoption of the principle of limited liability. Employed first in the charters of
railway companies, this principle made it safe for individuals to invest without risking the
loss of their total resources in case the company failed; and its extension to other forms of
legitimate speculation enormously expanded corporate investment. This in turn
encouraged the establishment of investment banks, like the French Crédit Mobilier
(1852) and the Berliner Handelsgesellschaft (1856), which sold stock to private investors
and used the proceeds to found new companies by the extension of long-term loans. Short
term credit was simultaneously expanded by the founding of new deposit and discount
banks, which helped the movement of raw materials, the expansion of plant facilities, and
the increase of variety and volume of production.
Op. cit., p.147.

In the face of all this activity and the undeniable achievements of technical and
economic progress, it is not surprising that the new generation should have been
impressed and that its goals and its values should have been changed. Werner Sombart…”
Op. cit., pp.147-48.

impressed and that its goals and its values should have been changed. Werner Sombart •
once wrote that after the disappointment of 1848, young Germans turned more readily to
business than to politics when they chose their careers, for the adventure promised to be
as exciting and the rewards more sure.…”
Op. cit., pp.147-48.

as exciting and the rewards more sure. Nor was German youth alone in this. In all
countries young men read, and were stirred by, the international best-seller Self Help
(1859), in which Samuel Smiles held before their eyes dozens of men who had risen from
rags to riches by making the most of their talents in the exciting and opportunity-laden
world of business enterprise.1
Op. cit., pp.147-48.
________
1So, apparently, did their sons. The protagonist in George Orwell’s Coming Up for Air (1939) says:
“Father had never read a book in his life, except the Bible and Smiles’ Self Help.”

as exciting and the rewards more sure. Nor was German youth alone in this. In all
countries young men read, and were stirred by, the international best-seller Self Help
(1859), in which Samuel Smiles held before their eyes dozens of men who had risen from
rags to riches by making the most of their talents in the exciting and opportunity-laden
world of business enterprise.1 In an earlier period they might, like Stendhal’s heroes, have
dreamed of emulating Napoleon; now, like the protagonist of Gustav Freytag’s novel
Debit and Credit (1855), they were more likely to think of mercantile triumphs.”
Op. cit., pp.147-48.

Freytag's literary fame was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel, Soll und Haben
(Debit and Credit), which was translated into almost all European languages. It was translated into
English by Georgiana Harcourt in 1857.

It was hailed as one of the best German novels and praised for its sturdy but unexaggerated realism.
Its main purpose is the recommendation of the German middle class as the soundest element in the
nation, but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast it draws between the
supposedly homely virtues of the German, while presenting in negative light Poles and Jews. In the
novel a Jewish merchant is presented as a villain and threat to Germany. German colonists are
presented as "superior" to "wild", "inferior" and "uncivilized" Poles who are also shown sometimes in
racist terms. The novel aﬃrmed the claim of German "masters" to seize the land of the "weaker race"
justiﬁed by supposedly "superior" German culture. The novel applied blatant racism to Slavs while
focusing on Poles; author stated that Poles have "no culture" and are unable to create civilization.
Freytag also claimed that Poles will only become proper human beings through German rule and
colonization, and giving up their language and culture. Soll und Haben set an example for a body of
colonial literature about the "eastern marches" and also started a public-reinterpretation of the
Ostsiedlung, which was now presented as historical mission of the Germans (Kulturträger-Culture
bearers), legitimizing continued occupation of Polish areas and suppressions of Polish population.

Wikipedia

“The Freytag book, with its detailed description of commercial activity, illustrates the
pronounced change that was taking place in literature and the arts in these years. If
romanticism was not dead, it was no longer fashionable. The emphasis was now on the
kind of realism that portrayed life not as it might or should be but as it was. In the novels
of Gustav Flaubert,…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

of Gustav Flaubert, the fidelity to detail in description and characterization is impressive;
and the characters who fail to recognize the facts of life, or who revolt against them,
either undergo a painful conversion to reality, as did Frédéric Moreau in The Sentimental
Education (1870), or are broken by it, like Emma in Madame Bovary (1856). The new
realism characterized the works of Turgenev,• George Eliot,• and Émile Zola,• whose first
masterpieces, Thérèse Raquin and Les Rougon-Macquart, appeared in the closing years
of our period; in the last novels of George Sand,• it eclipsed the buoyant idealism of her
earlier works and was combined with social criticism and reforming zeal;…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

realism characterized the works of Turgenev,…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

realism characterized the works of Turgenev, George Eliot,…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

realism characterized the works of Turgenev, George Eliot, and Émile Zola, whose first
of our period;…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

realism characterized the works of Turgenev, George Eliot, and Émile Zola,• whose first
of our period; in the last novels of George Sand,• it eclipsed the buoyant idealism of her
earlier works and was combined with social criticism and reforming zeal;…”
Op. cit., pp.148-49.

