IJLTER.ORG Vol 20 No 12 December 2021

International Journal
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Vol.20 No.12

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 20, No. 12 (December 2021)
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Online version: 1694-2116
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VOLUME 20 NUMBER 12 December 2021
Table of Contents
Students’ Perceptions of Content- and Language- Integrated Learning in Vietnam: A Survey Study .......................1
Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen, Lies Sercu
Industrial Engagement in the Technical and Vocational Training (TVET) System...................................................... 19
Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain, Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli, Arasinah Kamis, Mark D. Threeton, Khaizer Omar
The Impact of Teaching Practice on Female Students’ Preparation for Mathematics Teacher Education
Programme in Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria ..................................................................................................35
Sunday Bomboi IJEH, Onoriode Collins POTOKRI
Integrating Video-Based Multimedia in Teaching Physics in Context of Covid-19 in Rwandan Secondary Schools
.................................................................................................................................................................................................49
Gabriel Janvier Tugirinshuti, Leon Rugema Mugabo, Alexis Banuza
Development and Validation of a Model Predicting Students’ Sense of School Belonging and Engagement as a
Function of School Climate.................................................................................................................................................. 64
Jerome St-Amand, Jonathan Smith, Aziz Rasmy
Virtual Mathematics Education during COVID-19: An Exploratory Study of Teaching Practices for Teachers in
Simultaneous Virtual Classes.............................................................................................................................................. 85
Faisal Aloufi, Ibrahim AL-Hussain Khalil, Abdelkader Mohamed Abdelkader Elsayed, Yousef Wardat, Ahmed AL-Otaibi
Factors Affecting Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievements in Chemistry............................................ 114
Aimable Sibomana, Claude Karegeya, John Sentongo
An Examination of the Correlation between South African Grade 12 students’ Mathematics Self-Concept and
their Academic Achievement............................................................................................................................................ 127
James Bill Ouda, Tawanda Runhare, Ndileleni Mudzielwana, Hasina Cassim, Shonisani Agnes Mulovhedzi
Religious Instruction for Students with Autism in an Inclusive Primary School....................................................... 139
Hakiman Hakiman, Bambang Sumardjoko, Waston Waston
Assessing the Higher Education Settings after the Transition to Online Learning: Exploring Teaching,
Assessments, and Students’ Academic Success.............................................................................................................. 159
Nahla Moussa
Harnessing the Power of Reflective Journal Writing in Global Contexts: A Systematic Literature Review........... 174
Anselmus Sudirman, Adria Vitalya Gemilang, Thadius Marhendra Adi Kristanto
Game-Based Didactic Resources as a Strategy in Foreign Language Pedagogy ........................................................ 195
Valeria Sumonte Rojas, Lidia Fuentealba Fuentealba, Ranjeeva Ranjan
Resetting Integrity Through Communication on Plagiarism: University Classrooms Weaving Values into the
Social Fabric......................................................................................................................................................................... 212

Arniza Ghazali, Azniwati Abdul Aziz
Theoretical Models of Integration of Interactive Learning Technologies into Teaching: A Systematic Literature
Review.................................................................................................................................................................................. 232
Laila Mohebi
Learning Potentials of Job Shadowing in Teacher Education....................................................................................... 255
Danijela Makovec
Instructional Leadership Capacity of Secondary School Science Heads of Department in Gauteng, South Africa
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 267
Cynthia B. Malinga, Loyiso C. Jita, Abiodun A. Bada

1
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 1-18, December 2021
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.1
Received Sep 05, 2021; Revised Nov 24, 2021; Accepted Dec 07, 2021
Students’ Perceptions of Content- and Language-
Integrated Learning in Vietnam: A Survey Study
Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen*
KU Leuven, Belgium
Can Tho University, Vietnam
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2927-0632
Lies Sercu
KU Leuven, Belgium
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3213-396X
Abstract. Content- and language-integrated learning (CLIL), an
educational approach, in which the subject matter is taught in a foreign
language. This has become popular in tertiary education. Many research
studies have shown its benefits and discussed the favorable effects,
especially with respect to L2 language gains. Yet, critical voices, also from
the primary stakeholders, namely the students taking part in such
integrated programs, have also been heard. In an effort to integrate into
the international academic and scientific community, universities in
Vietnam have also started to teach academic courses in English. The main
objective of this cross-sectional survey study (N=104) was to explore
Vietnamese students’ perceptions of such dual-training programs and to
investigate to what extent they feel the program currently meets their
needs. Our findings show that both lecturers and students are struggling
in these courses, for one thing, because of insufficient levels of mastery of
the English language; while for another reason, since courses cannot be
characterized as courses in which disciplinary contents and the foreign
language are taught in an integrated way. The way forward seems to be
to educate the lecturers and the students well, before allowing them to
participate in CLIL English courses. All these issues need to be considered
in the context of local Vietnamese educational realities and traditions.
Keywords: English-Medium Instruction (EMI); Content- and Language-
Integrated Learning (CLIL); Vietnamese Higher Education; students’
perception; survey
*
Corresponding author: Phuong-Bao-Tran Nguyen, npbtranctu.edu.vn

2
http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter
1. Introduction
As in other countries in the Asian-Pacific Region, the Vietnamese Ministry of
Education (MOET) has embraced the idea of teaching content courses in English
in both upper-secondary and higher education (HE) institutions. With the
Vietnamese government’s release of the “Teaching and Learning Foreign
Languages in the National Educational System, Period 2008-2020” project, one
might say that the government has trusted the higher education sector with the
extra challenge and responsibility of educating talented Vietnamese youngsters –
not only for the Vietnamese, but also for the global labour market. Master’s in
engineering or Business Administration, for example, also have to become
proficient users of the English language. They have to be able to use that language
flexibly and effectively for social, academic, and professional purposes. According
to the Ministry of Education (MOET, 2008), on graduation, students need to be
able to use a foreign language confidently and independently in communication,
studies and work in an integrated, multilingual, and multicultural environment.
Since 2012, universities have started to supplement or replace English language
teaching courses with English-Medium Instruction (EMI) courses. In EMI, the
lecturer typically uses the English language, and rather than Vietnamese, to teach
a content course. Underlying the introduction of EMI is the belief that offering
courses in English within the meaningful context of learning specialized content
is the ideal way to also foster students’ English language skills.
Directly after the first period of MOET’s “Teaching and Learning Foreign
Languages in the National Educational System” came to an end, this study
wanted to investigate the current EMI situation, as it is perceived by the main
stakeholders: what do students perceive of teaching, their lecturers’ English
proficiency, EMI teaching approaches, their own motivation, and the mastery of
English? Do students believe that EMI courses do not negatively affect either
content or language learning? To that end, a survey study among EMI students
from one university situated in the Mekong Delta was carried out. Students’
perception that data can inform lecturers and university authorities on how to
proceed in the future, in order to meet students’ needs and MOET’s expectations.
In what follows, we first frame the study, defining and assessing EMI and
Content- and Language-Integrated Learning (CLIL), and discussing how CLIL is
perceived by students in tertiary education. Next, we provide a general sketch of
the current situation of EMI and CLIL teaching in Vietnam. This is followed by a
discussion of the research methodology. In the final sections of this paper, we
present and discuss our research findings. The data show that both lecturers and
students are struggling in these courses, for one thing because of insufficient
levels of mastery of the English language and, for another, because courses cannot
be characterized as courses in which disciplinary contents and a foreign language
are taught in an integrated way.

