2. AAllddeerrffeerr’’ss EERRGG TThheeoorryy
Clayton P Alderfer proposed a
hierarchy involving three sets of needs:
• Existence: needs satisfied by such
factors as food, air, water, pay, and
working conditions.
• Relatedness: needs satisfied by
meaningful social and interpersonal
relationships.
• Growth: needs satisfied by an
individual making creative or productive
contributions.
• Tested by Thematic Apperception Test
ERG Theory
4. CChhrriiss AArrggyyrriiss ((11992233 -
• Influenced by the humanist
approach of Abraham Maslow
and the socio-technical process
of E. Wight Bakke.
• Indicated his feelings about how
organizations neglected human
needs.
• If treated like a child one will
behave like a child – result is
organizational mediocrity
Chris Argyris
Maturity – Immaturity Continuum
5. Chris Argyris –
Personality vs. Organization
• Certain organizational practices, such as the division
of labor, interfere with the development of healthy
human personalities.
• These practices promote immature, not mature
behavior.
• In an attempt to self-actualize, individuals run into the
obstacles posed by formal organizations.
• The result is defensive behaviors, with management
reacting by becoming more autocratic or by turning to
sugar-coated human relations.
7. AAllbbeerrtt BBaanndduurraa
Albert Bandura proposed a social cognitive
theory (social learning theory; self-efficacy
theory) which refers to an individual’s belief
that they are capable of performing a task.
Four ways self efficacy can be increased:
1. Enactive mastery – if you’ve performed task
in the past, you can do it again
2. Vicarious modeling – you become more
confident because you see someone else
do the task
3. Verbal persuasion – you become more
confident because someone convinces you
that you have the skills necessary to perform
task
4. Arousal – if you get “psyched up” then you
perform better
Social Learning
Self-efficacy
Social Cognitive
8. AAbbrraahhaamm MMaassllooww
Maslow defined human needs as:
Physiological: the need for food, drink,
shelter, and relief from pain.
Safety and security: the need for
freedom from threat; the security from
threatening events or surroundings.
Belongingness, social, and love: the
need for friendship, affiliation,
interaction, and love.
Esteem: the need for self-esteem and
for respect from others.
Self-actualization: the need to fulfill
oneself by maximizing the use of
abilities, skills, and potential
Hierarchy of Needs
9. MMaassllooww’’ss NNeeeedd HHiieerraarrcchhyy
• Maslow’s theory assumes that a person attempts to
satisfy the more basic needs before directing
behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs.
• Lower-order needs must be satisfied before a higher-order
need begins to control a person’s behavior.
• A satisfied need ceases to motivate.
11. DDaavviidd MMccCClleellllaanndd
Proposed Theory of Needs:
Need for Achievement (nAch) – drive
to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards
Need for Affiliation (nAff) – the desire
for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
Need for Power (nPow) – need to make
others behave in a way in which they
would not have behaved otherwise (to
have power over them)
nAch
nPow
nAff
13. Douglas MMccGGrreeggoorr ((11990066--11996644))
• Taught psychology at MIT.
• At Antioch College, McGregor
found that his classroom
teaching of human relations
did not always work in
practice.
• From these experiences, his
ideas evolve and lead him to
recognize the influence of
assumptions we make about
people and our managerial
style. Douglas McGregor
14. TThheeoorryy XX
• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of
productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people –
in the interest of economic ends.
• With respect to people, this is a process of directing their
efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying
their behavior to fit the needs of the organization.
• Without this active intervention by management, people would
be passive – even resistant – to organizational needs. They
must, therefore, be persuaded, rewarded, punished,
controlled – their activities must be directed. This is
management’s task -- in managing subordinate managers or
workers. We often sum it up by saying that management
consists of getting things done through other people.
15. TThheeoorryy XX
• Behind this conventional theory there are several
additional beliefs – less explicit, but widespread:
– The average man is by nature indolent – he works as
little as possible.
– He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, prefers to be
led.
– He is inherently self-centered, indifferent to
organizational needs.
– He is by nature resistant to change.
– He is gullible, not very bright – the ready dupe of the
charlatan and the demagogue.
16. TThheeoorryy YY
• Management is responsible for organizing the elements of
productive enterprise – money, materials, equipment, people –
in the interest of economic ends.
