This presentation shows about steps in processing letters by children and related theories behind.

1. Processing Letters
Birch: chapter 5
Group 2:
Anik Biati
Dwi Firli Ashari
Laranti Salaz
Nurawati Mina

2. Outline Presentation
What is processing letter?
A. Sampling the Text
B. Graphs and Graphemes
C. Developing Graphemic Knowledge and
Processing Strategies (sub domain
D. The English L2 Readers
E. Spotlight in Teaching
(3 Methods of Presenting Grapheme into
Phoneme Correspondences)

3. Sampling The Text
Use a certain parts of the text to construct
meaning with additional thing (which is
prediction) by using graphophonic, syntactic and
semantic systems of the language to predict
meaning and confirm those predictions with real
experiences and knowledge of the language.

4. Sampling The Text
Disadvantages of sampling the text:
• Sampling the text places too much emphasis
at the top of reading process, skimping the
bottom.
• Sampling does not describe the reading
process for beginning or intermediate readers,
or ESL and EFL readers, who must process
more of the cues in the text in order to grasp
the meaning.

5. Sampling The Text (cont.)
• Instructional method that given by teachers if
they believe readers just “sampling”,
attention to the nitty-gritty details of English
letters and sounds may seem to be a topic to
be dispensed as quickly as possible.
• Students are sometimes told explicitly to
“sample” the text and to rely on strategies like
predicting or skimming.

6. Graphs and Graphemes
There are
26 alphabet letters, but
more than 65 graphemes and a
potentially
infinite number of graphs.

7. Graphs and Graphemes (cont.)
• Graph: a concrete instance of a grapheme in
the same way that a phone is a concrete
instance of phoneme.
• Grapheme: an abstract mental symbol of
writing that corresponds to a phoneme in a
spoken language, and thus, it represents all of
the allophones of that phoneme.

8. Graphs and Graphemes (cont.)
Figure 1: Main English consonant graphemes from Venezky,
1970. Used by permission of Mouton de Gruyter.

9. Graphs and Graphemes (cont.)
Figure 2: Main English vowel graphemes from Venezky, 1970.
Used by permission of Mouton de Gruyter.

10. Graphs and Graphemes (cont.)
Two types of single graphemes:
1.Single graphemes: use one grapheme to
represent the phoneme.
Examples: t, d, f, s, a, o, and so on.
2.Double graphemes (digraphs): take two
graphemes together to represent a phoneme.
Examples: ch, sh, ph, th, and few others.

11. Graphs and Graphemes (cont.)
Two other types of graphemes:
1.Compound graphemes: simple graphemes
doubled (or geminated)
Examples: gg, tt, nn, ck
2.Complex graphemes is x, which uses one
grapheme to represent a sequence of two
phonemes, namely /ks/.

12. Developing Graphemic Knowledge
and Processing Strategies
Knowledge Base
• Identify and write the letters of alphabet
• Acquire the system of grapheme listed earlier
• Include an inventory of graphemes and their
invariant properties -> orthographic
processing

13. Developing Graphemic Knowledge
and Processing Strategies (cont.)
Processing Strategies:
• Eye movement
• Selective fixating and projecting
• Reading speed
• Pattern recognition
• Word recognition
• Word superiority effect
• Word beginning

14. The English L2 Readers
• A research about eye movement in reading of ESL and EFL
learners, and a study by Tullius at 1979 of university
students found that they have 3 times longer for eye
movement. It means they take longer in fixation for
processing the word there for they don't have any
regressions. (time consuming)
• Therefore they need to enriching their experience and
knowledge. In reading English readers must match a graph
on the page with graphemes on their heads, which also
matched with phonemes and make a linkage for
graphemes and phonemes in form of word.

15. The English L2 Readers (cont.)
• The problem is students are might be wrong in that
matching system, so the teacher should guide them
especially in consonants. In some cases, they are
able to know how the grapheme and phonemes are
working but when it comes into reading they do not
know it.

16. Spotlight in Teaching
Text for English speaking, children use
different orders when presenting the
consonant grapheme to phoneme
correspondences why? Factors

17. 3 Methods of Presenting Grapheme
into Phoneme Correspondences
3 methods in processing letter based on
Gunning (1988) :
1. Analytical method, gathering the letter with
the word.
2. Synthetic method consonants and vowels are
isolated and taught separately.
3. The linguistic method series of words are
placed in a column cat fat mat and read
aloud so the students can "induce"

18. Application in Making Lesson Plan
1. Phonemic awareness
2. Graphemes awareness
3. Then teach the linkage of grapheme and
phoneme in a word
4. Practicing by printing and writing the
graphemes
5. Read stories