This document summarizes key concepts in biochemistry including: 1. It defines anomers as cyclic monosaccharides or glycosides that differ in their configuration at carbon 1 or 2, and describes the difference between alpha and beta anomers. 2. It explains mutarotation as the change in optical rotation due to the equilibrium change between two anomers, discovered by Dubrunfaut in 1844. 3. It describes Haworth projection as a common way to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides, often used in organic chemistry and biochemistry. 4. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, glycogen, and summarizes some of their properties and examples

1. Dow University of Health Sciences
Post RN-BSN
Year I SemesterI
Biochemistry
Assignment #2
Name: Faisal Joel Father Name: Mushtaq Masih
Enrolment No: 011
Assignment submitted to; DR Uzma

2. Assignment # 2 Biochemistry
1-ANOMERS,
Anomers are cyclic monosachrides or Glycosides that are epimers,differing from
each other in a configuration at C-1 if they are aldoses or in a configuration at C-2 if
they are ketoses.The epimeric carbon in anomers are known as anomeric caarbon
or anomeric centre.
Difference Between Alpha and Beta Anomers,
The differnce between Alpha and Beta Glucose is nothing more than the position of
one of the four –OH Groups if the –OH group attached to it below the ring the
molecule is alpha glucose ,if the –OH is above the ring the molecule is beta glucose.
2-MUTAROTATION,
Mutarotaation is chaange in optical rotation because of the change in the
equilibriium between two anomers.Mutarotation was discovered by french chemist
Dubrun faut in 1844,.
3-HAWORTH PROJECTION,
Haworth projection is aommon way of writing a structrural formula to represent the
cyclic structure of monosaccharides with simple three simple dimensional
perspective.Organic chemistry and especially biochhemistry aare the areas of
chemistry that use harorth projection the most.
4-ANOMERIC CARBON IN HAWORTH PROJECTION,
An anomeric carbon atom (colored red here) is placed on the right .The upper bond
to this carbon is defined is beta,the lower bond then is alpha.The cyclic pyranose
forms of various monosaccharides are often drawn in a flat projection known as a
haworth formula,after the british chemist, Norman Hawoth.
5-MONOSACCHARIDES,
Monosaccharides also called simple sugar,are the simplest form of sugar and most
basic units of carbohydrates.They cannot be further hyrolyzed to simpler chemical
compounds.

3. -DISACCHARIDES,
A disaccharides is the sugar formed when tho monosaccharides are joined by
glycosidic linkage.
Like Disaccharides and monosaccharides are soluaable in water.
Example; Sucrose,Lactose and maltose.
-OLIGOSACCHARIDE,
An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number of
monosaccharides.Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell
recognition and cell binding.
Example;Glycolipids.
-POLYSACCHARIDES,
Polysaccharides are long chains of carbohydrate molecules,specifically polymeric
carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide unit bond togater by glycosidic
linkage.This carbohydrates can react with water using amylase enzymes at
catalyst,which produce sugars.
6-DIFFERNCE BETWEEN HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDE AND
HETROPOLYSACCHARIDE,
The main differnce between homopolysaccharide and hetropolysacchardide is that
homopolysaccharide are composed of of the same repeating units wheraes
hetropolysaccharide are composed of different repeating units.
7-GLYCOGEN,
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccahride of glucose that serves as a form of
energy storage in animals,fungi and bacteria,The polysacchaaride structure
represents the main storage form of glucose in the body.
Formula; (C6H10O5)
8-DIFFERNCE BETWEEN GLYCOGENOLYSIS AND GLUCONEOGENESIS,
Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources,
whereas glycogenolysis is the process of glycogen breakdown.
During glycogenolysis, glycogen is broken down to form the glucose-6-phosphate,

4. and during gluconeogenesis, molecules such as amino acids and lactic acids
convert into glucose.
OR
Glycogenolysis is the biochemical of glycogen to glucose but glycogenesis is just
opposite the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogenolysis takes place in
the cells of muscles a liver tissue in response to hormonal and neutral signals.
9-MAJOR AND MINOR PATHWAYS OF METABOLISM,
Major Metabolic pathways
 Glycolysis.
 Gluconeogenesis.
 Glycogenolysis.
 Glycogenesis.
 Pentose phosphate pathway.
 Fructose metabolism.
 Galactose metabolism.
Minor Metabolic Pathways
 Hexosemonophosphate pathway(HMP)
 Uronic acid pathway
10-GLYCOLYSIS AND TCA,
-GLYCOLYSIS,
Glycolysis is process of breaking down glucose.glycolysis can take place with or
without oxygen.glycolysis is the metabolic process that serves as the foundation for
both aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.In glycolysis,glucose is converted
into pyruvate.Glucose iis a six-memebered ring molecule found in the blood and is
usually a result of the breakdown of carbohydrates into sugars.It enters cells through
specific transporter proteins that move it from outside the cell into the cells
cytosol.All of the glycolytic enzymes are found in the cytosol.The first step in the
conversion of D-glucose into glucose-6-phosphate.

5. -TCA,
The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) is a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical
reactions that form a key part of aerobic respiration in cells. This cycle is also called
the Krebs cycle and the citric acid cycle.This shows the TCA cycle in the context of
what is happening in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Fill the Blanks,
1-Monosaccharides
2-Oligosaccharide
3-Polysaccharide
4-Chiral
REFERNCES,
study.com › academy › answer › what-is-the-function-of-.
www.scienceabc.com › pure-sciences › whats-difference-e.
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu › hbase › Biology › tca