Report by a group of STEM 12 - A SPNHS

1. PLANT AND
ANIMAL
REPRODUCTION
AND
DEVELOPMENT
(Biology II)De Mesa, Lance Christian M.
Espiritu, Abram Paul C.
Ignacio, Marinelle V.
Napa, Hannah Grace P.

2. What is
Reproductio
n?

3. REPRODUCTION is…
•The process by which
mature individuals
produce offspring.
•An essential
characteristic of all living
organisms.
•Divided into two

4. Importance of
Reproduction
•Procreation -
reproduction
sustains the species
so that it does not
become extinct.

5. •Quality improvement - it
allows for the mixing of
genetic materials
leading to variation
among individuals in a
species.

6. Two types of
REPRODUCTION
Sexual
Asexual

7. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
•does not involve
gametes, instead parts of
a mature organism may
develop to new
individuals.

8. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
•Involves fertilization,
the fusion of male
and female gametes
to form a zygote.

9. ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Number of
parents
One Two
No need for
Present; Sperm

10. CELL DIVISION
JUST A REVIEW

11. Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
• Maintenance of chromosome
number (diploid)
• Reduction/halving of
chromosomes (haploid)
• Takes place in somatic
cells/growth
• Occurs in reproductive
cells/gonads/produces gametes
• No crossing over/no variations • Crossing over takes
place/variation occurs

12. ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

13. Asexual Reproduction
• results from mitotic cell division
(mitosis). During asexual
reproduction one cell, called the
parent cell, divides into two
identical daughter cells. The new
organisms, called offspring are
genetically identical to the parent
cell.

14. Types of Asexual Reproduction
1.Binary Fission
2.Sporulation
3.Budding
4.Fragmentation

15. 1. Binary Fission
• A cell splits into two new cells of
equal size
• Each daughter cell grows into a
new organism
• Occurs in organisms such as
amoeba, euglena, paramecium,
some fungi and bacteria.

17. 2. Sporulation
• Formation of spores
• Spores are small haploid cells
produced by plants
• Spores give rise to new haploid
organisms
• Includes molds, ferns, bryophytes,
pteridophytes

19. 3. Budding
• Where an outgrowth arises from a parent
and drops off to develop into a new
organisms
• Hereditary material in the daughter cell
and parent are exactly the same
• Occurs in organisms such as hydra, jelly
fish, sea anemones, yeast and some
fungi.

21. 4. Fragmentation
• multicellular or colonial organisms is
a form of asexual reproduction or
cloning in which an organism is split
into fragments. Each of these
fragments develop into mature, fully
grown individuals that are clones of
the original organism

23. ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Retention of useful
characteristics/genes/traits
• Offspring establish
faster/shorter life cycle
• Better chances of survival
because of suitable environment

24. DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Lack of genetic variation
• Lowered resistance to disease
• Loss of hybrid vigor
• Competition for resources
due to overcrowding

25. SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION

26. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• In sexual reproduction, two
individuals produce offspring that
have genetic characteristics from
both parents. Sexual reproduction
introduces new gene
combinations in a population
through genetic recombination.

27. GENETIC RECOMBINATION
• refers to the process of
recombining genes to produce new
gene combinations that differ from
those of either parent. Genetic
recombination produces genetic
variation in organisms
that reproduce sexually.

28. ADVANTAGES
• Leads to variations.
• Variations which are desirable often show
hybrid vigor.
• High adaptability of individuals to changing
environmental conditions.
• Variations provide a basis for evolutionary
changes.

29. DISADVANTAGES
• Fusion is difficult if two individuals
are isolated.
• Some variations may have
undesirable qualities.
• Population growth is slow.

30. TWO TYPES OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• ISOGAMY
•HETEROGAMY

31. ISOGAMY
• Form of sexual reproduction that involves
gametes of similar morphology but different in
allele expression in one or more mating types.
• Gametes are not categorized under male or
female but can be denoted as + and -
• In all cases, fertilization occurs when gametes
of two different mating types fuse to form
a zygote.

32. TYPES OF ISOGAMY
•Motile cells
•Non – motile
•Conjugation

33. ISOGAMOUS ORGANISMS
• Basically, isogamy occurs in the
lower classes like fungi, algae,
etc.
• Examples are Chlamydomonas
and Spirogyra (both are green
algae)

34. HETEROGAMY OR ANISOGAMY
• sexual reproduction that involves
the union or fusion of
two gametes, which differ in size
and/or form. The smaller gamete
is considered to be male (sperm
cell), whereas the larger gamete
is regarded as female (egg cell).