3
2. Background and Literature review
2.1 Content and Language Integrated Learning
As pointed out by Macaro et al. (2018) in their systematic review of research
findings regarding English-medium instruction in Higher Education (HE), EMI is
used to refer to a variety of educational approaches, and “both the definition of
EMI in HE and its practice appear to be fluid.” (Macaro et al., 2018). Both at the
macro- and at the micro-level of education, reference may be made to Content and
Language-Integrated Learning (CLIL) or Integrating Content and Language in
Higher Education (ICLHE). According to Marsh et al. (2012), Content- and
Language-Integrated Learning refers to “any dual-focused educational context in
which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content
and language (Marsh et al., 2012, p. 9). Teachers in a CLIL context are not typically
native speakers of the foreign language or language teachers; they are experts in
an academic discipline (Fajardo Dack et al., 2020). Nor are they language-teaching
specialists, who master a language-teaching methodology.
From this, it follows that CLIL courses at the tertiary educational level may be
closer to English-medium instruction (EMI) or Content-based instruction (CBI)
courses. In such courses, students do receive large amounts of English language
input, but the educational focus remains on content learning. Indeed, in tertiary
education, with its focus on disciplinary knowledge and skills learning, CLIL
courses tend to come closer to CBI and EMI courses, rather than to true CLIL
courses, where the content is learned through language; while language is learned
through content (Coyle et al., 2010; Peukert & Gogolin, 2017).
Generally, it is assumed that the language would be learned alongside the content,
and that there is no need to outline a language-learning trajectory with specific
language attainment gains. Although most studies exploring language learning
outcomes have found that these content-based language instruction programs to
do as well, or better than non-CLIL programs (Graham et al., 2018, p. 30), it is clear
that language input alone does not necessarily guarantee language acquisition
and that pedagogical interventions supporting the integrated learning of
language and content are needed and also beneficial.
2.2. Student perceptions of CLIL
As shown by Goris et al. (2019), in a systematic review of longitudinal
experimental CLIL studies, CLIL learners develop better writing skills than non-
CLIL learners, and additionally, their grammar and vocabulary are better
developed. Significant results are found as regards their enhanced fluency in the
foreign language. Indeed, fluency is the skill commonly believed to be affected
most favorably because of the increased opportunity for authentic communication
(Goris et al., 2019, p. 693).
Given these overall positive results, it comes as no surprise that researchers
investigating students’ perceptions of their CLIL experiences have found that
learners at the tertiary level of education overall hold positive views of CLIL.
Tsuchiya and Pérez Murillo (2015), for example, found that students in Spain and
Japan expressed a relatively positive view towards CLIL in higher education (p.
33). Yet, they also found that students voiced critical concerns regarding CLIL
implementation at university level. These concerns include their insufficient

4
English skills to understand academic subject matter and the potential risk of
lacking subject knowledge in their mother tongue. Aguilar and Rodriguez (2012)
report students’ perceptions of some of their lecturers, as only having a low level
of mastery of English. This leads to lecturers’ slow delivery rate hindering smooth
lecturing, which is said to be “tedious” and “difficult”. Also, CLIL courses lack
sufficient opportunities for discussion; since both students and lecturers do not
feel at home in the foreign language and may show a tendency towards avoiding
student interaction in the classroom (Aguilar & Rodríguez, 2012, p. 193).
On the other hand, students also testify to having improved their English listening
skills and mastery of specialized vocabulary. Nuñez Asomoza (2015),
investigating CLIL at the BA university level in Mexico found that students have
an overall positive perception of CLIL courses. However, this study also reports
that participants identify many areas that could be improved as regards lecturers,
materials and the learning environment in general (Nuñez Asomoza, 2015).
Students generally struggle with developing academic skills, such as academic
writing, identifying and using academic genres and specialized vocabulary. In
addition, they report feeling stressed and anxious in CLIL courses, something that
is also due to the presence of native speakers of English in the CLIL classes. This
feeling of uneasiness is further fostered by a deterioration in their academic
performance because of CLIL. In addition, students remark that teachers need
training in English, CLIL teaching methodology and CLIL material development,
findings which Aguilar and Rodriguez (2012) also suggested.
2.3 CLIL in Vietnam and Vietnam’s new language policy in higher education
In 2012, the Vietnamese government issued a new law on HE, allowing a foreign
language to be used as the medium of instruction. This stirred up heated
discussions, with many people expressing the fear of losing the country’s unity
and a strong Vietnamese cultural identity and heritage. Yet, it is clear that the
government has initiated important changes in the national language policy and
planning, opening Vietnam further to the world.
Following the release of this HE law, Vietnamese HE institutions (HEI) have
established linkages with HEI abroad to develop so-called Advanced (AP), Joint
(JP) and High Quality (HQP) Programs. Whereas HQP’s are locally developed
with reference to foreign programs, A’s are designed and administered in close
cooperation with international partners. Sometimes, Vietnamese students study
the same curriculum as students in the partner universities. At other times, the
foreign curriculum is adapted to local Vietnamese needs and circumstances. The
assumption is that all teaching in these programs is done in English and that
English medium foreign textbooks are to be used.
Even if the government has been successful in establishing a sense of urgency
regarding the need to integrate in the international research and teaching
community in HEIs, it has not been fully efficient when it comes to stimulating
the necessary preparatory work that HEIs need to do before starting with such an
important reform (Tran & Marginson, 2018). Given that the students are major
stakeholders in this whole endeavor, the government could have incited HEI to

5
set minimum EMI course entry requirements, specifically with respect to the level
of mastery of the English language.
Yet, at the national level, there is no consistency as regards the entry level
requirements for students, who want to enroll in EMI programs in which at least
60% of the courses are taught in English. It is said that they should have a
sufficient mastery of the English language, but no certificate of English mastery
may be required, and no entry test has yet to be taken. When an English certificate
is required, a limited to moderate user level, as defined by IELTS (International
English Language Testing Services), or a level comparable to an A2 level (CEFR,
Common European Framework of Languages) may be deemed sufficient.
However, that level does not allow for easy content, comprehension or
communication in the EMI content classroom.
When taking the VSTEP, the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English
Proficiency, and obtaining a B2 or even a C1 score, students are led to believe that
they have obtained the internationally recognized CEFR B2 or C1 level, whereas
in fact, the VSTEP is a test that is mainly focused on general English
communication skills. Thus, it does not reflect international standards where
students at the B2 or C1 level are required to demonstrate their understanding of
and ability to discuss and write complex texts on abstract topics, including
technical discussions in their field of specialization.
As regards EMI lecturers, government documents require that they hold a PhD or
a master’s degree obtained from an overseas university. Yet, as demonstrated by
Nguyen (Nguyen, 2018, p. 123-124), the overseas criteria can be applied loosely,
and lecturers who did not study in an Anglo-Saxon environment, or did not
obtain an English-medium PhD or a master’s degree can also be asked to teach a
course in English. Lecturers do not need to provide proof of their mastery of
English at the CEFR C1-level. In addition, professional development toward
better EMI teaching competence is left to the lecturer’s own initiative.
Additionally, from research, it has become clear that lecturers have not been
consulted, as to whether they feel up to teaching a content course in English, let
alone supporting their students’ development of their English language
proficiency (ELP) via their course. Therefore, lecturers may not experience full
ownership of the reform; and they may experience feelings of uncertainty and
inadequacy (Do & Le, 2017; Vu & Burns, 2014). As specialists in their area of study,
they may fear a language-content trade-off to the detriment of content, something
which to them is not acceptable.
3. The Methodology
3.1 Aim
From the above review of the literature, it is clear that lecturers and students may
be both supportive, as well as critical of CLIL education, and that local language
policy-related decisions pertaining to the conditions, under which CLIL programs
can co-determine their level of success. The aim of this study, then, was to explore
students’ perceptions of CLIL teaching in Vietnam directly after the first phase of

6
the government’s “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National
Educational System, Period 2008-2020”, whereby the project came to an end.
Using a validated questionnaire, the study aimed to answer the following research
questions:
(1) What are students’ perceptions of their mastery of English within EMI
courses?
(2) What are students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language proficiency
within EMI courses?
(3) What are students’ perceptions of the amount of teaching done in English
within EMI courses?
(4) What are students’ perceptions of the teaching materials used in EMI courses?
(5) What are students’ preferred teaching activities within EMI courses?
(6) To what extent do students feel they have been able to strengthen their English
language skills during such EMI courses?
The main hypothesis of the study was that growth in students’ English language
proficiency would be limited; and it would depend on the amount of teaching
time done in English, students’ initial ELP, lecturers’ ELP and the chosen teaching-
and-learning activities.
3.2 The Research Instrument
The study used a quantitative cross-sectional design (McKinley & Rose, 2019). A
self-developed and pretested questionnaire survey (see Attachment 1) was used
to explore the following aspects: students’ background (items 1-4), students’
perceptions of their mastery of English (items 5 -7), students ‘perceptions of the
usefulness of teaching activities (items 8-16), students’ assessment of the amount
of teaching time taking place in English (item 17), students’ views on whether or
not CLIL education had helped them to improve their English language skills
(item 18) or their content knowledge (item 19), students’ perceptions of their
lecturers' English language proficiency (items 20-29), and, finally, students’
appreciation of teaching materials (items 30-41).
The participants responded to each statement by using a five-point scale. The
survey answers were coded and checked for reliability. A strong Cronbach's
Alpha (alpha 0.843) was obtained.
3.3 Sample
3.3.1 Student sample
The survey was distributed among freshmen CLIL students from one large
Vietnamese public university (PU) that can be considered as being representative
of other public universities in Vietnam. From all the EMI students, a randomized
sample of 365 students was selected. From this sample, 104 students from diverse
study backgrounds participated in the study on a voluntary basis. The
participants were studying Business, ICT or Engineering.
3.3.2 University profile
At PU, EMI was first introduced in 2010 in the study areas ‘Advanced
Biotechnology’ and ‘Advanced Aquaculture’. To these, other disciplines were

