Plumage colours are important in terms of breed identification as well as they have relationship with growth performance

1. 1

2. 2
Dr. Lonkar Vijaysinh D.
Ph.D. Scholar (Poultry Science)
Reg. No: 10-2041-8003

3. Introduction
History
Feather structure and types
Feather formation and regeneration
Feather pigmentation
Genetic basis of plumage colours and patterns
Effect of plumage colours on production performance
Conclusions
Future prospectus
3

4. 4

5. 5
(19th Livestock Census, GOI)
Backyard poultry population of India : 29.8%
Backyard poultry : nutritional security,
employment generation, subsidiary income to
rural poor farmer
Backyard poultry contributes 21 % of egg
production
Need to harness the potential of native fowl
(NBAGR , Vision 2050)
Preference for coloured plumage birds by the
farmer and consumers in India
(Ravi Kumar, 2012)
88.23
16.49
0
20
40
60
80
100
Desi fowl Improved fowl
Backyard poultry population in
rural areas of India (Million)
2.15
0.26
0
1
2
3
Desi fowl Improved fowl
Backyard poultry population in
rural areas of Gujarat (Million)

6. 6
What is Plumology ?

7. 7
Plumage colour : Specific coloured feathers present
on body of bird which provides overall distinct visual
appearance to the fowl
Plumage : Entire feathery covering of bird
Plumage patterns : Definite arrangement of colour
on individual feathers on the specific body region.
(Lucas and Stettenheim,1972)

8. 8

9. (Harris et al., 2002)
9
The origin of avian species
Birds first appeared in
Jurassic period of Mesozoic
era.
Archaeopteryx arose from
the Theropod lineage, a
known fossils of feathered
dromaeosaurs from upper
cretaceous period.
Birds became modernized in
cretaceous period .

10. 10
(Norell and Xu, 2000; Sues, 2001 ; Kurochkin and Bogdanovich, 2008)
Evolutionary development of feathers
Stage Function
I & II Thermoregulation or display
III Aerodynamic shape useful for leaping among
branches
IV & V Simple pennaceous feather on forelimbs may have
allowed parachuting
VI Larger pennaceous feathers with symmetrical vanes
may have permitted gliding
VII Asymmetrical feathers may have contributed to
more efficient gliding
VIII Powered flight

11. 11
Fossilized feather : First specimen of Archaeopteryx
lithographica recognized as an ancestral bird
(1860)
Archaeopteryx
Tordoff (1979) first reported that the
asymmetric vanes in the primary feather of
modern flying bird indicate aerodynamic
function and can be assumed to have evolved in
the selective context of flight.
Asymmetric vanes of
primary feather

12. 12
(Hoyo et al., 2001; Ekarius, 2007; Desta et al., 2019)
Wild stocks in many areas have been crossbred back to
domestic chicken yielding hybrid jungle fowl
Habitat has been destroyed through large areas of
their range.
Red Jungle fowl : Gallus gallus
Grey Jungle fowl
Gallus sonneratii
Ceylon Jungle fowl
Gallus lafayetii
Green Jungle fowl
Gallus varius
South & West India Sri Lanka Indonesia
South and East India, Myanmar,
Indo-China, Malaysia, Sumatra,
Philipine
Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus)
Gallus gallus gallus, Gallus gallus jabouillei, Gallus gallus
murghi, Gallus gallus spadiceus, Gallus gallus bankiva

13. 13

14. 14
Rachis (shaft)
Closed pennaceous
portion
Open pennaceous
portion
Quill (calamus)
Parts of typical feather

15. 15
(Prum and Brush, 2003)
Structure of contour feather (Pennaceous feather)

16. 16(Lucas and Stettenheim, 1972)
Web formation :
Hooklet of one barbule interlocks with flangs of next barbule and thus hold the barb together and
forms web.
Distal and proximal barbule of contour feather (Pennaceous feather )

17. Wing feathers (Remiges)
Major Sickle
Lesser sickle
Tail coverts
Tail feathers (Rectrices)
Main forward
thrust for flight
Major sickle
Lesser sickle
Primary Secondary
Soaring & flapping
Supports the flight
Courtesy : PRS, Anand
17

18. 18
Structure of non-contour feather (Plumaceous feather )
(Prum and Brush, 2003)
Absence of barbicels