35. TYPES OF HETEROGAMY
• Flagellated or motile – Both gametes may be
flagellated
• Non – motile – does not have flagella
• Oogamy – occurs between animal sex cells
(including human)

37. SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
IN PLANTS

38. HERMAPHRODITES

39. HERMAPHRODITES
• Organisms having both the
male and female reproductive
organs.
• Examples are flowers having
both stamen and carpel; i.e.
Roses, Lilies, etc.

40. BISEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• Occurs between hermaphrodite plants.
• Many plants are self-fertile and the male parts
can pollinate the female parts of the same
flower and/or same plant. Some plants use a
method known as self-incompatibility to
promote outcrossing. Here, the male organs
cannot fertilize the female parts of the same
plant; other plants produce male and female
flowers at different times to promote
outcrossing

41. FLOWERS
• In flowering plants, a flower is the
reproductive organ which is a
specialized shoot consisting of
modified stem and leaves
• The structure of a flower is
described on the next slide

44. Sepals Protect the unopened flower
Petals May be brightly colored to attract insects
Stamens
The male parts of the flower (each consists of
an anther held up on a filament)
Anthers Produce male sex cells (pollen grains)

45. Important terms:
• Unisexual
• Have only one of the reproductive organ: carpel
or stamen i.e. either male or female flower.
• Carpelate
• Also called pistilate
• contains only carpels hence a female flower
• Staminate
• Also called a male flower.
• Contains stamens only.

46. • Dioecious plants
• Have pistilate and staminate flowers on different
plants
The plants are also known as male or female plant.
• Monoecious plants
• Have pistilate and staminate on one plant
• However, pistilate and staminate occur at different
parts of the plants e.g. maize
• Complete flower
• Has all four parts i.e. sepals, petals, pistil and
stamen
• Incomplete flower
• Do not have all four parts
• At least one part is missing.

47. POLLINATION
&
FERTILIZATION

48. POLLINATION
• Transfer of pollen grains from
anther to stigma of a flower.
• Results in seeds that will grow
into new plants

49. • Plants have gametes, which contain half
the normal number of chromosomes for
that plant species. Male gametes are
found inside tiny pollen grains on
the anthers of flowers. Female gametes
are found in the ovules of a flower.
Pollination is the process that brings
these male and female gametes
together.

50. POLLEN GRAIN
• A structure produced by plants
containing the male haploid gamete
to be used in reproduction. The
gamete is covered by protective
layers which perform their role until
the pollen grain is capable of
fertilizing when reaching the stigma

51. EMBRYO SAC
•A cell located at the center
of the ovule that contains
the haploid egg cell (female
gametophyte) for flowering
plants.

52. TYPES OF POLLINATION
• SELF POLLINATION
• CROSS POLLINATION

53. SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen from anther
to stigma of the same or
genetically identical flower
Transfer of pollen from anther
of one flower to stigma of
another different flower
Plants ultimately become
homozygous
Plants are heterozygous

55. FERTILIZATION
in
Plants

56. FERTILIZATION
• Fusion of male and female
gametes to form a zygote.
• Zygote – eukaryotic cell produced
by the fertilization of two
gametes.

57. FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
• If the pollen grain lands on a compatible stigma,
a pollen tube will grow so that eventually the egg cell,
hidden away in the embryo sac, can be fertilized. A
tube emerges from the grain, its growth being
controlled by the tube nucleus at the tip of the tube. It
may grow downwards in response to chemicals made
by the ovary (a response known as chemotropism).
• During the growth and extension of the tube,
the generative nucleus, behind the tube nucleus,
divides by mitosis to produce 2 male haploid gametes.
The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle
and penetrates the embryo sac wall. The tip of the tube
bursts open, the tube nucleus dies and what follows is
called double fertilization.

58. • 1 male gamete fuses with the egg cell to
produce a diploid zygote.
• 1 male gamete fuses with both the polar
nuclei to produce the triploid primary
endosperm nucleus.
• Immediately after fertilization, the ovule is
known as the seed.