7
added in 2015, namely the areas of Information Technology and International
Business. Currently, this group of pioneers has been joined by EMI programs in
‘Chemistry Technology’, Electricity Technology’, ‘Construction Technology’,
‘Food Technology’, and ‘Finance and Banking’. Following government
regulations, a minimum of 60% of courses are to be fully delivered in English.
Lecturers were required to have obtained a PhD, or to have graduated from an
overseas master’s program. However, they did not need to provide proof of a
CEFR C1 level of mastery of the English language.
From a limited set of interviews with lecturers, we learned that lecturers do not
receive assistance when turning their Vietnamese-medium course into an EMI
course, nor has a university-wide service been put in place to which they could
turn for advice on how to integrate language learning into their content teaching,
or to prepare course materials so that students can learn both the language and
the content from them. Lecturers use English course books published by
renowned publishers; since these are considered to be reliable sources of
knowledge; and also they feel that their mastery of the English language does not
permit them to write equivalent teaching materials themselves.
Before 2020, students who wanted to enter an EMI program were required to take
a computerized PU in specific general English placement test, designed after the
TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) test. When they did not
reach a B1 level, they were required to take an intensive 20 credit English course
before they could enter the EMI program in their sophomore year. After having
taken the course, students were expected to have reached a B1 level in English.
Since 2020, and since students from English medium high school programs,
offered in Schools for the Gifted, have entered university, admission is based on
the students’ English and content scores obtained in three EMI high-school
subjects.
3.4 The data analysis
The data processing was done in accordance with the GDPR-file G-2021-3393,
approved by the GDPR and Ethics Commission of Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
(KU Leuven). Descriptive and inferential data analyses were performed with the
help of SPSS version 20.
4. The Results
4.1 Students’ perceptions of their mastery of English
As regards students’ self-assessment of their English language proficiency, 15%
of the students indicated that they have a level below B1, with about 12%
testifying to having a level as low as A1. 27% for assessing themselves, as having
acquired a B1 level, and about half of the students, as having a B2 level. Only 4%
said that they had a C1 level of ability.
When asked whether they hold a certificate testifying to their level of English, 56
students or 54% said that they do. Yet, strikingly, all these students self-assessed
their actual proficiency level to be lower than that which the certificate indicated.
When inquiring into students’ confidence to use English during EMI courses, one
quarter (25%) indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with that statement.

8
They reported that they never feel sufficiently confident to use English; rather
they feel frightened and stressed when they do not understand their lecturer,
when s/he is speaking in English; and they worry that their final results would
be poor, because of that. About one third of the students took a neutral stance in
these matters, from which it follows that only about half of all freshmen feel
confident enough to study in English in content courses, or to participate actively
in EMI courses because of their limited English proficiency.
4.2 Students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language proficiency
As regards students’ perceptions of their lecturers’ English language competence,
as many as 58,5% of the students answered that they agreed or strongly agreed
with their lecturers having excellent English language skills, from which it follows
that no less than 41,5% indicated they did not agree with this statement.
When asked about what skills students want to find in a lecturer, they indicated
that they mostly expect their lecturers to have content knowledge (88% of
students), to be able to explain that content well (88% of students) and have
knowledge of specialized vocabulary (75% of students). Surprisingly, the variable
that meets with the lowest overall agreement is that lecturers need to be able to
use flawless English (38% of students). The ability to reformulate or to pronounce
words correctly is deemed to be more important than that of grammatical
correctness, when using English.
4.3 Students’ perceptions of the amount of teaching done in English
When asked about the amount of teaching that is done in English in EMI-courses,
the picture obtained testifies to the very diverse experiences. As can be seen from
Figure 1, the largest group of students (62 %) indicated that they believed their
lecturers use English for at least 50 to 60% of the teaching time, with 44% of
students’ assessment being that most lecturers meet the 50-60% requirement put
forward by PU. It follows that about 2/5 or 38% of the students believed that the
lecturers speak Vietnamese during about half or more than half of the teaching
time.
Figure 1: Students’ perceptions of the amount of English used by lecturers

9
4.4 Students’ perceptions of teaching materials, as fostering their English
proficiency
When asked whether their teaching materials might help them to acquire course
contents and the English language equally well, 46,2% of students said that they
agreed with this statement, given that teaching materials are generally in English.
Yet, more than half of the students voiced the opinion that content learning
outweighs language learning. Only slightly over half of the EMI students (52%)
said they believed that their teaching materials systematically fosters their English
proficiency.
4.5 Students’ perceptions of teaching activities
When asked about the usefulness of teaching activities, the students indicated
they preferred teacher-centered activities, where the lecturers give oral
presentations and explain English media scientific texts, next to allowing students
to discuss the contents in groups. Independent individual work, such as making
oral presentations in English, was considered to be less useful, by quite a large
group of freshmen (30 to 40%).
4.6 Students’ assessment of the extent to which they feel they have been able to
strengthen their English language skills during EMI courses
Finally, the questionnaire asked whether the respondents believed that they have
been able to improve their English language skills. As many as 69% of the students
ticked the agree or strongly agree box, with none of the students strongly
disagreeing with the statement; and the remaining 31% of freshmen indicating
that they were not really sure about this issue.
5. Discussion
The findings from our survey have provided important information regarding the
extent to which EMI courses can be considered CLIL courses and about how
students experience their learning and teaching situation. The findings
demonstrate the lack of growth in English-language proficiency among a large
group of PU freshmen, thereby confirming our main hypothesis. Both lecturers
and students were struggling in EMI courses, which confirms the earlier work of,
for example, Nguyen (2018), Tran and Phuong (2019), and Macaro et al. (2018). In
many cases, this struggle follows from lecturers’ and students’ insufficient level
of mastery of the English language.
Our findings also indicated that EMI courses cannot be characterized as true CLIL
courses, suggesting that a dual focus on both the content and the English language
teaching is not yet in place. Traditional approaches to teaching (lecture format
combined with group discussions, which, as it was noticed during our class
observations, often take place in Vietnamese, not in English). These are preferred
activities in which the students are obliged to demonstrate their personal mastery
of content-and-language in an integrated way, for example during an oral
presentation followed by a Q&A session. Even if the teaching materials may be in
English, too many students indicated that their proficiency in English does not
substantially improve in an EMI course – thanks to more extensive purposive
English language input. Students with a lower language proficiency indicated
they do not always understand their lecturers; and that they feel anxious to speak

10
English. A large part of their teaching is done in Vietnamese, which may either
follow from lecturers’ awareness of students’ comprehension difficulties, or from
their own lack of mastery of this medium of instruction.
Furthermore, too large a group of students indicated that they feel their current
level of English does not allow them to benefit fully from EMI courses both in
terms of content and language teaching, is an unfortunate finding, but this should
not surprise us; since it confirms the earlier findings (Phuong & Nguyen, 2019).
When self-assessing their proficiency level, students systematically indicate that
the English language certificate they obtained seems to have overrated their actual
proficiency. This may follow from the fact that students have been studying for
the English-language proficiency test, that they wanted to take, with many
practice materials being available that could help test takers prepare specific
answers to specific exam questions.
This is true for the VSTEP, and also for other international English-language tests.
However, from learning answers to exam questions by heart, it does not
necessarily follow that one can actually transfer vocabulary to new situations, or
to use specific grammatical structures independently. Moreover, as the entrance
test freshmen take a general English test, passing that test does not guarantee that
students would then be able to process scientific reading materials or foreign
language textbooks, which may be written for native speakers of English, let alone
that they would then be able to learn a language from these materials; since they
may have to devote all of their cognitive resources to the comprehension and
study of the subject matter.
PU would be wise to address the issue of the entry requirements for students. It
appears that at present, with English proficiency levels of students being on the
low side when graduating from high school, it is currently PU’s own
responsibility to prepare freshmen well for EMI / CLIL education via intensive
English courses, as is done already now. Furthermore, PU may be advised to opt
for a more gradual build-up of the EMI program, with more courses being taught
in Vietnamese in the freshmen year, but with a gradual reduction of Vietnamese
medium courses in the sophomore year, to end with a full English-medium
program during the students’ graduation years.
Our findings regarding lecturers’ use of English during EMI courses give food for
thought. If it is PU’s strategy and ambition to allow its outgoing graduates to
participate in EMI master programs overseas, or to attract incoming foreign
students who are not yet able to speak or read Vietnamese in their High Quality
and Advanced Programs, major changes in current teaching approaches are
needed. Indeed, the only way to attract foreign students would be to teach EMI
fully in English, to provide English-medium descriptions of courses and course
procedures, and to demand English entry levels that are not below the CEFR.
B1; and preferably the B2 level, especially for advanced courses. It follows from
this these lecturers should be able to provide proof of their mastery of English at
the CEFR C1 level, by successfully completing an internationally recognized
English language test, but especially by demonstrating their mastery of the
language in their teaching. In addition, lecturers need to be familiar with CLIL