“…and this was also true of Charles Dickens’• last great novels: Bleak House, Hard
Times, Little Dorrit, Great Expectations, and Our Mutual Friend, all written between
1852 and 1865.…”
Op. cit., p.149.

1852 and 1865. In the works of the Russian novelists Dostoevsky • and Tolstoy, some of
the older themes of romanticism persisted—the problem of isolation of the individual
from society, for instance, and the tendency to idealize the rebel—and, indeed, in the
latter works of both authors, the emphasis on the irrational was to be heightened; but few
would question the mastery of realistic detail shown in War and Peace (1869) or deny
that Dostoevsky, particularly in Crime and Punishment (1866) ranks with Dickens and
Balzac in ability to give a truly naturalistic representation of the modern metropolis.…”
Op. cit., p.149.

1852 and 1865. In the works of the Russian novelists Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, some of
Balzac in ability to give a truly naturalistic representation of the modern metropolis….”
Op. cit., p.149.

Balzac in ability to give a truly naturalistic representation of the modern metropolis.
“The transition from romanticism to realism was less pronounced in drama, poetry,
and music, although it should be noted that the plays ground out by the enormously
popular French dramatists Dumas and Augier..”
Op. cit., p.149.

popular French dramatists Dumas and Augier proclaimed the optimism and materialism
of the middle classes, who flocked to see them, and emphasized the values and the
institutions that made for the kind of social stability desired by the bourgeoisie. Among
the poets Tennyson and Heine might take an occasional cut at the prevailing materialism,
….”
Op. cit., p.149.

popular French dramatists Dumas and Augier proclaimed the optimism and materialism
of the middle classes, who flocked to see them, and emphasized the values and the
institutions that made for the kind of social stability desired by the bourgeoisie. Among
the poets Tennyson and Heine might take an occasional cut at the prevailing materialism,
but they—and poets like Swinburne,• Baudelaire, Verlaine, Mallarmé, Möricke, and
Conrad Ferdinand Meyer—generally cultivated detachment from contemporary problems
and remained true to an older lyrical tradition….”
Op. cit., p.149.

“…Something of the sort was true also in music, where the
brilliant harmonies of Berlioz • and the tumultuous crescendoes
of Rossini • continued to resound throughout the 1860s;…”
Op. cit., pp.149-50.

of Rossini • continued to resound throughout the 1860s; where
essentially romantic themes appealed both to Gounod • (Faust,
1859; Romeo et Juliette, 1867) and to Verdi • (Aida, 1869);…”
Op. cit., pp.149-50.

“…Something of the sort was true also in music, where the brilliant harmonies of Berlioz
• and the tumultuous crescendoes of Rossini • continued to resound throughout the 1860s;
where essentially romantic themes appealed both to Gounod • (Faust, 1859; Romeo et
Juliette, 1867) and to Verdi • (Aida, 1869); and where Wagner’s • poetic dramas (Tristan
und Isolde, 1859; Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg, 1868; Das Rheingold, 1869; Die
Walküre, 1870) shocked and entranced audiences.…”
Op. cit., pp.149-50.

1859; Romeo et Juliette, 1867) and to Verdi • (Aida, 1869); and
where Wagner’s • poetic dramas (Tristan und Isolde, 1859; Die
Meistersinger von Nurnberg, 1868; Das Rheingold, 1869; Die
Walküre, 1870) shocked and entranced audiences. In the visual
arts, however, the changed mode was made apparent by the
almost brutal directness of Gustave Courbet • (whose Burial at
Ornans,• 1850, first prompted the use of the word realism to
describe a style of painting) …”
Op. cit., pp.149-50.