• People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational
needs. They have become so as a result of experience in
organizations.
• The motivation, the potential for development, the capacity
for assuming responsibility, the readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are all present in
people. Management does not put them there. It is a
responsibility of management to make it possible for people to
recognize and develop these human characteristics for
themselves.
• The essential task of management is to arrange organizational
conditions and methods of operation so that people can
achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts
toward organizational objectives.
17. TThheeoorryy XX TThheeoorryy YY
• Work is inherently distasteful
to most people.
• Most people are not
ambitious, have little desire
for responsibility, and prefer
to be directed.
• Most people have little
capacity for creativity in
solving organizational
problems.
• Motivation occurs only at the
physiological and safety
levels.
• Most people must be closely
controlled and often coerced
to achieve organizational
objectives.
• Work is as natural as play, if
the conditions are favorable.
• Self-control is often
indispensable in achieving
organizational goals.
• The capacity for creativity in
solving organizational
problems is widely distributed
in the population.
• Motivation occurs at the
social, esteem, and self-actualization
levels, as well as
physiological and security
levels.
• People can be self-directed
and creative at work if properly
motivated.
18. FFrreeddeerriicckk HHeerrzzbbeerrgg
((11992233--22000000))
• His research emphasized job
enrichment (depth) rather than job
enlargement
– Job context (hygiene factors) –
needed to be optimal to prevent
job dissatisfaction. These factors
(according to Herzberg) did not
motivate.
– Job content (motivators) – factors
that did lead to motivation
– Money (according to Herzberg)
could motivate if it was seen as a
reward for accomplishment; but if
money was given without regard
for merit, then it was a hygiene
factor.
Frederick Herzberg
19. MMoottiivvaattiioonn aanndd HHyyggiieennee FFaaccttoorrss
Policies and Administration
Supervision
Working Conditions
Interpersonal Relations
Money, Status, Security
Achievement
Recognition for
Accomplishment
Challenging Work
Increased Responsibility
Growth and Development
HYGIENE FACTORS
ENVIRONMENT
MOTIVATORS
WHAT THEY DO
23. Motivation aanndd HHyyggiieennee FFaaccttoorrss
THE JOB SURROUNDINGS
AND THE
HYGIENE FACTORS
WORKING
CONDITIONS
RESPONSIBILITY ACHIEVEMENT
THE JOB ITSELF
AND THE
MOTIVATOR
FACTORS
WORK ITSELF RECOGNITION
GROWTH
ADVANCEMENT
SUPERVISION
BENEFITS
INTER-PERSONAL
RELATION-SHIPS
SECURITY
SALARY
COMPANY
POLICY AND
ADMINIS-TRATION
STATUS
25. WWoorrkk DDeessiiggnn
• Richard Hackman, Edward
Lawler, and Greg Oldham’s
work extended Herzberg’s
notions by adding a situational
(it depends…) dimension
– Key job characteristics
– Depending on an individual’s
“growth-need strength,” these
characteristics could be amplified
to make the job more meaningful.
26. JJoobb CChhaarraacctteerriissttiiccss MMooddeell
Outcomes
(Personal and Work)
Critical
Psychological
State
Meaningfulness
of Work
Responsibility
for Outcomes
Knowledge of
Results of Work
Core Job
Characteristics
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback
About Job
High Internal Work
Motivation
High Quality Work
Performance
High Satisfaction
with Work
Low Absenteeism
and Turnover
Employee
Growth Need
27. Motivation: EExxppeeccttaannccyy TThheeoorryy
VViiccttoorr VVrroooomm
• The expectancy theory
of Victor Vroom helps
explain the choosing
process among
individuals in terms of
the value (valence) of
the reward and the
expectancy of receiving
the reward.
Victor Vroom
30. EExxppeeccttaannccyy TThheeoorryy
((LLyymmaann WW.. PPoorrtteerr –– EEddwwaarrdd EE.. LLaawwlleerr IIIIII))
Performance
6
(Accomplishments)
Value of
Reward
1
Effort
3
Abilities
And
Traits
Role
4
5
Perceptions
Intrinsic
Rewards
7A
Extrinsic
Rewards
7B
9
Satisfaction
Perceived
Equitable
Rewards
8
Revised Diagram of the Theoretical Model
SOURCE: Managerial Attitudes and Performance, 1968, Richard D. Irwin Inc.
