This is a Walden University course (8104), It is written in APA format, has been graded by an instructor (A), and includes references. Most higher-education assignments are submitted to turnitin, so remember to paraphrase. Let us begin.

1. Running head: A1.1: COMPARE AND CONTRAST PRINCIPLES 1
A1.1: Compare and Contrast Principles of Practice
Orlanda Haynes
Walden University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for Richard W. Riley School of Education and Leadership
EDUC 8104-6 Facilitating Adult Learning
Ed. D Student
Spring 2016

2. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 2
Developing a teaching philosophy requires knowledge, appropriate teaching and learning
skills, and the ability to transfer such from theory to principles of practice. Most facilitators
understand principles and concepts associated with how adults learn. Therefore, their primary
emphasis is to develop a teaching philosophy that is consistent with principles of effective
practice. The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast two adult learning and
development principles of practice. Stephen Brookfield is noted, in part, for his work on the
importance of critical reflection and Huey B. Long for his research on self-directed learning
(SDL). Both researchers, however, have identified similar principles of effective practice. This
discussion entails an overview of their principles of practice.
A1.1: Compare and Contrast Principles of Practice
Since extensive research has validated the effectiveness of both methods, facilitators’
tasks, therefore, are to identify which approach is most suited to their students' learning and
development needs. It is relevant to note, here, that a mix-method approach is common practice
primarily because adult education styles and needs vary (Fink, 2003; Galbraith, 2004;
Guglielmino, & Guglielmino, 2003; Knowles, 1980; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2015;
Zimmerman, 2009). As Galbraith (2004) indicated, Long’s research focus centered on the
process by which most adult learners acquires knowledge and skills (self-direction). Brookfield,
on the other hand, emphasized critical reflection as a mean to synthesize information into usable
data (i.e., project development, analysis, and evaluation).
The ability to employ critical reflection is a primary step in the learning process. In fact,
research suggests that this trait or characteristic is unique to adulthood. Its framework originates from
developmental psychology (i.e., embedded logic, dialectical thinking, working intelligence, reflective
judgment, post-formal reasoning and epistemic cognition). Brookfield noted that adults use three
primary aspects of this process. First, most learners critically examine new information to determine

3. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 3
its validity before data formation. Depending on the results, theories, concepts, views, and
assumptions could be replaced, edited, or just discarded. Secondly, adults have the ability to alter
previously conceived notions, ideas, actions, reasoning, and ideologies. Lastly, they have the
capacity to self-actualize, to accept the importance of cultural diversity, and to take responsibility for
their roles within their current environments and lifestyles (Brookfield, 1987, 1991; Mezirow, 1991).
As far as principles of practice, Hanor and Hayden (2004) explained that the process of
reflective practices is continuous. In that, facilitators and students not only observe and evaluate
their actions but also how their actions affect others. In essence, the overall process provides
ongoing oversight which allows for edits, improvements, or deletions. Comparatively, Long
(2002, as cited by Galbraith, 2004) advocated for creating environments that emphasized: “the
nature of the learners” such as self-direction or self-directed learning (Long, 2002, as cited in
Galbraith, 2004, p. 9). Which is a process by which adult learners take responsibility for their
learning by setting goals, locating and reviewing appropriate resources, deciding which ones are
relevant, and by evaluating their progress (Candy, 1990; Galbraith, 2004; Guglielmino, &
Guglielmino, 2003)?
He identified 10 practicing principles including
 learning is facilitated in an environment that emphasizes the person as an individual and their
subjective learning nature;
 students’ personal worth and self-respect facilitate the instructors’ teaching;
 adults are self-governing with their goals, desires, and expectations; (d) adult students are
capable of making decisions affecting their wellbeing; and
 adults’ self-concept progresses continuously towards self-accountability, self-responsibility,
and self-direction, to name a few (Long, 2002, as cited in Galbraith, 2004, p. 9). Although he
did not discard the relevance of critical reflection, long believed that SDL learning

4. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 4
environments facilitate adult learning more effectively than critical reflection alone
(Galbraith, 2004). Moreover, he suggested that facilitators use SDL principles as processes
for learning and that they should view SDL characteristics as outcomes of the process
(American Psychological Association, 1997; Candy, 1990; Galbraith, 2004; Guglielmino, &
Guglielmino, 2003).
In contrast, Brookfield expanded his views on critical reflection to include six principles of
effective practice including
 adults volunteer to participate in learning;
 adults respect other participants for their self-worth of learning;
 adults and learners continuously involve in activities, reflection, collaboration, new activity,
further reflection, and collaborative analysis;
 facilitation strengthens adults’ critical reflection; and
 facilitation nurtures self-directed learning and empowers adults (Galbraith, 2004).
In brief, as this research suggests, developing a teaching philosophy requires knowledge,
appropriate teaching and learning skills, and the ability to transfer such from theory to principle
of practice. Moreover, it has shown that approaches and methods to teaching and learning
depend, in part, on the needs of students, principles of effective practice, and the facilitators’
teaching philosophy. Brookfield’s work shows that adults use critical reflections to validate
information, theories, concepts, assumptions, ideologies and their learning and development
processes and tasks. Long’s research focused on identifying learners’ characters as a means to
create SDL environments. Both researchers identified principles of effective practice with
overlapping qualities. Their teaching and learning methods and approaches are common to most
education environments.

5. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 5
References
American Psychological Association (1997). Learner—centered psychological principles: A
framework for school reform and the redesign. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Candy, P. C. (1990). Self-direction for lifelong learning: A comprehensive guide to theory
and practice. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to
designing college courses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Guglielmino, L. M., & Guglielmino, P. J. (2003). Identifying learners who are ready for e-
learning and supporting their success. In Piskurich, G. Preparing learners for e-
learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hanor, J. & Hayden, K. (2004). Advancing growth in educational technology using reflective
practice and self-directed learning. International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 1(2),
53-62. Retrieved from
http://csusm.academia.edu/JoanHanor/Papers/242633/USING_REFLECTIVE_PRACTI
E_AND_SELFDIRECTED_LEARNING_TO_ADVANCE_GROWTH_IN_EDUCATI
NAL_TECHNOLOGY
Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., III, & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner: The definitive
classic in adult education and human resources development (8th ed.). New York, NY:
Routledge.

6. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 6
Mezirow J 1991 Transformative dimensions of adult learning. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge
Galbraith, M. (Ed.). (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (3rd ed.).
Malabar, FL: Kreiger Publishing.

7. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 7
Rubric for A1.1: Compare and Contrast Principles of Practice
Use this rubric for the Module 1 assignment, Compare and Contrast Principles of Practice. In this rubric
you will find evaluation criteria for this assignment.
Note that the following criteria are assessed in this rubric:
 Scholarly Writing, Presentation, and Style (APA Style; Voice, Grammar, and Flow of
Thought; Mechanics and Presentation)
 Evidence of Critical Thinking (Higher Order Thinking; Pattern of Ideas)
Criterion 1: Scholarly Writing, Presentation, and Style
Criterion 1.1:
APA Style
Approved With
Commendation
5
Acceptable
4
Adequate
3
Inadequate
2
APA style is
exemplary and used
consistently and
extensively throughout
the manuscript.
APA style is used
consistently with very
few (one to three)
errors throughout the
manuscript.
APA style is used
throughout the
manuscript but
exhibits four to five
common errors.
APA style is used
inconsistently
throughout the
manuscript; and six to
seven APA errors are
noted.
A
d
th
a
Criterion 1.2:
Voice,
Grammar, and
Flow of
Thought
Exemplary attention
and effort are given to
voice, grammar, and
flow of writing.
Instructor makes no
recommendations for
improvement.
Tense is consistent;
complex sentence
structure is maximized
and appropriate.
Sustains a well-
focused, well-
organized analysis,
connecting ideas
logically.
Evident attention and
effort are given to
voice, grammar, and
flow of writing.
Instructor makes one
recommendation for
improvement.
Tense is consistent;
Appropriate complex
sentence structure is
used.
Sustains a focused,
organized analysis,
connecting ideas
logically.
Attention and effort are
given to voice,
grammar, and flow of
writing. Instructor
makes two
recommendations for
improvement.
Tense is consistent;
sentence structure is
simple yet appropriate.
Sustains an organized
analysis, connecting
ideas logically.
Voice, grammar, and
flow of writing are
difficult to follow.
Instructor makes three
recommendations for
improvement.
Tense is inconsistent;
sentence structure is
difficult to follow.
Connection of ideas is
difficult to follow.
V
flo
u
In
o
re
im
T
s
in
T
b
id
Criterion 1.3:
Mechanics and
Presentation
Presentation is
exemplary. Instructor
makes no suggestions
for improvement.
All assignment
directions are
obviously and
completely addressed.
Spelling is correct. No
typographical errors
are present.
Presentation is
professional and
scholarly. Instructor
makes one suggestion
for improvement.
All assignment
directions are
evidently addressed.
Spelling is correct.
One typographical
error is present.
Presentation is
consistent in font,
type, and spacing.
Instructor makes two
suggestions for
improvement.
All assignment
directions are
completely addressed.
Spelling is correct.
Two typographical
errors are present.
Presentation uses
various fonts, type
sizes, or spacing.
Instructor makes three
suggestions for
improvement.
One assignment
direction is not
addressed. One to two
spelling errors and
three typographical
errors are present.
P
u
ty
In
o
fo
M
a
n
o
a
e
Criterion 2: Evidence of Critical Thinking

8. A1.1 COMPARE AND CONTRAST 8
Criterion 2.1:
Higher Order
Thinking
Approved With
Commendation
5
Acceptable
4
Adequate
3
Inadequate
2
Higher order thinking is
consistently present,
original, and creative.
Instructor makes no
recommendations for
improvement.
Strong arguments
have been formulated
about the similarities
and differences among
the principles of
effective practice,
based on theories,
relationships, and
concepts.
Higher order thinking
is present and
consistent. Instructor
makes one
recommendation for
improvement.
A conscious,
consistent attempt
has been made to
develop valid
arguments about the
similarities and
differences among
the principles of
effective practice.
Higher order thinking is
present but not
consistent. Instructor
makes two
recommendations for
improvement.
Some attempt has
been made to develop
arguments about the
similarities and
differences among the
principles of effective
practice.
Higher order thinking is
questionable.
Instructor makes three
recommendations for
improvement.
Little attempt has been
made to develop
arguments about the
similarities and
differences among the
principles of effective
practice.
H
ob
In
or
re
im
A
be
di
si
di
pr
pr
Criterion 2.2:
Pattern of
Ideas
Clear pattern of idea
formation, research by
others, and support
statements tie ideas to
principles of effective
practice. Instructor
makes no
recommendations for
improvement.
Compelling reasons
and/or persuasive
examples are
provided.
Pattern of idea
formation, research
by others, and
support statements
that tie ideas to
principles of effective
practice are present
but with insignificant
gaps in evidence or
support. Instructor
makes one
recommendation for
improvement.
Reasons and
examples clearly
support the idea.
Idea formation lacks
sufficient evidence and
support. Instructor
makes two
recommendations for
improvement.
Reasons and
examples are included
but are not clearly
linked to the idea.
Evidence or support
for ideas is poorly
developed. Instructor
makes three
recommendations for
improvement.
Vague or unsupported
reasons and examples
are given.
N
m
re
m
re
im
N
ex
Candidates will submit their work in Module 1. For instructions on submitting to the Dropbox, view the
Assignments section for Module 1.
There are 5 criteria included in this rubric X 5 points maximum for each = 25 possible total points for
this Assignment.
Grading note to faculty: Enter the Total Score for this Assignment into the eCollege course Gradebook.
eCollege will automatically assign the correct weight to this assignment (5% of the total course grade).
For example if the student has achieved a total score of 25, enter 25 into the course Gradebook for this
Assignment.