11
teaching strategies and to be able to implement them during their courses, so that
students can integrate the learning of specialized vocabulary with content
learning and can practice and further enhance their critical thinking and academic
presentation skills in the English language.
Nevertheless, it is important to strike a good balance between using Vietnamese
and English in courses where not all the students have mastered the English
language well enough. If lecturers decide to explain difficult concepts and
procedures in Vietnamese, so as to prevent subject content loss, this strategy may
be wholly appropriate, especially in view of the fact that universities, like the one
under scrutiny in this study, face the danger of having larger groups of students
who opt out of EMI programs; because they experience them as being too far
above their current abilities. This might damage PU’s reputation as a university
where it is said that excellent conditions are in place for supporting students to
learn.
Furthermore, it may be advisable to develop a CLIL methodology course for
content lecturers, and to provide them with personalized CLIL teaching support
at their request. This approach could lead to true CLIL teaching, in which the
learners can learn both precise subject matter contents and accurate academic and
professional English in an integrated way. In this way, they would be able to enjoy
participating actively in EMI courses; and they could also acquire what is said to
be typically Anglo-Saxon academic and professional skills. Furthermore, students
should receive dedicated instructions on how to best learn in EMI courses,
learning-appropriate strategies to read English-medium academic texts, so that
they can maximize their understanding and application of subject matter, whilst
also enlarging their discipline-related and academic lexicon and language skills.
A limitation of this study lay in the number of respondents it could attract. Only
104 respondents participated in the investigation. Following this, we could not
explore potential differences between the various subgroups of students, for
example with respect to age, number of years of EMI-experience or disciplinary
field. Even if we are well-aware of the fact that we have mapped students’
perceptions only and have not had the opportunity to actually attend EMI
classrooms for a limited number of times, we are confident that students’ answer
reliability mirrors, which reflect the actual teaching situation at PU, as they
confirm what we observed during our own classroom observations.
In future, via the collection of more and more longitudinal data, it should be
possible to determine when students become truly ready for CLIL teaching; and
when perhaps the teaching rhythm could be accelerated. When lecturers could be
given the guarantee that an initial slowdown in learning within a CLIL context,
especially in the first years of university study, this would surely be followed by
more substantial learning in which the contents and the language are integrated,
they may be more motivated to teaching according to CLIL methodology, leaving
EMI teaching, which may actually be a more Vietnamese-medium teaching than
the EMI-teaching, behind them.
In the future, it would also be interesting to study to what extent high school
students, who have graduated from the schools for the gifted and have entered

12
EMI courses at PU for the first time in the schoolyear 2020-2021 do better than
students who did not attend such CLIL secondary schools before entering an EMI
program at PU. The question to be answered is whether the effort these high
school students have made to study mathematics, physics and chemistry in
English has really been worthwhile? Do students who take an intensive English
course during the first year of their university education not keep up with these
students as regards their mastery of the English language, or worse, would they
surpass them in terms of content learning? Would all these students remain
motivated to support CLIL learning?
Does their motivation fluctuate, and if so, why? Are they able to maintain the
image of an ideal self? (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009). Here, we are referring to one
who can participate with ease in the international academic community? Would
they go to study further abroad, and thus contribute to Vietnam’s reputation as a
reliable business partner?
6. Conclusion
The study reported here has looked into CLIL implementation realities against the
background of MOET’s project “Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the
National Educational System, Period 2008-2020”, which has now come to an end.
Even if the government has been successful in establishing a sense of urgency
regarding the need to integrate in the international research and teaching
community in HEIs, it has not been fully efficient when it comes to stimulating
the necessary preparatory work that HEIs need to do before starting with such an
important reform, which touches the heart of education, as it affects the degree of
comprehensibility of communication in HEI courses (Tran & Marginson, 2018).
Our study reveals that actual teaching reality may still be far removed from the
desired reality, namely that lecturers are fully able to teach content courses in
English and that students are wholly ready to participate in these courses. From
the data, it is clear that lecturers are devoted to content teaching and that students
appreciate their efforts. However, the case of PU has shown that sustainable CLIL
teaching also depends on improved students’ and lecturers’ preparation. One
thing that practitioners should take to heart, is to inform students of the language
level required for successful participation in the course.
Open communication may motivate students to try and achieve the desired ELP
level before entering the CLIL program. Another thing is to support students in
the acquisition of CLIL learning skills through systematically directing students’
attention to important content and language features throughout their courses, in
order to best serve their students, lecturers would be wise to devote themselves
to the acquisition of CLIL teaching methodology, including the preparation of
teaching materials and the selection of teaching formats.
7. References
Aguilar, M., & Rodríguez, R. (2012). Lecturer and student perceptions on CLIL at a
Spanish university. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
15(2), 183–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2011.615906
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and Language Integrated Learning (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press. www.cambridge.org/9780521130219

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Do, H. M., & Le, L. T. D. (2017). Content lecturers’ challenges in EMI classroom. European
Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(1), 1–21.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.256802
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (Vol. 36).
Multilingual Matters Bristol.
Fajardo Dack, T. M., Argudo, J., & Abad, M. (2020). Language and Teaching Methodology
Features of CLIL in University Classrooms: A Research Synthesis. Colombian
Applied Linguistics Journal, 22(1 SE-Theme Review), 40–54.
https://doi.org/10.14483/22487085.13878
Goris, J., Denessen, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2019). The contribution of CLIL to learners’
international orientation and EFL confidence. Language Learning Journal, 47(2),
246–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2016.1275034
Graham, K. M., Choi, Y., Davoodi, A., Razmeh, S., & Dixon, L. Q. (2018). Language and
Content Outcomes of CLIL and EMI: A Systematic Review. Latin American Journal
of Content & Language Integrated Learning, 11(1), 19–38.
https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2018.11.1.2
Macaro, E., Curle, S., Pun, J., An, J., & Dearden, J. (2018a). A systematic review of English
medium instruction in higher education. Language Teaching, 51(1), 36–76.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000350
Marsh, D., Mehisto, P., Wolff, D., & Frígols-Martín, M. J. (2012). European Framework for
CLIL Teacher Education. A framework for the professional development of CLIL
teachers. In Encuentro (Vol. 21). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000243
McKinley, J., & Rose, H. (2019). The routledge handbook of research methods in applied
linguistics. In The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics.
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367824471
Nguyen, H. T. (2018). English-medium-instruction management: The missing piece in the
internationalisation puzzle of Vietnamese higher education. Internationalisation in
Vietnamese higher education (pp. 119–137). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-319-78492-2_7
Nuñez Asomoza, A. (2015). Students’ perceptions of the impact of CLIL in a Mexican BA
program. Profile Issues in TeachersProfessional Development, 17(2), 111–124.
https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v17n2.47065
Peukert, H., & Gogolin, I. (2017). Dynamics of Linguistic Diversity (Vol. 6). John Benjamins
Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.6
Phuong, Y. H., & Nguyen, T. T. (2019). Students’ Perceptions towards the Benefits and
Drawbacks of EMI Classes. English Language Teaching, 12(5), 88–100.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n5p88
Tran, L. T., & Marginson, S. (2018). Internationalisation of Vietnamese higher education:
An overview. Internationalisation in Vietnamese Higher Education, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78492-2
Tran, T. T. Q., & Phuong, H. Y. (2019). An investigation into English preparatory programs
for EMI learning in higher education institutes in Vietnam. Can Tho University
Journal of Science, 11(2), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.22144/ctu.jen.2019.024
Tsuchiya, K., & Pérez Murillo, M. D. (2015). Comparing the language policies and the
students’ perceptions of CLIL in tertiary education in Spain and Japan. Latin
American Journal of Content and Language Integrated Learning, 8(1), 25–35.
https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2015.8.1.3
Vu, N. T. T., & Burns, A. (2014). English as a medium of instruction: Challenges for
Vietnamese tertiary lecturers. Journal of Asia TEFL, 11(3), 1–31.
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_3_01.pdf