19. Down
Natal and
Definite
Soft, without rachis
Found under contour feather on most part of
body.
Function : Insulation.
Powder
down
Commonly dispersed over the body among the
ordinary downs and contour feathers.
Semi-plumes
Combining features of contour & down,
plumulaceous without hooklet.
Function : Structural support, insulation.
Powdered Down
Non–contour feather types
19
(Ginn and Melville, 1983)

20. Bristles
Stiff, tapered rachis & absence of barbs except at
proximal end. Present around beak, nares and
eyes.
Function : Sensory and protective.
Filoplumes
Hair-like with very fine shaft & tuft of short
barbs or barbules at its tip.
Function : Attached to nerve ending and detects
air pressure to adjust flight.
20
Non–contour feather types
(Ginn and Melville, 1983)

21. (Lucas and Stettenheim,1972)
Branching morphogenesis produces different types of feathers
Bilaterally
symmetric
contour feather
(General contour)
Radially symmetric
non-contour feather
(Down feather)
Bilaterally asymmetric configuration of flight feathers provides improved aerodynamics
21
Bilaterally
asymmetric
contour
feather
(Primary)

22. Shape of feather is based on the topological configuration of feather stem cells.
Feather stem cells are configured as ring at the bottom of follicle
Feather shape by stem cell topology
(Yu et al., 2002; Yue et al., 2006; Hughes et al., 2011)
22

23. 23
Sexual dimorphism
It is a condition where two sexes have different characteristics beyond the differences in their
sexual organs. Feather phenotypes can be modified by sex hormones.
Sexual dimorphism : More distinct in rectrices, neck and saddle hackles and
less distinct in flight feathers
Phenotype of female rectrices is related to estrogen while male rectrices
related to androgen.
Complete left-ovarectomized females can produce androgen from the masculinized right gonad and
their feather patterning is phenotypically similar to that of the male type
Steroids bind to feather follicles and may directly exert their effects.
(Kovacs et al., 1986)
(Wallenburg, 1982)
(Frankenhuis and Kappert, 1980)
(Yu et al., 2004)
Rectrices

24. 24Saddle & Neck hackle
Cock
Hen
Courtesy : PRS, Anand
Major & lesser Sickle

25. 25
(McGraw, 2002)
Sexual Dichromatism
It is difference in coloration of sexes within a given species.
Analysis of evolutionary patterns determined that though sexual selection is responsible
for increasing male coloration, it has a greater impact on decreasing the female plumage
colors.
Birds with brighter colors spend most of their time in treetops, in the air, or on the
water (Protective coloration).
If the colours are protective, which bird needs the most protection, the male or the
female? The female, because she has to sit on eggs for hatching. So nature gives her
dull colors to keep her better hidden from enemies!

26. 26
Male and female gold finches deposit the same ratio of carotenoid type pigments into the
feathers when they were fed with the same diet, but male gold finches deposit more
carotenoids in their feathers than females. This color difference only occurs in feathers at
certain locations and in certain patterns. How this is regulated is as yet another
interesting unknown.
(McGraw, 2002)
Sexual Dichromatism
Another reason for the brighter colors of the male bird is that they help attract the
female during the breeding season.

27. Different types of feathers are present from different body regions of a bird
Different body regions produce feathers
with specific characteristics. There also
can be size and pigmentation gradients.
A bird exhibits different plumage at various
ages for different physiological needs.
These different feathers are produced from the same follicle, using similar
feather stem cells in response to different follicle microenvironments.
Feather diversity: Regional specificity and temporal difference on body
27
(Chen et al., 2015)

28. 28

29. 29
Feather growth begin with
placode
Placode form elongated tube
(feather germ)
Follicle formation: Keratinocyte
production forces older cells up
and out eventually forming
entire tubular feather
(E5)
(E8)
Feather grow by proliferation and differentiation of
keratinocytes which dies during growth of feather and leaving
behind mass of deposited keratin.
Keratins are filaments of protein that polymerize to form solid
structure.
Feather are made up of beta keratin. Outer covering of growing
feather called sheath is made up of soft alpha keratin

30. 30
Outermost epidermal layer becomes feather sheath
and internal epidermal layer becomes partitioned
into series of compartments called barb ridges
which subsequently grow to become barb of feather
As growth proceeds, the feather emerges from its superficial
sheath and unfurls to obtain its planar shape . When feather
reaches its final size, the follicle collar forms the calamus (a
tube at feather base)
In pennaceous fetaher barb ridge grow helically
around the collar until they fuse to form rachis ridge.
Subsequent barb ridges fuse to rachis ridge.

