1. Appendix One: Learning theories and their use in e-learning
Potential e-learning applications
Theorist
Theories
Approaches Main characteristics
Behaviourist
Skinner, Tennant, Reigeluth, Merrill, Gagné
• Behaviourism • Focuses on behaviour modification via • Much of current e-learning development represents little
• Instructional design stimulus-response pairs, controlled and more than transfer of didactic approaches online, the ‘web
• Intelligent tutoring adaptive response and observable page turning mentality’ linked directly to assessment and
• Didactic outcomes feedback
• Training needs • Trial and error learning
analysis • Learning through association and
reinforcement
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2. Piaget, Papert, Duffy, Jonassen Pask and Scott, Anderson, Hutchins, Schon
Cognitive
• Reflective • Focus on internal cognitive structures; • Salomon’s notion of distributed cognition (Salomon, 1993)
practitioner views learning as transformations in these could lead to a more shared knowledge structure between
• Learner-centred cognitive structures individual and surrounding information rich environment of
• Pedagogical focus is on the processing resources and contacts
and transmission of information through • Development of intelligent and learning systems, and the
communication, explanation, notion of developmental personalised agents
recombination, contrast, inference and
problem solving
• Useful for designing sequences of
conceptual material which build on existing
information structures
Cognitive constructivism
• Active learning • Focus on the processes by which learners • Useful for structured learning environments, such as
• Enquiry-led build their own mental structures when simulated worlds; construction of conceptual structures
• Problem-based interacting with an environment through engagement in self-directed tasks
• Goal-based • Task-orientated, favour hands-on, self- • The concept of toolkits and other support systems which
• Cognitive- directed activities orientated towards guide and inform users through a process of activities could
apprenticeship design and discovery be used to good effect to embed and enable constructivist
• Constructivist-based principles
design • Access to resources and expertise offers the potential to
develop more engaging and student-centred, active and
authentic learning environments
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3. Vygotsky Mercer
Social constructivism
• Dialogic • Emphasis on interpersonal relationships • Multiple forms asynchronous and synchronous
• Arugumentation involving imitation and modelling communication offer the potential for more diverse and
• Language as a tool for learning and the richer forms of dialogue and interaction between students
joint construction of knowledge; as a and tutors and amongst peers, as well as the use of
communicative or cultural tool, used for archive materials and resource for vicarious forms of
sharing and jointly developing knowledge learning
Laurillard
and as a psychological tool for organising • Different online communication tools and learning
our individual thoughts, for reasoning, environments and social for a offer the potential for new
planning, and reviewing forms of communities of practice or facilities to support and
Goodyear Wenger Lave
enhance existing communities
Mayes Mayes and Fowler Salmon
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4. Experiential
Dewey, Kolb, Jarvis
• Experiential • Experience as foundation for learning • Asynchronous communication offers new forms of discourse
learning • Learning as the transformation of which is not time-bound and hence offers increased
• Action-based experience into knowledge, skill, attitudes, opportunity for reflection
• Problem-based and values emotions. • Archive and multiple forms of representation of different
• Enquiry-led • Reflection as a means of transforming communications and experiences offer opportunities for
experience reflection
• Problem base learning a focus
• Experience: Problem situation,
identification and definition
• Theory formation and test in practice
Vygotsky, Wertsch, Engestrom, Senge
Activity • Activity-based • Focus on the structures of activities as • New forms of distribution and storage, archiving and
-based • Systems thinking historically constituted entities retrieval offer the potential for development of shared
• Action through mediating artefacts within a knowledge banks across organisations and forms of
framework of activity within a wider socio- organisational distributed cognition
cultural context of rules and community • Adaptation in response to both discursive and active
• Pedagogical focus is on bridging the gap feedback
between historical state of an activity and
the developmental stage of a person with
respect to that activity
• Focus on organisational learning, or on
modelling the development of learners in
response to feedback.
• Collaborative • Take social interactions into account and • Shift from a focus on the individual and information-focused
learning learning as social participation learning to an emphasis on social learning and
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5. • Reciprocal • Knowledge is a matter of competences communication/ collaboration
teaching with respect to valued enterprise. • Networking capabilities of the web enables more diverse
• Vicarious Participating in the pursuit of this, i.e. access to different forms of expertise and the potential for
learning active engagement the development of different types of communities
• Online communication tools and learning environments offer
the potential for new forms of communities of practice or can
facilitate and enhance existing communities
Appendix Two: Learning Activity Taxonomy
Context Learning outcome, subject, discipline, level, learner characteristics, pre-requisites, time to complete
Pedagogy Tasks and supporting assets and outputs
Approaches Techniques Tasks Tools Resources Support Outputs
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6. Action research Buzz words Analyse List Bibliographic Powerpoint Annotated Buddying Artefact
Active learning Crosswords Apply Listen software Blogs Project manager bibliography Coach Assignment
Case study Drill and Argue Manipulate CAA tools Search engine Content in blogs Diagnostic Book report
Collaborative practice Brainstorm Model CD/DVD Simulation Content in wikis test Concept map
Conceptual Exercise Calculate Negotiate Chat software Course Explanation Dissertation
Constructivist Experiment Classify Observe Concordancer Spreadsheet information Facilitation Essay
Dialogic Fishbowl Compare Order Database Statistical Course reading Formative Paper
Enquiry-led Game Construct Organise Digital audio software materials Feedback Performance
Experiment Ice breaker Create Practice Digital video Text image Discussion Induction Portfolio
Field trip Journaling Criticise Predict Discussion board audio or video forum content Instructions Presentation
Goal-based Pair dialogues Critique Prepare Electronic library viewer FAQs Intervention Product
scenario Panel Debate Present Email Video Interactive CD Monitoring Report
Problem-based discussion Decide Produce Graphic package conferencing ROM Orientation Review
Procedural Peer Define Question Instant messaging VLE/LMS MCQ session
Project-based exchange Demonstrat React iPOD/MP3 player Virtual worlds Previous cohort Peer
Reflective Puzzles e Read Image software Voice over IP resources collaboration
practitioner Question/answ Describe Recite Memory stick Voting system Schedule/course Peer
Resource-based er Design Refine Mind map Wikis calendar reflection
Role play Rounds Differentiat Reflect Modelling Word processor Peer-generated Scaffolding
Vicarious Scavenger e Report NVIVO resource Set up
learning hunt Discover Research Online Peer- Surgery
Snowball Discuss Resolve assessment recommended
Structured Draw Review Podcast sites
debate Evaluate Search Subject-based
Tutorial Experience Select web sites
Web search Explain Simulate Template
Explore Solve Research
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7. Gather Specify journal articles
Generalise State Grey literature
Hypothesiz Summarise
e Synthesise
Identify Test
Illustrate Translate
Infer View
Interpret Vote
Interview Write
Investigate
Judge
Justify
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