14
Appendix 1
QUESTIONNAIRE ON STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF EMI AND CLIL
COURSES
This questionnaire is about the present implementation of Content and English
language integrated learning and teaching at our university. We hope that you
can give your feedback on specialized subjects taught in English. Therefore, your
answers will help our university to improve the quality and the effectiveness of
your academic discipline courses taught in English in the future.
The main objective of this questionnaire is to gather information about your
impressions and reactions to content and knowledge teaching in English. This
questionnaire is anonymous and confidential. The obtained information will be
only used for research purposes. Your responses will NOT be passed on to your
instructors.
Thank you very much for your collaboration.
Section 1: Student’s Background
1. Student’s Email
2. Your major:
3. Your age:
4. Your faculty / college :
Section 2: Your mastery of English
5.Do you hold any English
certificate and if yes, which
exactly?
(e.g. A2/KET ; B1/ PET, B2
(FCE); C1 (CAE); IELTS,
TOEIC, TOFLE)
6.What is your level of
English proficiency?
Beginner / A1□ Elementary/ A2 □
Intermediate/B1 □
Upper-Intermediate / B2 □ Advanced/ C1 □
Proficiency/ C2 □
7. How would you rate
your English proficiency
related to your specific field
of study?
1.poor 2.fair  3.good 4.very good 5.
excellent

15
Section 3: How would you evaluate the following course tasks and teaching
activities?
Not
useful
at all
Slightly
useful
Quite
useful
Useful Extremely
useful
8. Presentations related to
content-subject issues
9. Group work to analyse and
discuss issues related
to your scientific field.
10. Individual project to present
or report issues related to your
scientific field.
11. Oral presentations on issues
related to your scientific field
12. Recording students’ views
according to their oral
presentations
13. Assessing and discussing
presentations made by other
groups.
14. Processing scientific texts.
15. Projects relevant to your
scientific field.
16. The use of computers to
carry out projects relevant to
your scientific field.
17. What is the percentage of teaching time that is carried through in English?
______________
18. The integrated content and English learning has helped me improve my
English-language skills
Strongly disagree  disagree  neutral agree  strongly agree


16
19. The integrated content and English learning has helped me to develop my
knowledge in other content courses also.
Strongly disagree  disagree  neutral agree  strongly agree

Section 4: Your instructors/lecturer’ English language proficiency
20.I think that the instructors teaching my subject-content courses have excellent
English language competence
Strongly disagree disagree  neutralagree strongly agree 
When your teacher
speaks in English in CLIL
class, what do you
consider important?
Not at all
important
Very
unimportant
Neither
important
nor
unimportant
important Extremely
Important
21. the correct
pronunciation of words
22. teachers’ explanations
and instructions
23. knowledge of
vocabulary
24. knowledge of the
contents
25. the use of facial
expressions, gestures and
body movements
26. grammatical
correctness
27. check that the others
understand me when I
speak
28. the ability to
reformulate (e.g. teacher
can change and modify
questions, teaching
instructions, plans for
students Understanding
the contents
29.Others:

17
Section 4: Teaching materials
Statements strongly
disagree
disagree Neutral agree Strongly
agree
30. The present materials
can satisfy language and
content- teaching equally.
31. The content element
outweighs the language
element in the current
materials.
32.Language element
outweighs content
element in the current
materials.
33. The current materials
systematically foster
English proficiency.
foster learning skills
development.
(e.g. They can improve
the way you study
subject-content and
English)
foster learners’
autonomy.
(e.g. You have the ability
to study English and
contents in an integrated
way by making use of my
free time to study,
keeping a record of my
study, opting out of class
activities to practice,
catching chances to take
part in activities such as
pair/ group discussion.)
foster cooperative
learning.

18
help create a safe
learning environment.
(The materials can guide
you on how to study the
subject-content
effectively; they provide
questions, knowledge
summary, and the
glossary)
seek ways of
incorporating authentic
language and authentic
language use.
foster critical thinking.
foster the learning in the
course to be meaningful.
meet the appropriate
technical requirements,
like pictures, format, or
multimedia.
-

19
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 19-34, December 2021
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.20.12.2
Received Sep 11, 2021; Revised Dec 03, 2021; Accepted Dec 07, 2021
Industrial Engagement in the Technical and
Vocational Training (TVET) System
Mohd Azlan Mohammad Hussain, Rafeizah Mohd Zulkifli* and Arasinah Kamis
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9760-1010
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3621-2668
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3233-4027
Mark D. Threeton
The Pennsylvania State University, State College, U.S.A.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2255-4704
Khaizer Omar
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0794-5018
Abstract. From 2010 through to 2021, this study critically assessed
Malaysia's government efforts to increase industrial involvement in the
country's TVET system. The goal of this research is to look at what the
Malaysian government has done to strengthen industrial involvement in
the country's TVET system from 2010 to 2021, as well as to make
recommendations for any future changes. A textual narrative synthesis,
based on three elements: strategy, execution, and the impact of those
policies in promoting industrial involvement in the Malaysian TVET
system, was used to conduct a systematic review. Five government
policies since 2010 have been extracted from 231 linked-literature sources,
each of which presented a strategy to improve industry-TVET
cooperation. All of these government measures, according to the report,
adopted a corporatist paradigm, in order to encourage corporate
participation in the national TVET system. This was done by providing
various incentives, including tax breaks, training grants, and subsidies.
Improvements have been suggested to boost the industry-TVET
relationship in Malaysia, particularly by giving connected industries
some obligations to participate in the country's human-resource
development, in comparison to the German model of the dual
Apprenticeship programme.
Keywords: industrial engagement; technical and vocational education;
vocational education; dual system; industry-TVET partnership;
Malaysian TVET; Malaysian government policy

20
1. Introduction
Malaysia is a developing country with a strong emphasis on industrial,
agricultural, and service industries. As Malaysia progresses toward becoming a
developed country, a considerable effort has been made to build local human
resources, in order to meet the present and the future job demand. Since 2011, the
country has made substantial efforts to develop the local human resources
through government incentives and initiatives, in order to improve the country's
TVET system, thereby resulting in the production of future talent for the country.
Malaysia has pledged to become a society that achieves sustainable growth,
equitable wealth distribution, and a good quality of living for all of its residents
by 2030, as part of its "2030 Share-Prosperity Vision" (Malaysian Ministry of
Economic Affair, 2019). Using advanced technology in the industrial and service
sectors, as well as boosting investment in the machinery and equipment sectors,
are some of its efforts to attain these aims.
As a result, Malaysia wants a minimum of 30% of its workforce to be qualified as
high-skilled employees by 2030, in order to meet the demands of the job market.
TVET has risen to the top of the priority list for accomplishing these goals.
Although Malaysia's TVET system is on track to produce skilled people in
demand by local industry, TVET products must exceed the quality standards set
by the particular industries or corporations. According to the Malaysian Economic
Plan Unit (2015), feedback from industry has revealed a mismatch between
graduates' abilities, knowledge, and attitudes and what is expected in the job
situation.
In order to address this problem, we need a formula for increasing the breadth
and depth of industrial participation in the TVET systems, in order to establish
high-quality training programmes that meets the needs of businesses and those of
the present labour market. Industrial involvement in the TVET system is usually
done on three levels: (a) industrial experience; (b) collaboration and partnership;
and (c) law (Yunos, Sern & Hamdan, 2018).
According to Yunos, Sern, and Hamdan (2018), most TVET institutions request
industrial experience through internship programmes from industry; because this
is the best platform for students to apply their knowledge and skills in a real-
world setting, while also understanding the dynamic world of work. In order to
solve each problem, the partnership or collaboration parts require synergy among
all the industries and TVET centres (Yunos, Sern & Hamdan, 2018). For example,
companies contribute input and participate actively in the development of TVET
curricula; while TVET centres do the necessary research and development to
tackle the industrial concerns.
The third pillar, legislation, refers to government policies and regulations
regarding industrial engagement in the TVET system, particularly various
incentives granted by the government to encourage industrial participation in
their TVET system (Postiglione & Tang, 2019). Although industrial participation
in the TVET system is critical, gaining their participation is difficult; since there is
still a grey area in determining the win-win benefits for both parties. Every TVET