31. 31

32. Pterylosis of a male Single Comb
White Leghorn Chicken
(Lucas and Stettenheim, 1972)
Pterylae
Feathers follicles organized
into tracts
Different feather tracts on
different parts of the body
(Yu et al., 2004)
32

33. 33
Epithelium
Pulp mesenchyme
Vase like Dermal Papilla
Collar epithelium stem cell niche
Shrinkage of
follicle as dermal
papilla shrinks
Structure of feather
follicle
Feather regeneration and morphogenesis
Feather sheds from the follicle leaving dehind dermal papilla and papilla ectoderm. Some stem cells
become activated during initiation phase
(Widelitz et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2013)
Initiation Growth Rest

34. Topographic sequence in natural molting
34
(Lucas and Stettenheim, 1972; Mingke et al., 2004; Kondo et al., 2018)
First natural molt
When down is replaced by the first juvenile plumage occurring at
1st week and ending at 4th week.
Second natural
molt
When first juvenile plumage is replaced by the second juvenile
plumage which occur over a number of week starting between 7th
and 12th week of age
Third natural
molt
Occurs at 64th to 72nd week
Afterwards, feathers usually molt at regular intervals
(two times a year)
1 to 4 wk
7 to12 wk 64 to 72 wk
Two times a year

35. Flight feathers develop earlier
35
FFF
FFF region
Abdominal down
Shaft
Shaft
Shaft
E18 E19
1st
2nd
1dph
(Kondo et al.,2018)
1st
2nd
2nd
Second generation for the remex-type flight feather has
already started dev eloping before hatching (E14) as an
embryonic event and clearly visible at 7dph.
First molting begins at around two weeks post hatching in chicken. However, first molting from the
natal down feathers to the flight feathers is much earlier than that for other feather types,
suggesting that flight feather formation starts as an embryonic event.
Shh Causes
radially
asymmetry in
flight feathers

36. 36

37. Chemical coloration
(Pigments)
Type , size and
arrangement of pigment
Melanin: Black, Brown, Grey,
Red & Buff shades
Carotenoids: Orange &
Yellow hue
Psittacofulvins: Impressive
set of brilliant colours limited
to parrots, produced directly
in feathers.
Structural coloration
Number of cells overlying
the pigments,
their structures, and
the way in which they
reflect, diffract, disperse
or absorbs rays of light
Blue and Green colours are
structural in nature.
Combination
Due to both structural
features and
underlying pigments
Yellow- green
Black-green
(Lucas and Stettenheim, 1972 ; McGraw et al., 2004 ; Hill and McGraw, 2006) 37

38. Iridescent feathers
Iridescent feathers change color with
different viewing angles, an effect caused by
protein structure of feather barbules
Feather color produced by refraction of light by an organized
structure of feather keratin proteins are absorbed by
melanin layer. Blue is refracted and the remaining colors are
absorbed by a layer of melanin.
Non-iridescentcolour-blue
Microstructure of pigmented feather
Red wavelengths are absorbed by the pigment granules
38
Coloration created by pigments is independent of
feather structure. Pigment coloration in birds
comes from carotenoids, melanins, and
porphyrines.
Carotenoids can interact with
melanins to produce colors like the
olive-green
Carotenoids: Yellow
https://academy.allaboutbirds.org/how-birds-make-colorful-feathers

39. 39
Neural crest cell in embryonic stage
Melanoblast
Dermis and eipidermis (E 4-7)
Even distribution and localization in primordia
Melanoblast synthesize melanin (E 7-8)
Melanocyte transfer melanin to keratinocyte in feather filament
Random arrangement in proximal feather germ
Gradually aligned in longitudinal row in barb ridge
Melanocyte send processes outward to cell of barbule plate and transfer melanin to
them (E 11)
New melanocyte derived from reservoir melanocyte stem cell located at follicle
(Yu et al., 2004)

40. Melanin pigment and its distribution
(Crawford, 1990)
Melanins : Eumelanin and Pheomelanin.
• Eumelanin : Pigment of black, blue and grey coloured feathers,
• Pheomelanin : Pigment of red-brown, salmon and buff coloured feathers.
Ultimate presence and distribution of melanin is complicated by differences in feather form
and structure associated with age and sex, as well as structural variations between and within
feather tracts and individual feathers.
40
Distribution of eumelanin in plumage causes primary or secondary patterns.
 Primary pattern : Zonal or regional location of black pigment and may include several
feather tracts (as in the columbian restriction pattern) or as few as one (as in flight
feathers in the birchen pattern).
 Secondary patterns : Produced by the effect of distribution of eumelanin within
individual feathers (Barring, Stippling and Lacing)
(Kimball,1953)