1859; Romeo et Juliette, 1867) and to Verdi • (Aida, 1869); and
where Wagner’s • poetic dramas (Tristan und Isolde, 1859; Die
Meistersinger von Nurnberg, 1868; Das Rheingold, 1869; Die
Walküre, 1870) shocked and entranced audiences. In the visual
arts, however, the changed mode was made apparent by the
almost brutal directness of Gustave Courbet • (whose Burial at
Ornans,• 1850, first prompted the use of the word realism to
describe a style of painting) and by its refinement and
illumination in the works of the impressionist school, which had
its beginnings in the 1860s with such paintings as Manet’s •
Déjeuner sur l’herbe (1863) and • Olympia (1865) ,which
scandalized the public of their time but are accepted today as
among the finest achievements of modern art.”
Op. cit., pp.149-50.

“In three fields of human activity—religion, social relations, and international
politics—the deepening materialism and increasing emphasis upon realism had
pronounced, and generally unhappy, results. these were years in which the
established churches lost strength and prestige. This was due in part to the
increasing drift of the working population toward the cities, where living and
working conditions were hardly conducive to the retention or practice of faith; but
it was attributable also to the fact that the literate classes of society were affected
by the rationalism that marked the works of contemporary philosophers,
historians, and popularizers of science. The scientific writers, in particular,
showed a delight in making frontal assaults upon religious dogma, claiming that
discoveries in astronomy, geology, physics, and biology invalidated theological
explanations of human existence. The very intemperance of these attacks might
have been self-defeating had it not been for the correspondingly passionate
reaction of leading churchmen. All too often prominent divines elected to plunge
into controversy for which they were inadequately prepared and to reveal publicly
what appeared to be a stubborn resistance not only to change but even to common
sense.…”
op. cit., p. 150.

“…There was no reason why the emendation and new interpretations proposed by
the scientific biblical critics of the 1860s could not have been accepted in the spirit
with which they have since been accepted. Instead, Protestant leaders often fought
bitterly against any but the most literal interpretation of the sacred writings: and
this attitude explains the astonishing vehemence of their resistance to Darwin’s •
theory of evolution, which hurt rather than helped the cause they served.
Simultaneously the hold of the Roman Church upon the intelligent sections
of society was jeopardized by Pope Pius IX’s • systematic attack upon the major
intellectual tendencies of the age in the encyclical Quanta cura of September 1864
and its accompanying Syllabus, in which such things as rationalism, indifferentism
in religion, the idea that salvation was attainable outside the Roman faith, the
principle of lay education, separation of church and state, political liberalism, and
the idea of progress were castigated as errors to be shunned by the faithful….”
Ibid.

“…Liberal Catholic theologians like Bishops Döllinger and Ketteler…”
op. cit., pp.150-51.

“…Liberal Catholic theologians like Bishops Döllinger and Ketteler in Germany
were disturbed by the radical comprehensiveness of the condemnation, as they
were six years later by the proclamation of the doctrine of papal infallibility,
which claimed that, when speaking on matters of faith and doctrine, the pope’s
word was final. The resistance of these critics was, on the whole, ineffective, but
their instinct was sound, for the papal policy seemed to many to be a vain attempt
to resist the march of the intellect, and, because it did so, it alienated the European
intelligentsia….”
op. cit., pp.150-51.

intelligentsia.
“These controversies and internal storms absorbed most of the energies of
the established churches and weakened their ability to play a reforming or
mediatory role in the social life of the times. This was regrettable, since relations
among classes were increasingly affected by materialistic and evolutionary
theories that promised to subvert social peace. Classical economists like John
Stuart Mill (1806-1873),…”
op. cit., pp.150-51.

intelligentsia.
Stuart Mill (1806-1873), venerators of science like Herbert Spencer (1820-1903),
…”
op. cit., pp.150-51.

intelligentsia.
Stuart Mill (1806-1873), venerators of science like Herbert Spencer (1820-1903),
• and followers of Karl Marx were all materialists at heart, believing that the
phenomena they studied were subject to natural laws (supply and demand,
struggle for existence, the inevitable movement from capitalism to proletarian
society) that were not amenable to human control….”
op. cit., pp.150-51.

“…With these leaders to supply them with arguments, it was not difficult for the
middle class that dominated Western society to disclaim social responsibility, for
the mill owner to act toward his laborers with the callousness of Mr. Bounderby in
Dickens’ Hard Times,…. ”
op. cit., p.151.