21
centre is keen to form strategic partnerships with businesses, in order to provide
students with the necessary industrial experience through internships,
apprenticeships, on-the-job training, and other programmes. These exercises are
critical in assisting students in becoming physically and intellectually ready for a
job (Tan & Tang, 2016). However, TVET colleges can only offer a limited number
of mutually beneficial services to industry.
In Malaysia, the On-the-Job Training (OJT) programme for TVET students is
currently the most important industrial contribution to meeting the needs of
training centres, particularly for graduates from local TVET universities.
However, their contributions are lower than that which TVET institutions had
hoped for; because they require significant industrial input in the creation and
improvement of their programmes, in order for them to be marketable. On the
industrial level, the present cooperation with TVET centres tends to be one-sided,
due to the lack of mutual interest that TVET institutions can offer to potential
industrial partners (Pillay et al., 2013).
The main benefits of partnering with TVET universities are usually letters of
recognition, tax revenue, and personnel recruiting. However, only tax revenue
appears to be a convincing and profitable incentive for the industries; whereas
new recruitment after OJT is becoming less popular, as several studies have
shown that many employers still prefer to hire foreign labour rather than local
labour, because of the lower wages (Norsi'ee et al., 2014). The Malaysian
government has taken these challenges seriously, and the action plan has been
incorporated into most government programmes and national planning, as well
as being revised on a regular basis.
Consequently, this research will critically examine all the government policies and
plans dating back to 2010, in terms of incentives and tactics to increase industrial
engagement in Malaysia's technical and vocational training system. This analysis
was carried out by the author, based on three major elements: strategy,
implementation, and impact.
2. Methodology
This research is based on a ten-year comprehensive literature evaluation of
Malaysian government policies and pertinent publications. The primary source of
information in this study comprised secondary data from government official
papers, such as budget planning, annual reports, and policy filing, which was
supplemented with journal articles from internet resources.
Popay et al. (2006) and Lucas et al. (2007) proposed a method of textual narrative
synthesis, which was implemented in this study, by using a standard data-
extraction format to extract various study characteristics (e.g., issues, findings,
suggestions, etc.) from each piece of literature. According to textual narrative
synthesis, these studies can be divided into homogeneous groupings. Then, using
the data retrieved, the similarities and differences between the various research
projects were evaluated (Lucas et al., 2007). The quantitative counts were able to
show the number of studies with each attribute, because of the consistent coding

22
style. To address the research question, a commentary on the strength of evidence
could be employed (Lucas et al., 2007).
The first step in this research is to find relevant material by using general
keywords, such as "Malaysian Development Plan" and "Malaysian government
policy" in the Google Scholar database. A total of 231 literature sources have been
identified, as a result of this approach. The selection and refining process was
carried out until five primary literatures were chosen to be analysed by utilising
the textual narrative synthesis (see Figure 1). The technique adopted by
Almestahiri et al. (2017) in their literature-review study was followed for the
refining and selecting process. These five literatures were chosen because, in
addition to being within the researcher's timeline, they had a specific objective
relating to industry-TVET system collaboration (i.e., the years 2010-2021). The
remaining literature sources were employed to back up the study's discussion and
findings. Figure 1 depicts the overall process of selecting the literature, as
implemented by Almestahiri et al. (2017).
Figure 1: The literature-selection process
The selected literature was critically examined for parallels and variations in
strategy, implementation, and impact of government policies on increasing
industrial participation in the Malaysian TVET system. The author also made
certain that all of the study's conclusions would be reported professionally,
thereby avoiding faked or fabricated data, as well as any sort of plagiarism.
3. The Findings
Malaysia's 10th Development Plan (10th MPDP, 2011-2015) and Malaysia's 11th
Development Plan (11th MDP, 2016-2020), which are the five-year Malaysian
blueprints for developing the country's social, environmental, and economic
status, are two of the five Malaysian government policies chosen for textual
narrative-synthesis analysis. The government's goal to offer a fair standard of life
to all Malaysians by 2030, is the third policy in Malaysia's Shared-Prosperity
Vision 2030, which was presented in 2019. The fourth policy is the National
Recorded in search database
(n=231)
Recorded Screening
(n=231)
Full article accessed
(n=27)
Textual narrative synthesis
(n=5)
Excluded (n= 204)
Unrelated to research study (n =132)
Time period below than 2010 (n=72)
Excluded (n= 22)
Unrelated to research objective (n =22)
Identification
Screening
Eligibility
Included

23
Economic Recovery Plan (PENJANA), which focuses on labour-market
stabilisation; and this was implemented in 2020, as a response to the social and
economic catastrophe brought on by the global pandemic of Covid-19.
The last policy chosen for further analysis was the Strategic Programme to
Empower the People and the Economy (PEMERKASA, 2021), which is highly
focused on initiatives to boost economic growth, to support businesses, and to
continue targeted assistance to people and the sectors still affected by Covid-19.
3.1 Malaysia’s 10th Development Plan (MDP)
The Malaysian government is preparing the country to become a developed
nation by 2020 through its 10th Development Plan (2011-2015), which requires the
country to double down on productivity and innovation, as well as to prepare a
generation to become a creative and innovative workforce (Malaysian Economic
Plan Unit [EPU], 2010). Furthermore, the government is required to implement
the Vocational Education Transformation within that timeframe, in order to
transform Malaysia into a developed country with high-income residents (Abdul
Rahman, Mohammad Hussain & Mohammad Zulkifli, 2020). In order to fulfil the
needs of developed countries, Malaysia's government has recognised the need to
improve Malaysian skills in 2010, in order to promote employability by
addressing the future job-market needs. The 10th MDP outlined a strategy to
rebrand Malaysian TVET by updating and harmonising its curriculum quality
with the industrial requirements, while also seeking greater enrolment in the
TVET programmes.
The introduction of Industrial Leading Bodies (ILBs) to promote the public-
private partnership and to build the industry’s recognition of the Malaysian TVET
system is one of the important initiatives made to restructure Malaysian TVET, in
order to render it more industrially oriented. The ILBs are made up of
representatives from various business sectors, who play an important role in
offering feedback and guidance on the Malaysian TVET system, the in light of the
current and future market trends. Their advice is primarily focused on the
following topics:
1. The establishment of an occupational framework, which examines the
structure, job description, and abilities required for a specific industrial
vocation.
2. NOSS (National Occupational Skills Standard), is a collection of standard
abilities expected of skilled professionals in certain occupational categories,
based on the current industrial needs.
3. The necessity for upskilling, new skilling, and skill certification among current
industrial workers.
4. Conducting research (Department of Skills Development, 2020)
Thirty ILBs are expected to be actively participating in Malaysia's TVET system
by 2019. The Malaysian Department of Skills and Development has developed the
National Occupational Framework (NOF) and the National Occupational Skills
Standard (NOSS), as guidelines for curriculum development and revision in
Malaysian TVET programmes, together with the help of expert panels comprising
industrial experts and practitioners from specific ILBs occupation sectors. The

24
Occupational Framework defines a certain occupation's work scope, in terms of
job competencies. The National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS) is then
developed, with a total of 1,819 Malaysian National Occupational Skills Standards
(NOSS) developed in 2019 as a guideline for producing curricular content for
Malaysia's TVET training programme.
Additionally, this offers companies instructions for training and examination
requirements for their employees, in order for them to become trained and
certified personnel, in accordance with the applicable standards and norms.
Another strategy implemented, as part of the 10th MDP, was to engage Malaysian
industries in the TVET system, by streamlining TVET delivery through the
National Dual-Training System (NDTS). The NDTS is an apprenticeship
programme, in which 70 to 80 per cent of the training or the practical session is
conducted in the real workplace; while 20-30 per cent of the theoretical lesson is
conducted in TVET training centres, either through block-release (i.e. one week in
a training centre and four weeks in the workplace for every month) or day-release
(i.e. one day in a training centre and five days a week at the workplace) or day-
release (i.e. one day in a training centre (Ali et al., 2015). The NDTS has received
a lot of attention, because it provides:
1. Future skilled workers with on-the-job training.
2. More opportunities for an apprentice to be hired because the company pays
close attention to their performance and abilities.
3. An apprentice's productive contribution that helps both the employer and the
apprentice.
Although the NDTS was first implemented in the Malaysian TVET system in 2005,
the government has budgeted a total of MYR 150 million (about USD 35 million)
under the 10th MDP in 2010, in order to encourage more students, training
centres, and enterprises to participate in the NDTS programme. Furthermore,
industries which provide NDTS training programmes are eligible for the
following benefits:
1. A claim on the levy;
2. Deduction for income tax (single tax deduction);
3. A stipend for each pupil they have tutored (USD 50 per student).
The government has set aside USD1.7 million to teach experienced employers in
the workplace, who will coach apprentice trainees, to help them to give training
to their apprentices more successfully. During the 10th MDP era, 20,000 people
are projected to join the programme, primarily school dropouts, in order to
contribute to the national skilled-talent pool. The 10th MDP's strategies had a
substantial influence on increasing access to excellent TVET programmes and
increasing annual enrolment in the Malaysian TVET system from 113 000 in 2010
to 164 000 in 2013 (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).
Moreover, during the 10th MDP, the National Dual Training System benefited 38
000 employees, including 12 835 teenagers, who were able to find work after
completing their training programme (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).