59. After Fertilization…
1. The zygote divides many times by mitosis to produce
an embryo. It differentiates to become
a plumule (young shoot), radicle (young root) and
either 1 or 2 cotyledons (seed leaves). It is attached to
the wall of the embryo sac by a suspensor.
2. The primary endosperm nucleus divides many times by
mitosis to produce endosperm tissue. In some seeds
this endosperm is a food store for later use by the seed.
In others it may gradually disappear as the cotyledons
develop.
3. To accommodate all this growth the embryo sac
expands and the nucleus is crushed out of existence,
giving its nutrients to the embryo and endosperm.

60. 4. The integuments surrounding the embryo sac
become the tough and protective testa(seed coat).
The micropyle remains though so that oxygen and
water can be taken in at germination.
5. The water content of the seed decreases
drastically so the seed is prepared for dormancy.
6. The ovary wall becomes the pericarp - the fruit
wall, the whole ovary now being the fruit. The
function of the fruit is to protect the seeds and to
aid in their dispersal, e.g. by an animal. That is why
they can be brightly coloured and sweet; animals
will eat them and scatter the seeds either at the
time of eating or when they are passed out of the
gut in defecation, unharmed.

62. GERMINATION

63. • When conditions are right, the seed will take up water
through the micropyle by imbibition. This triggers the
beginning of the growth of the seed.
• The cell swells and the testa splits. With the addition of water,
large molecules of carbohydrate, protein and fat can be
hydrolyzed (broken down) to produce substances for
respiration.
• The water activates such enzymes as a-amylase to catalyze
this digestion.
• The growing embryo releases a hormone called gibberellic
acid and some enzymes are produced and released in
response to this.
• The soluble products of digestion are delivered to the
cotyledons, root and shoot. They respire aerobically and grow
in size.
• By the time the food store has been used up, the shoot has
grown enough to push the first leaves into the sunlight.
Photosynthesis can then start.

64. Changes that Occur in a flower after
fertilization
• Petals, stamen, calyx and style wither
• Ovary wall changes into pericarp
• Intergument changes into seed coat/testa
• Zygote changes into embryo (by mitosis)
• Primary endosperm nucleus changes into
endosperm
• hole ovule changes into seed
• Ovary develops and grows into fruit(under the
influence of gibberrellic hormone)

65. SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION OF
ANIMALS

66. • In animals, there are two individuals
involved, male and a female
• Special organs called gonads (testes and
ovaries) produce gametes (sperm cell
and egg cell)
• Testes: Male: Sperm; Ovaries: Female:
Ova
• Sperm and ovum fuses to form a zygote
and is called fertilization

67. GAMETES
Sperm Ovum
• long with a tail and head • spherical
• small • large
• locomotory • stationary
• stores little food • a lot of food stored in yolky
cytoplasm
• has acrosome (tip with lytic
enzymes)
• lacks acrosome
• nucleus prominent but
cytoplasm negligible
• a lot of cytoplasm

68. SPERMS

69. • Acrosomes contain enzymes to digest
egg membrane
• Nucleus contains genetic material
• Mitochondria produce energy to move
the tail back and forth
• The lashing movement of the tail enables
the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid
medium towards the egg
• It is streamlined for faster/easier
movement/swimming to meet the egg.

70. OVUM

71. • An egg cell (ovum) is one of the largest cells
in the human body and can just be seen
without using a microscope.
• Each egg cell has a haploid nucleus -
containing only half the number of
chromosomes of a normal cell nucleus. It
has a large cytoplasm which contains the
nutrients and mitochondria needed for
mitosis (cell division) after fertilization. And
each egg has a special cell membrane which
only allows one sperm to fertilize it.

72. FERTILIZATION IN ANIMALS
• There are two types of
fertilization in animals:
–External Fertilization (occurs
outside of the body of the
female)
–Internal Fertilization (inside the
body of the female)

73. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
• External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic
environments where both eggs and sperm are
released into the water. After the sperm reaches the
egg, fertilization takes place.
• Most external fertilization happens during the
process of spawning where one or several females
release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in
the same area, at the same time. The spawning may
be triggered by environmental signals, such as
water temperature or the length of daylight.

74. • Nearly all fish spawn, as do
crustaceans (such as crabs and
shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters),
squid, and echinoderms (such as sea
urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs,
corals, mollusks, and sea cucumbers
also spawn.