41. 41
Lower bulge epithelium
Barb ridges
Suppression of melanocyte in Silver Laced
Wyandotte chicken feathers
(Lin et al., 2013)
Distribution of melanocytes and melanocyte
progenitors in completely apigmented feathers
from White Leghorn
Vertical section

42. Age-related pigment pattern change and the location of melanocyte
progenitors in the same feather follicle at different ages
Though the pigment pattern of feathers from flight feather differed at 1 and 5 months
of age, the distribution of melanocyte progenitors in lower bulge of growing feather
follicle was similar.
(Lin et al., 2013)
Female Silver Laced Wyandotte
chicken
42

43. Melanocyte proliferation status in growing feather
Quantitative analysis of cell density of melanocyte
lineage in different regions
Melanocyte density was lowest in LB and MB and highest in UB and RGZ. * P<0.05; N=3
Depiction of the epithelial regions for analysis of
density of melanocyte in growing flight feathers
(Lin et al.,2013)
43
b

44. 44

45. (Crawford, 1990)
45
Reasons for variation in plumage colour
Expression of plumage color is a polygenic trait (Gene interactions like dominance,
incomplete dominance and epistasis)
Based on wild-type model, genes are presumed to be present for normal production of
melanin and capacity to produce both eumelanin (black) and pheomelanin (red-buff)
pigments.
Distribution of eumelanin and pheomelanin appears to be controlled by a genetically
determined competitive advantage of one type of pigment over the other.

46. 46
Reasons for variation in plumage colour
Eumelanogenesis precedes pheomelanogenesis, suggesting first genetic decision is
distribution of eumelanin.
Pheomelanin pigments eliminated by certain mutations, results into black and white
or greyish plumage patterns.
Melanin and pheomelanin gives dilution effects to produce blue, buff and cream
phenotypes.
Totally or partially white plumage colour also occur as a result of several epistatic
mutations, as well as certain genetic interactions.
(Crawford, 1990)
(Wakamatsu and Iro, 2002; Kushimto et al., 2003)
(Brumbaugh,1971)

47. Primary pattern – E locus(solid
colours)
E, ER, eWh, e+, eb, es, ebc, ey
Secondary pattern genes Pg, Ml, Db, mo, B , Co
Eumelanin enhancers Extending black areas: Ml, cha
Eumelanin restrictors Columbian restrictor Co, Columbian
like restrictor Db
Eumelanin diluters Bl, lav, I, Id, Is, choc, c
Pheomelanin intensifiers Red enhancers Mh
Pheomelanin diluters Gold diluters S, Di, Cb, ig
Plumage colour and pattern genes
(Ralph, 1988)
47

48. 48

49. Phenotype associated with multiple alleles at “E locus”
Name Gene Symbol Gene action
Extended black E Autosomal dominant
Birchen ER Autosomal incomplete dominant
Dominant Wheaten eWh Autosomal dominant
Wild type (black
breasted red)
e+ Autosomal recessive
Partridge eb Autosomal recessive
Speckled es Autosomal recessive
Buttercup ebc Autosomal recessive
Recessive Wheaten ey
Autosomal recessive
(Crawford, 1990) 49

50. Plumage colours based on “E locus” with genes at other locus
Extended black E Birchen ER/ER, S/S or S/-
Self-Blue colour phase E/ E, lav/lav Gold colour phase ER/ER, s+/s+ or s+/-
Blue colour phase but
laced
E/E,
Bl/bl,Co/Co,Ml/Ml,
Pg/Pg
Blue colour phase ER/ER, Bl/bl+, S/S or
S/-
Splash colour phase E/E, Bl/Bl Grey colour phase ER/ER, S/S or S/-
Mottled colour phase E/E, mo/mo White colour phase ER/ER, I/I or c/c
Barred colour phase
(cuckoo)
E/E, B/B or B/-, S/S
or S/-
Laced colour phase E/E, Co/Co, Pg/Pg,
Ml/Ml
Spangle colour phase E/E, Db/Db, Pg/Pg,
Ml/Ml
White colour phase E/E, I/I or c/c
(Ralph, 1988)
50