2
Perceived
Effect-Reward
Probability
31. PPrriinncciipplleess ooff EExxppeeccttaannccyy TThheeoorryy
• V1 = S(V2 x I)
– The valence associated with various first-level outcomes is a
sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all
second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities
(I)
• M = f(V1 x E)
– Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each
first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that
a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level
outcome
• P = f(M x A)
– Performance is considered to be a multiplicative function of
motivation (the force) and ability
32. Process TThheeoorriieess ooff MMoottiivvaattiioonn::
EExxppeeccttaannccyy TThheeoorryy ((ccoonnttiinnuueedd))
Management practices:
• Managers need to focus on employee
expectations for success.
• Managers must actively determine which
second-level outcomes are important to
employees.
• Managers should link desired second-level
outcomes to the organization’s performance
goals.
33. Expectancy Theory Example
Valences of second-level
outcomes
(in parentheses)
Day off (6)
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
Day off (6)
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
Day off (6)
Recognition/compliment
from boss (3)
Mention of performance
in personnel record (1)
0.6
1.0
0.3
0.2
0.7
-0.1
0.0
0.2
-0.4
Finishing budget
on time (6.9)
Finishing budget
on required day
but after deadline
(3.2)
Finishing budget
on day after
deadline (.20)
0.4
0.7
1.0
2.76
2.24
.20
Motivation
Instrumentalities (how
much performance
outcome and second-level
outcome are associated
Performance
outcome
(valences x
instrumentalities)
Expectancy
(probability of
performance given
effort)
34. EEqquuiittyy TThheeoorryy
• Equity theory is not a
new one but focuses on
how individuals
perceive their reward or
pay compared to what
others are receiving.
• Issues of social justice
and distributive justice
are involved in the
theories of Stacy
Adams and Elliot
Jaques. Elliot Jacques
35. Process TThheeoorriieess ooff MMoottiivvaattiioonn::
EEqquuiittyy TThheeoorryy
• Employees compare their efforts and rewards
with those of others in similar work situations.
• Individuals, who work in exchange for rewards
from the organization, are motivated by a desire
to be equitably treated at work.
• Equity exists when employees perceive that the
ratios of their inputs (efforts) to their outcomes
(rewards) are equivalent to the ratios of other
similar employees.
• Inequity exists when these ratios are not
equivalent.
36. The Equity Theory of Motivation
Compares
his/her
input/outcome
ratio to
reference
person’s (RP)
inputs (I) and
outcomes (O)
aanndd ppeerrcceeiivveess
OP ORP
= equity
IP
IRP
inequity
OP ORP
IP
IRP
inequity
OP ORP
IP
IRP
or
or
IIPP:: IInnppuuttss ooff tthhee ppeerrssoonn
OOPP:: OOuuttccoommeess ooff tthhee ppeerrssoonn
IIRRPP:: IInnppuuttss ooff rreeffeerreennccee
ppeerrssoonn
OORRPP:: OOuuttccoommeess ooff rreeffeerreennccee
ppeerrssoonn
A person (P)
with certain
inputs (I) and
receiving
certain
outcomes (O)
37. MMaannaaggiinngg AAccrroossss CCuullttuurreess
• Geert Hofstede (1928 - )
describes cultural differences in
different countries.
– Individualism vs. collectivism
(group orientation);
– Power Distance: The level of
preference for equality or
inequality within groups:
– Uncertainty avoidance: The
preference for risk vs. structure.
– Masculinity (assertiveness) vs.
femininity (tender values).
– Long term vs. Short term
orientation.
Geert Hofstede
Courtesy of Prof. Hofstede
38. LLaasstt TThhoouugghhttss …………
ffrroomm PPeetteerr DDrruucckkeerr
“I would hope that American managers—indeed,
managers worldwide—continue to appreciate what I
have been saying almost since day one: that
management is so much more than exercising rank
and privilege; it’s so much more than ‘making deals.’
Management affects people and their lives, both in
business and in many other aspects as well. The
practice of management deservers our utmost
attention; it deserves to be studied”