77. ADVANTAGES
• Large numbers produced therefore many
offspring per breeding season
• Female does not suffer gestation stress
• Mother does not need to care for the
young except in a few species
• the surviving individuals are highly
selected for better survival

78. DISADVANTAGES
• many predators surround the eggs before
and after fertilization
• fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of
gametes wasted
• embryo development at mercy of
environment
• large numbers of female gametes are
required therefore female gets much
exhausted

79. INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
• Internal fertilization occurs most often in
terrestrial animals, although some aquatic
animals also use this method. Internal
fertilization may occur by the male directly
depositing sperm in the female during mating.
It may also occur by the male depositing
sperm in the environment, usually in a
protective structure, which a female picks up
to deposit the sperm in her reproductive
tract.

81. ADVANTAGES
• more chances of fertilization
• fewer predators of
oval/fertilized egg protected in
females body
• stable internal environment
• fewer gametes required

82. DISADVANTAGES
• number of gametes fewer hence
less number of offspring
• less adapted for sudden change
of environment after birth
• in mammals females suffer
gestation stress

83. External fertilization Internal fertilization
occurs in water outside
the bodies of animals
occurs inside the body of
the female animal
many eggs are laid fewer eggs released from
ovary
usually less contact
between male and female
very close contact in form
of copulation between

84. SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
IN MAMMALS

85. • Fertilization in mammals occurs internally.
After fertilization the fertilized egg is laid or
develops within the female body in a special
structure, the uterus.
• The egg laying mammals (MONOTREMES) Are
said to be oviparous. An example of an
oviparous mammal is the platypus.
• In some mammals, the zygote does not
develop fully within the uterus but completes
development within a special structure called
pouch as in the marsupials e.g. kangaroo.

86. • In most mammals however, the zygote
develops fully into a young mammal which
resembles that adult.
• The ability to give birth to young as in
placental mammals is referred to as Viviparity.
mammals whose zygotes develop within the
uterus have mammary glands.
• The glands produce milk on which the young
ones feed on until they are able to feed on the
same food as adults. In these mammals,
parental care is highly developed.

87. MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS IN SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
• Meiosis - One of the benefits of sexual
reproduction is the diversity it produces
within a population. That variety is a direct
product of meiosis. Every sex cell made
from meiosis has a unique combination of
chromosomes. This means that no two
sperm or egg cells are genetically identical.
Every fertilization event produces new
combinations of traits. This is why siblings
share DNA with parents and each other, but
are not identical to one another.

88. • Mitosis is important for sexual
reproduction indirectly. It allows the
sexually reproducing organism to grow
and develop from a single cell into a
sexually mature individual. This allows
organisms to continue to reproduce
through the generations.

89. CLEAVAGE
• The development of multi-cellular organisms begins
from a single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell
division to form the blastula. The rapid, multiple rounds
of cell division are termed cleavage. After the cleavage
has produced over 100 cells, the embryo is called a
blastula. The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells
(the blastoderm) surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled
cavity (the blastocoel). Mammals at this stage form a
structure called the blastocyst, characterized by an
inner cell mass that is distinct from the surrounding
blastula. During cleavage, the cells divide without an
increase in mass; that is, one large single-celled zygote
divides into multiple smaller cells

91. GASTRULATION
• The typical blastula is a ball of cells. The next
stage in embryonic development is the
formation of the body plan. The cells in the
blastula rearrange themselves spatially to
form three layers of cells in a process known
as gastrulation. During gastrulation, the
blastula folds upon itself to form the three
layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a
germ layer, which differentiate into different
organ systems .

93. TWINS
• Identical twins also
known as monozygotic
occur when one fertilized
zygote (egg) splits into
two separate embryos.
They have almost
perfectly match DNA and
look very alike, though
they can also look quite
different especially
if TTTS was a factor
during pregnancy.
• Fraternal twins also
known as dizygotic
happens when two eggs
have been released by
the mother and then
fertilized by two sperm.
They can be two boys,
two girls or one of each -
a boy and a girl. Fraternal
twining can be hereditary
which is passed down
from father to daughter.