25
3.2 Malaysia’s 11th Development Plan
The Malaysian government released the 12th iteration of the Malaysian-
Development Plan (2016-2020) in 2015, as the ultimate blueprint for attaining
developed-nation status by 2020. The transformation of the Malaysian TVET, in
order to satisfy industrial need, was one of the major issues in the 11th MDP. The
goal was to shift the country's economic activities from labour-intensive to
knowledge- and innovation-intensive. The transition is expected to result in the
creation of 1.5 million new jobs, 60 per cent of which would require TVET-related
skills, making TVET a game-changing mechanism for developing skilled
employees that the country needs (Economic Planning Unit, 2015).
A major emphasis has been placed on enhancing collaboration with industries, in
order to continue to expand the number of people who enrol in TVET, and to
improve the program's quality and institutions, and to raise the overall profile of
Malaysian TVET (Economic Plan Unit, 2015).
Through the implementation of the tenth plan, the Malaysian TVET system has
been improved by allowing industry-led programmes to eliminate skills
mismatch and to boost graduate employability. From curriculum creation to
student enrolling, training delivery, and job placement, the industry-led TVET
programme entails collaboration between industry and TVET schools throughout
the entire process. Through collaboration with the industrial players, an Industry-
Skills Committee (ISC) has been formed to identify the relevant competencies for
each occupation, as well as to develop and proposed new partnership models that
might enable industrial involvement at every level of the Malaysian TVET system,
particularly in the areas of curriculum design and delivery, in order to ensure that
they are job-oriented; and that they meet the needs of the current job market.
The ISC also reviews TVET training modules to see if they might be confronted
with a problem, project, or product based on real-world industrial activities, in
order to expose students to real-world situations.
The effectiveness of industrial engagement in the NDTS programme during the
10th MDP was reinforced during the 11th MDP by setting a target of 6 000 skilled
people created annually from this programme (Department of Skills
Development, 2020). The key reason for these successful collaborations is that this
programme benefits the company or industry in terms of employee recruiting;
furthermore, it allows its employees to participate in this programme for
upskilling and reskilling, in order to be certified as skilled workers (Department
of Skills Development, 2020).
The NDTS programmes have been allotted USD 9.5 million in the 11th plan. The
new 1MASTER NDTS was created in response to the specific human-capital
requirements of Malaysia's industrial region. The Iskandar Malaysian
Development Corridor, for example, is a big new industrial sector located in
Malaysia's southern region. The youth and the current workers in those locations
have benefited from the 1MASTER NDTS initiative, which has provided
opportunities for skill training and employment.

26
The Structural-Internship Programme (SIP), a systematically organised internship
programme for undergraduates and TVET trainers from all over the country, in
order to equip them with real working experience, was introduced through the
11th MDP, as another new incentive to maximise industrial involvement in the
Malaysian TVET system. Previously, internship programmes were managed
separately by TVET training centres. Most of the time, TVET centres or trainers,
must discover the related businesses or industries for their internship
programmes.
The SIP makes the internship placement process much easier to navigate. The
Malaysian government established the Talent Corporation Malaysia Berhad
(TalentCorp) to create a database of possible candidates and sectors for industrial
training programmes. Malaysia's talent strategy to become a dynamic talent hub
is planned and organised by TalentCorp, an organisation under the Ministry of
Human Resources. TVET trainers have additional options in picking business and
industrial centres, in order to gain work experience with TalentCorp's internship
database, while business centres can choose individuals to groom, as their future
employers.
TVET trainers, who are able to get an internship through the SIP programmes are
entitled to a monthly minimum allowance of USD100.00 (Malaysia Ringgit 500.00)
from the employer (TalentCorp, 2018). The SIP's participating company, on the
other hand, benefits from a double tax reduction, if they meet the government's
requirements. These include: (a) registering with the TalentCorp; (b) providing a
minimum monthly allowance of about USD100.00; (c) offering a minimum 10-
week internship duration; and (d) clearly defined learning outcomes for their
interns (TalentCorp, 2018). The SIP programmes also assist the company by
increasing the awareness of its internship programmes and developing stronger
ties with TVET universities. Malaysian SIP programmes have successfully
administered internship programmes for 94 133 students at 16 219 organisations,
as of December 31, 2020. In addition, the double tax reduction incentive has
benefited 11 161 businesses (TalentCorp, 2021).
3.3 Malaysia Shares Prosperity Vision 2030
In 2019, the Malaysian government, which had hoped to become a developed
country by 2020, was depressed by its dismal performance; and it was understood
that the country needed to pursue an additional vision, which is:
“To make Malaysia a country that achieves sustainable economic
growth, along with fair, equitable and inclusive economic
distribution, across all income groups, ethnicities, regions and
supply chains. The emphasis is on the principle of equitable
outcome, rather than on opportunities” (Economic Planning Unit,
2019, p. 5).
The Education and TVET enabler will be developed through this strategy, in order
to enhance the number of skilled people to meet the industrial needs, and to build
a highly educated workforce. As a result, industrial involvement in the TVET

27
system was projected to assist the country in producing 35 per cent of high-skilled
workers in the labour force and to improve educational and training programmes
at universities and training institutes, in accordance with the industry’s
expectations and requirements.
Consequently, this policy has strengthened the motivation and initiative put in
place by previous MDPs, in order to increase industrial engagement in Malaysia's
TVET system (Economic Panning Unit, 2019).
3.4. Post Covid-19 Pandemic Policy (PENJANA & PEMERKASA)
Since February 2020, Malaysia, like the rest of the world, has been affected by the
global Covid-19 epidemic. Since March 2020, a series of Movement Control Orders
(MCO) has been in place, in order to combat the spread of the virus. The
government's MCO has contributed to the slowing of the country's economic
growth (Leo and David, 2020). Many firms and industries have had to temporarily
halt their operations, resulting in massive economic losses and increased
unemployment (Idris, Andi Kele, Lily & Kim Lian, 2020).
In response to these concerns, the Malaysian government has announced a
MYR250 billion emergency fund to support citizens, as well as small and medium
businesses (SMEs) throughout the pandemic (Jalil, 2020). The government has also
implemented a number of social-protection and employment-related initiatives,
including the Prihatin Rakyat Economic-Stimulus Package (Prihatin) for social
assistance and the National Economic Recovery Plan (Penjana), in order to
stabilise the labour market (Rahman, Jasmin & Schmillen, 2020).
In Malaysia, the Covid-19 pandemic has impacted the local TVET system. Since
skill-based professions are classified as vulnerable and require on-site
employment, many TVET graduates and skilled workers have lost their positions.
The country's Movement-Control Order prevents their worksites from operating
(Rahman, Jasmin & Schmillen, 2020). The government has responded to this
problem by implementing the Prihatin policy, which introduces time-limited
wage incentives, to encourage staff retention. The wage subsidies help firms to
pay their workers at a rate of MYR 600 per month for up to six months, during
this important period, thereby ensuring that they remain employed (Malaysia
Ministry of Finance [MOF], 2020). Consequently, the initiative is able to retain
almost 2.75 million individuals in their jobs (Malaysia Prime Ministry Office,
2020). In addition, as a solution to unemployment difficulties, the government
offers firms financial incentives to hire new workers by paying up to 60%
(maximum of MYR 6000.00) of their new workers' monthly wage for a six-month
period. Employers can also claim up to MYR 7000 for any training courses
provided to their new employees (PERKESO, 2020). At least 300,000 new jobs are
predicted to have been created as a result of this programme.
Since TVET has traditionally been Malaysia's most important tool for combating
youth unemployment, the apprenticeship programme has also been employed as
a tactic for assisting the country in reducing the societal impact of the Covid-19
pandemic. Through collaboration between industries and TVET training centres,