51. Brassy Back variety (e+ wild type
plus eumelanin enhancer)
In addition to E and ER alleles, eumelanin enhancing genes are responsible for extending
black areas of wild type (e+) and brown (eb) in to the pheomelanin areas and also plays
important role in certain primary and secondary patterns.
Quail variety (e+ wild type, Co
Columbian, plus eumelanin enhancer)
Brassy Back variety produced with (e+ ) wild
type and eumelanin enhancer
Quail and Vorwerk varieties, as both varieties
can be produced with the base genes: eb
Brown, Co Columbian plus
eumelanin enhancer.
(Moore and Smyth, 1971; Crawford, 1990) 51
Other eumelanizing Factors, Ml and cha
Examples :

52. Genes associated with restriction of eumelanin (Columbian and
columbian like restrictor)
Gene Inheritance
Pheomelanin
effect
Eumelanin
effect
Columbian (Co)
Incomplete
dominance
Orange-gold Little effect
Mohogany (Mh)
Incomplete
dominance
Redens Little effect
Dark brown
(Db)
Incomplete
dominance
Orange -tan
Reddens black
down, Variable
restriction in
adult
Dilute (Di)
Incomplete
dominance
Dilute red and
gold to buff
Not known
Co and Db plays major role in genotype of secondary pattern like half moon spangling
(Co. Db, Pg, Ml) and quail type pattern (Co, Db, Ml) 52(Crawford, 1990)

53. 53

54. Above genes causes distribution of eumelanin within
individual feather and produces secondary colour patterns
like Pencilling, Barring, Autosomal barring (parallel pencilling), Lacing,
Spangling, Mottling, Tricolour pattern (mille Fleur) and Speckling.
54
Gene Gene action
Columbian (Co) Restricts black from body of males and females
Pattern (Pg)
Orders black pigment in hens to concentric lacing; in males
only with help of other genes
Dark brown (Db)
Columbian-like restrictor of black and Co-causer of certain
patterns
Melanotic (Ml)
Enhances black (melanizer), Also shifts black pigment, Helps
to form patterns.
Mottled (Mo)
White feather tips or less regular white patching, Recessive
(Crawford, 1990)

55. Combined with Ml (Pg+Ml) concentric lines become
broader and shift towards the edge of feather
causes Double lacing
By adding columbian Co (Co+Pg+Ml inner laces are
removed causes Single lacing.
By adding Dark brown Db to multiple pencilling
causes Autosomal barring (Db+Pg).
Addition of Melanotic Ml (Db+Pg+Ml) causes
Spangling
Pattern gene (Pg) causes multiple lacing
(Penciling)
Action of Pattern, Melanotic, Columbian & Dark Brown Genes
55(Crawford, 1990)

56. Genetic interaction that determines autosomal secondary
pattern in domestic fowl
Phenotype
Genotype
E alleles Co/co+ Pg/pg+ Db/db+ Ml/ml+ Mo+/mo
Penciling eb Pg
Autosomal
Barring
eb Pg Db
Single lace eb Co Pg Ml
Double lace
eb, eWh,
ey Pg Ml
56
(Crawford, 1990)

57. Phenotype
Genotype
E
alleles
Co/co+ Pg/pg+ Db/db+ Ml/ml+ Mo+/mo
Spangling ER Pg Db Ml
Half moon
spangling
E or
ER Co Pg Ml
Speckling
eb or
eWh Co mo
Mottling E mo
57
(Crawford, 1990; Ian et al., 2019)
Genetic interaction that determines autosomal secondary
pattern in domestic fowl

58. 58
Penciled feather
Partridge
Wyandotte female
Red feather
Rhode Island Red
Buff feather
Buff Orpington
male
Slaty blue
Andalusian
blue
Laced feather
Indian or Cornish
Game female
Barred feather
Plymouth Rock
Silver-laced feather
Wyandotte female
Gold-laced feather
Wyandotte female
(Ian et al., 2019)
British poultry standards

59. 59
Speckled V-
shaped tip
Ancona female
(Ian et al., 2019)
Speckled feather
Sussex female
with green luster
Spangled feather :
‘mooning’ on
feather
Silver spangled
Hamburgh female.
Spangled feather :
absence of ‘mooning’
on feather
Silver spangled
Hamburgh female.
Irregularity in
markings of an
exchequer Leghorn
female
British poultry standards

60. Mottled Ancona Blue laced
Anadalusian
Creled Araucana Lavender
Araucana
Black Red Asil
Black Australorp Wybar Bantam Double Laced
Barnevelder
Pencilled
Brahma
Buff Cochin
British poultry standards
(Ian et al., 2019)