94. THE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEMS

95. FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

97. 1. Ovaries
• Are two oval cream colored structures found in lower
abdomen below the kidneys.
• have several graafian follicles that develop and burst open to
release/produce mature ova
• secretes sex hormones (estrogen) which initiate/control
development of secondary sexual characteristics
2. Oviducts(fallopian tube)
• Are tubes which conduct the ova produced by the ovaries to
the uterus.
• Fertilization occurs in the upper part of the oviduct.
• are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing speed of
semen containing sperms
• their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum towards the
uterus
• has peristaltic muscles that enable movement of
zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation
• is fairly long to increase surface area for fertilization

98. 3. Uterus
• The uterus is a hollow muscular organ found in
the lower abdomen.
• The embryo develops inside the uterus.
• The inner lining endometrium supplies nutrients
to embryo.
• The embryo is implanted into the inner uterine
wall- the endometrium which nourishes the
embryo.
• The thick muscles of the uterus assist in
parturition.

99. 4. Cervix
• Has a ring of muscles that separates the uterus from
the vagina.
• It forms the opening to the uterus
• has valves that close the lower end of the uterus to
ensure continued pregnancy during gestation period
is capable of dilating
• has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus
that enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus
• has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls sperms
into uterus
• has a “W” shape that fits well with the glands of the
penis to ensure sperms are deposited at the right
point

100. 5. Vagina
• Is a tube that opens to the outside and it acts as the
copulatory and birth canal through the vulva.
• it is elastic and muscular to enable good
accommodation or penetration of the penis thus
proper deposition of sperms and for easy parturition
• allows menstrual flow
• has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce
lubricating substances that ensure/enable/facilitate
good coition
• capable of considerable enlargement, due to elastic
muscles, to accommodate baby during parturition.
6. Clitoris
• A sensitive organ that stimulates orgasm for women

101. MALE
REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

103. 1. Testis:
• Each testis is a mass of numerous coiled tubes called
seminiferous tubules.
• Each is enclosed within a scrotal sac that suspends them
between the thighs.
• This ensures that sperms are maintained at a temperature
lower than that of the main body.
2. Seminiferous tubules
• The lining of seminiferous tubules consists of actively
dividing cells which give rise to sperms.
• Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells
which produce the male hormones called androgens e.g.
testosterone.
• The seminiferous tubules unite to form the epididymis,
which is a coiled tube where sperms are stored temporarily.
• Vas deferens (sperm duct) is the tube through which
sperms are carried from testis to urethra.
• Seminal vesicle produces an alkaline secretion which
nourishes the spermatozoa.

104. 3. Prostate gland
• Produces an alkaline secretion to neutralize vaginal
fluids. Cowpers' gland
• Secretes an alkaline fluid.
• All these fluids together with spermatozoa form
semen.
4. Urethra
• Is a long tube through which the semen is conducted
during copulation.
• It also removes urine from the bladder.
5. Penis
• Is an intromittent organ which is inserted into the
vagina during copulation .
• is highly vascularized/spongy
• has a sensitive glands
• becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina

105. 6. Scrotum
• contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the
process of spermatogenesis takes place
• the process is favored by lower temperature
• it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are
mature
7. Epididymis
• long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage
8. Vas deferens
• muscular
• upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation of
Gametes
• produced in large numbers to increase chances of fertilization
• the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of
mitochondria to provide energy/allow swimming to reach the
egg
9. Accessory glands
• are seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland and prostate gland
• they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients for
sperms to swim

106. DEVELOPMENT
OF THE
FERTILIZED EGG
CELL

107. TERMS TO REMEMBER:
• Implantation – the blastocyst implants
itself in the endometrium; start of
pregnancy
• Gestation – carrying the embryo inside
the uterus; can last up to 9 months in
humans
• Human Embryo – first two months of
gestation.
• Human Fetus – 3 – 9 months of gestation

108. GESTATION• Week 1 to 3:
• Zygote divides to form blastocyst.
• Implantation takes place.
• The three germ layers form endoderm, mesoderm and
ectoderm.
• Nervous system starts to form.
Week 4 to 7:
• Development of circulating and digestive systems.
• Further development of nervous system, formation of
sensory organs,
• All major internal organs are developed.
• At week 5, heartbeat starts.

109. • Week 8 to 24:
• All organs well developed including sex organs.
• Hair, finger and toe nails grow.
• fetus move and eyelids open.
Week 25- 30:
• The fully developed fetus responds to touch and
noises and moves vigorously.
• The head turns and faces downwards ready for
birth.
Week 31-40:
• fetus increases in size.
• Birth occurs.