28
the government has budgeted MYR 2 billion to equip youth and jobless
individuals with the critical skills relevant to the needs of the current job market
(MOF, 2020).
These funds were used to provide training to at least 200,000 people, in
preparation for future jobs. In addition, the government has funded upskilling
programmes for industrial workers in crucial areas, such as electronics and
information and communication technology at a number of TVET colleges (MOF,
2020). The government has established the Human-Resource Development
Corporation (HRDF) to set up a database, so that all employers, TVET training
providers, and individuals may receive better access to all of the government's
incentives during the important pandemic issue (HRD Corp, 2021).
Through the Strategic Programme to Empower the People and the Economy
(PEMERKASA), another MYR 20 billion will be injected by the government in
2021 to continue the time-bound wage subsidies, apprentices, as well as up-
skilling and new-skilling programmes, in order to assist people and those sectors
still affected by the Covid-19 pandemic, while also boosting economic growth and
supporting business (Malaysia Prime Ministry Office, 2021).
3.5 The Overall Findings
All the above policies of the Malaysian government have been analysed and
synthesised; Table 1 summarises the findings. According to these findings, the
Malaysian government has actively begun programmes to connect the country's
TVET system with industry from 2010 to 2021. The National Dual-Training
System (NDTS) is a significant TVET programme used by the government to
connect the national TVET system with local industries, as shown in the table. The
Malaysian government has regularly committed a large amount of funds to
improve the collaboration between industries and the national TVET system
across these time periods. The Malaysian government has also made a concerted
effort to encourage industry’s participation in the country's TVET system, by
proactively revising and offering incentives to industries across all the policies
implemented over the last ten years, in terms of levy claims, current industrial
workers' benefits, and tax reductions.
To encourage more industrial involvement in the country's TVET system, the tax-
reduction incentive for industries that contribute to TVET programmes has been
quadrupled since 2016; and pay subsidies will be introduced in 2020. Those
government policies and incentives have had a substantial impact on Malaysian
human-resource development by promoting more industrial engagement in the
country's TVET system, which includes NDTS, internships, upskilling and new-
skilling programmes, as well as job-retention programmes (Department of Skills
Development, 2020; Talent Corp, 2021).
Table 1: Industries-TVET system partnership initiative, incentive, and impact across
Malaysian Government policies
olicies/Documents 10th
MDP
11th MDP SPV PENJAN
A
PEMERKA
SA

29
Initiative
1. Industry-Led
Bodies
/ /
2. National Dual-
Training Systems
/ / / / /
3. Funding / / / / /
4. Structural-
Internship
Programme
/ / / /
Incentive
1. Tax reduction / / (double) / (double) /(double) /(double)
2. Current workers’
benefit
/ / / / /
3. Claim of Levy / / / / /
4. Wage subsidies / /
Impact
1. Industrial
involvement
/ / / / /
2. Graduate
employment
/ / / / /
3. Job retention / /
Note: [/] refers to initiative/incentive/impact of government policies to
strengthen industries-system partnership.
4. Discussion
4.1 Industry-TVET System Collaboration Model in Malaysia
According to Bonoli and Wilson (2019), there are three forms of ideal industrial
involvement in the TVET system: (a) liberal; (b) corporatist; and (c) universalistic.
A liberal model is one in which industries play a key role in selecting their level
of involvement in the TVET system, which is based on labour market logic and
supply and demand equilibrium. The liberal model's government involvement is
modest; and it is unable to compel corporations to participate in human-capital
development in those countries. Consequently, enterprises have low expectations
of mutually beneficial collaboration between industries and TVET centres.
The government's active engagement to increase industrial involvement in the
country's TVET system represents the second paradigm, which is a corporatist
one. Most initiatives, on the other hand, take a diplomatic approach, by cultivating
industry’s interest and trust, in order to develop the country's workforce through
various subsidies and incentives. However, the success of this strategy is heavily
dependent on how eager corporations are to share the responsibility for human-
capital development with the TVET system.
The last type, the universalistic, is represented by a government that practises a
high level of macro-corporatism and which maintains that all groups have a role
to play in the growth of the country. These countries have a defined policy on the
extent to which industry should be involved in their country's TVET system, when
it comes to training future workers.

30
According to an analysis of Malaysian government policy from 2010, the country's
approach to increasing industrial participation in the country's TVET system is
similar to the corporatist model proposed by Bonoli and Wilson (2019). The
Malaysian government works with local industry, in order to generate human
capital that fulfils current job demands; because it believes that industries should
lead the national TVET system. Various incentives supplied by Malaysian
government policies, such as tax reductions, training funding, and wage
subsidies, have sealed the relationship between industries and the TVET system.
Even during the pandemic, the government works with local industry to retain
social and economic standing through apprenticeships, new employment, up-
skilling, new skilling, and job-retention programmes, as well as offering major
incentives to those companies.
4.2 Strengthening TVET-industry’s Cooperation in Malaysia: Adapting Lessons
from the German Experience
The Malaysian government has successfully implemented three main policies
from 2010 and 2021: the 10th MDP, 11th MDP, and PENJANA. All of these
measures have prioritised improving the country's TVET system through the
National Dual-Training System programme. This demonstrates that the
administration believes in the apprenticeship system; and it is eager to put it in
place on a wider scale. Since 2004, the Malaysian National Dual-Training System
(NDTS) has been used to improve the country's TVET quality, based on the
German Dual-System programme (Leong et al., 2015). As a result, in order to
effectively execute the Dual-Training System, lessons must be learnt from
countries that have successfully implemented the system for their own
development.
The effectiveness of the German Dual-Apprenticeship System in involving firms
to offer facilities, funding, venues, and trained instructors for their vocational
training programmes is a major sign that makes it an exemplar for effective
collaboration between industry and TVET (Postiglione & Tang, 2019). Students
have a training contract with industries, and industries are accountable for the
training allowance. In addition, regulations relating to the Dual VET system are
in place to prevent misuse and to limit the behaviour of industry and TVET
institutions. One of the key elements for effective collaboration between industry
and TVET programmes, according to the German Dual-Apprenticeship System,
is a federal management strategy (Gessler, 2017). The Federal Institute for
Vocational Education and Training (BIBB) in Germany is in charge of organising
the country's training regulations and policies, which are produced
collaboratively by companies and their employees.
They also have the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK), a non-constitutional
voluntary coordinating organisation for State ministries that are in charge of
coordinating the creation of training curricula and State governments, based on
real-world work procedures. Collaboration between training centres and
industries is also recommended by the KMK. Through the introduction of the
Department of Skill Development, the Malaysian TVET system has made the right
decision by adopting this model. They are in charge of overseeing the

31
implementation of Malaysia's skill-training programmes, such as the NDTS, as
well as developing training curricula. based on the current job-market needs
(Department of Skills Development, 2021).
Malaysia also has its own National-Skills Development (i.e., based on the
Malaysian Law Act 652), which was introduced in 2006 with the aim “to promote,
through skills training, the development and improvement of a person’s abilities,
which are needed for his/her vocation; and to provide for other matters connected
therewith.” (Law of Malaysia, 2006, p. 7). They are used as a guideline for
developing and implementing training policies.
However, having a specific Act that "requires" companies and schools to
collaborate in the execution of vocational education and training, such as
Germany's "The Reformed National Vocational Training Act" from 2005, is one
element on which Malaysia's TVET system could improve effectively, in order to
implement the NDTS, based on the German model (Federal Ministry of Education
and Research, 2005). The Germans have specific expectations for their industry in
terms of their contribution. The appropriate laws, such as the Law of Vocational
Education, Labour-Promotion Laws, and Youth-Labour Protection Laws, serve to
codify the interaction between industrial and TVET systems.
There are also specialised industrial regulations that outline their responsibilities,
trainer qualifications, and dual apprenticeship-training procedures (Postiglione &
Tang, 2019). As previously stated, the Malaysian government has a strong belief
in its corporatist model, which fosters industry-TVET system partnership through
incentives and appealing initiatives, resulting in only interested corporations
participating. Some changes to the present Act could be made by requiring
industry, particularly large and international corporations, to contribute to the
development of the country's human resources.
5. Conclusion
Finally, the Malaysian government has actively pushed local industries to
participate in national TVET programmes, in order to ensure that the country's
human-capital development matches the demands of today's employment
market. Malaysia needs to produce more qualified employees, who are competent
and ready to enter the employment market, as the country moves toward in
becoming a developed nation. Consequently, industry’s input has always been
required, when it comes to creating and executing training and skills
development. Based on industrial experience and collaboration measures, an
analysis of Malaysia's three major policies (2010-2021) suggests that the country
has had a considerably successful influence on industry-TVET collaboration.
Industry and TVET centres have formed effective relationships, especially
through the National Dual-Training System (NDTS) programmes; while the
Structural-Internship Programmes (SIPs) provide more important internship
opportunities. During the difficult Covid-19 pandemic, the government has
successfully collaborated with industry, in order to address social and economic
difficulties, by providing various incentives and subsidies to affected

32
corporations, organisations, small and medium businesses, and single
individuals. However, in order to boost industry’s participation in Malaysia's
TVET system, the legal framework should be changed, so that enterprises are
legally compelled to contribute to the country's human-capital development.
6. Acknowledgement
This paper was part of a research project entitled “A framework
to facilitate and sustain the win-win partnership between
industries and training centres;” and it was funded by the 2018
Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education Fundamental Research
Grant Scheme. (FRGS/1/2018/SSI09/UPSI/02/20).
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