“…With these leaders to supply them with arguments, it was not difficult for the
middle class that dominated Western society to disclaim social responsibility, for
the mill owner to act toward his laborers with the callousness of Mr. Bounderby in
Dickens’ Hard Times, and for organizers of working class movements to think in
terms of inevitable class struggle. Both the capitalist and the socialist theorists of
this period assumed that man was motivated primarily by the acquisitive instinct,
an idea that would in other times have been rejected as ignoble and as a denial of
history; and this kind of thinking led to an acceptance of the legitimacy of the use
of violence in the solution of social and economic problems that was to find
frightening expression in the last years of the century.
“The stratification of most European societies in this period was different in
marked respects from the period preceding it. Whereas the nobility might still
occupy the social positions of greatest prestige, some of their prerogatives had
been swept away by the revolution of 1848. East of the Elbe, in Hungary and in
Russia, they still combined the possession of great landed estates with judicial and
other rights over the workers of those lands (although the emancipation of the
serfs in Russia in 1861 sensibly diminished noble privileges); and in other
countries as well aristocrats had a virtual monopoly of positions in certain
branches of the army…. ”
op. cit., p.151.

“The period that opened with hopes of international solidarity and harmony
and that, indeed, through the mouths of apostles of free trade like Richard Cobden,
…”
op.cit., pp. 151-52.

“The period that opened with hopes of international solidarity and harmony
and that, indeed, through the mouths of apostles of free trade like Richard Cobden,
preached that the extension of the laissez-faire principle in international
economics could not help but promote universal peace, ended nevertheless in a
series of violent conflicts. These were prepared by statesmen who brought into
international politics the same values that impregnated so many other aspects of
European society at this time: realism, willingness to consider morals as
irrelevant, refusal to consider any criterion for judging action except expediency,
insistence that politics was an unremitting struggle in which only the facts of
power counted. In these years also nationalism lost the idealism of the ingenuous
pre-March days and often degenerated into jingoism, while the relation between
national aspiration and liberal ambition tended to change. The Mazzinian
nationalists had fought for the unity and greatness of their country in order that it
might be in the van of constitutional progress, human rights, and universal
freedom; the liberal of the 1860s, especially in Italy and Germany, was not
disinclined to jettison his constitutional and humanitarian ambitions so that his
country might be able to demonstrate its greatness to others.”
op.cit., pp. 151-52.

“It is easy for us, looking back to the period 1850-1871, to see tendencies at
work within the system that were to cause disaster and suffering later on. The gift
of prescience was not given to contemporaries, and they did not believe that the
realism of which they were so proud and the material progress that was so obvious
could produce other than good. They can hardly be blamed for being impressed by
the tremendous triumphs of their day; by engineering feats like the Suez Canal
and the piercing of the Alps by tunnel and the laying of the transatlantic cable; by
the penetration of European trade into every port of the known world, and the
establishment of European entrepôts in the Far East; and by the carrying of
European ideas and institutions to the United States, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand and Latin America by the 200,000-300,000 emigrants who left Europe
yearly in this period. European culture appeared to be attaining its finest flower,
and there seemed every reason to believe that, by trade and emigration, the
benefits of that culture would be shared to the universal advantage.”
op.cit., p. 152.

“…In general, however, politics fell increasingly under the control of those who
dominated the economic life of Europe, the wealthier middle class; and political
philosophy and state policy came increasingly to mirror their views. A striking
characteristic of this period was the growing distinction between the upper and
lower middle class, first made dramatically clear in the collapse of the 1848
revolutions, and the expansion in size of the latter. The petty bourgeoisie,
composed of lesser officials, small business men, and what we have come to call
white collar workers, benefitted from the democratic reforms in Great Britain in
the 1860s; but in other countries it became a volatile and disorganized class,
craving security and leadership, an important and potentially dangerous political
force. At the base of the social pyramid were the agricultural and industrial
workers, the former of whom were decreasing in number throughout this period
(60% of the population of Europe in 1860, they were to comprise less than half
twenty years later). To the swelling numbers of industrial workers, trade unionism
and socialism promised protection against the wrongs they felt implicit in
capitalism; and the working class movement made its first significant advances in
this period.”
Ibid.

In a sense we have reached the apogee of the Long Peace (1815-1914).
The violence of the brief (2 year) Crimean War and the limited nature of the uniﬁcation wars
make it fair to use that term for the nineteenth century.
As romanticism fades and realism emerges as the new Weltanschaaung (world outlook), it is
fair to inquire what exactly is this “real” ?
Does science and materialism constitute a better basis for ethical decision making?
Europe will have a chance to ﬁnd out.
Will we be able to discern anything useful from their experience?
jbp

19 c Europe, Part 2, 1850-1871; General Observations

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19 c Europe, Part 2, 1850-1871; General Observations