111. MENSTRUAL
CYCLE

112. Menstrual phase (day 1-5)
• Menstrual phase begins on the first day of
menstruation and lasts till the 5th day of the
menstrual cycle. The following events occur during
this phase:
• The uterus sheds its inner lining of soft tissue and
blood vessels which exits the body from the vagina
in the form of menstrual fluid.
• The female may experience abdominal cramps.
These cramps are caused by the contraction of the
uterine and the abdominal muscles to expel the
menstrual fluid.

113. Follicular phase (day 1-13)
• The pituitary gland secretes a hormone that
stimulates the egg cells in the ovaries to grow.
• One of these egg cells begins to mature in a
sac-like-structure called follicle. It takes 13
days for the egg cell to reach maturity.
• While the egg cell matures, its follicle secretes
a hormone that stimulates the uterus to
develop a lining of blood vessels and soft
tissue called endometrium

114. Ovulation phase (day 14)
• On the 14th day of the cycle, the pituitary
gland secretes a hormone that causes the
ovary to release the matured egg cell. The
released egg cell is swept into the fallopian
tube by the cilia of the fimbriae. Fimbriae are
finger like projections located at the end of
the fallopian tube close to the ovaries and cilia
are slender hair like projections on each
Fimbria.

115. Luteal phase (day 15-28)
• The egg cell released during the ovulation
phase stays in the fallopian tube for 24 hours.
• If a sperm cell does not impregnate the egg
cell within that time, the egg cell
disintegrates.
• The hormone that causes the uterus to retain
its endometrium gets used up by the end of
the menstrual cycle. This causes the menstrual
phase of the next cycle to begin.

116. CONTRACEPTIVE
METHODS

117. • You can differentiate between
different types of contraception
based on how they work: there
are barrier methods (e.g.
condoms or a cervical cap),
hormonal methods (e.g. the pill),
intrauterine devices (IUD) and
sterilization.

118. • Most types of contraceptives work
by:
a) preventing an egg from being released
every month (hormones)
b) preventing sperms from reaching the
egg (barrier and some IUD methods)
c) blocking the reproductive function – in
men or women (sterilization)
d) preventing a fertilized egg from
implanting in the uterus (hormones)

119. • The Pill
–The pill can come in two forms: the
combined contraceptive pill (containing the
hormones estrogen and progestin) or the
mini-pill (only progestin). In the case of the
mini-pill, it's important that you take your
pill every day at the same time (you should
not be late by more than three hours).
–Keep in mind that the pill does not provide
any protection against STIs and that a
doctor's prescription is required to buy it.

120. • The Male Condom
–Condoms are usually made of latex, but if
you are allergic to latex, some brands also
specialize in condoms made of
polyurethane or lambskin. These two are
also compatible with lube (latex condoms
are not, unless with water-based lubricant);
however lambskin condoms do not provide
protection against STIs.
–For safety reasons, make sure you use a
new condom each time you have sex.

121. • The Female Condom
–The pill can come in two forms: the
combined contraceptive pill (containing the
hormones estrogen and progestin) or the
mini-pill (only progestin). In the case of the
mini-pill, it's important that you take your
pill every day at the same time (you should
not be late by more than three hours).
–Keep in mind that the pill does not provide
any protection against STIs and that a
doctor's prescription is required to buy it.

123. • The Diaphragm
–The diaphragm must be coated with
spermicide each time before sex and a
doctor needs to show you how to use it
(you need a prescription to get one). It is
inserted at least six hours before sex and it
needs to be removed after 24 hours for
cleaning. Depending on the material and
type of the diaphragm, it can be reused
many times.
• The Cervical Cap - Femcap

124. • The Intrauterine Device (IUD)
– You have the choice between two types of IUDs:
hormonal or copper-based devices. Hormonal and
copper IUDs are part of the few long-term solutions,
meaning that you can keep them inside the vagina for
up to five or ten years respectively.
• Spermicidal Foam
– The foam is active immediately, so it should be
inserted within 30 minutes of having sex. Two
applications may be better than one. The foam kills
the sperm while also blocking the cervix (to prevent
any surviving sperm from entering the uterus). The
applicator may be washed with soap and water,
stored in a clean, dry place and used again.

125. • Vasectomy
– entails cutting the vas deferens
• Tubal Ligation
– entails cutting the fallopian tube.
• Coitus Interruptus - Withdrawal Method
• Abstinence
- No sexual intercourse for the men and
women (i.e. Partners)