61. Silver grey Dorking Pencilled Fyomi Chamois
Pencilled Fresian
Silver Spangled
Hamburgh Lakenvelder
White Leghorn Red Pyle Malay Cuckoo Marans Red New
Hampshire
Old English
Duckwing Game
British poultry standards
(Ian et al., 2019)

62. Silver Laced
Sebright Bantam
Gold Sicilian
Buttercup
Spekled Sussex Vorwerk
Golden Laced
Wyandotte
Partridge
Wyandotte
British poultry standards
(Ian et al., 2019)

63. 63

64. Effect of plumage colour on semen quality of Naked Neck chicken
64
Parameter Brown Black White
Volume (ml)
Haevy 0.19±0.01a A 0.27±0.02b A 0.21±0.02a A
Light 0.14±0.01a A 0.14±0.01a B 0.13±0.08a A
Concentaration x 109 ml
Haevy 1.92±0.05a A 2.05±0.10a A 1.85±0.08a A
Light 1.72±0.03a A 1.71±0.06a B 1.67±0.04a A
Morphological defects (%)
Haevy 10.12±1.35a A 10.04±1.52a A 11.83±1.16a A
Light 10.20±1.17a A 12.62±1.53a A 13.95±0.85a A
Heavy body weight rooster with black plumage color contain more semen volume and
sperm concentration and can be used for breeding purposes in backyard poultry system.
(Abbass et al., 2017)
(Heavy= >1600gm and Light= <1600 gm)

65. Effects of plumage colour on egg quality characteristics of
indigenous naked-neck chickens in deep litter
65
Gneotype of
NN layer
Egg Weight,
g
Shape Index
Shell
weight, g
Albumen
Weight, g
Yolk
Weight, g
White 54.3±0.44b 73.8±0.42b 7.46±0.16b 28.4±0.35b 18.5±0.27a
Brown 58.4±0.53a 73.3±0.5b 9.25±0.20a 31.1±0.42a 18.1 ±0.33a
Black 54.4±0.49b 75.4±0.46a 7.92±0.18b 28.4±0.39b 18.0 ±0.30a
Brown-feathered hens produced the heaviest eggs and more shell amount and tended
to deposit more albumen
(Dahloum et al., 2018)

66. Effect of plumage color on body weight of indigenous chicken
66
Plumage color Number of hens
Body weight (g)
(Mean ± SE)
Reddish Black 163 1459.60±30.33c
Blackish Red 66 1388.32± 42.17c
Red 67 1211.60± 26.72a
Black 62 1285.37± 39.10b
White with Black spot 54 1409.72 ± 47.33c
Reddish White 3 1315.33 ± 20.18b
Brown 24 1208.54 ±44.21a
Black white 24 1522.26 ± 44.21c
Mixed 26 1602.67 ± 128.12c
Total 489
Variations in plumage color had impact on the body weight of Indigenous chicken
(Sarker et al., 2014)

67. 67
Plumage colour have relationship with BW until the sexual maturity from 2 weeks until
28 weeks of age of birds and light colour feathers exhibited higher body growth and
weight than those with dark colour feathers.
Chamois plumage and silver plumage birds have higher body weight at 28th week of
age of adult body weight.
(Rizzi, 2018)
Plumage pigmentation is under the control of major (qualitative) genes and those
specific loci carrying genes for pigmentation may also influence the production
performance.
(Jaap and Grimes, 1956; Blackwood et al., 1962; Fox and Smyth,1984)
(Braumbaugh, 1971; Rizzi et al., 2013; Rizzi, 2018)

68. 68
Effect of plumage color on egg production and egg quality of indigenous
chicken
Birds with a variety of plumage colors have relatively same egg production but egg quality was
different. Eggs of black chickens had highest and thickest eggshell, red chicken eggshell color is
more brown or dark, and striped chicken has the highest specific gravity.
(Ismoyowati et al., 2010)

69. Effect of plumage colours on fertility (%) of chicken
69
Parental population : Mean fertility for the population was 94.79±0.39% with a co efficient of
variation of 2.37 per cent.
Progeny population : Dark brown pattern had highest fertility (96.63±0.98 with a coefficient of
variation of 1.75%) whereas barred pattern had lowest fertility (91.48±0.72% with a coefficient of
variation of 1.37%).
(Veerannagowda et al., 2018)
Mean and standard errors for fertility (%) at different ages as per parental plumage groups

70. Effect of plumage colours on body weight of chicken
70
Parental population : Mean BW of 6th and 8th week was 659.47 and 1071.87g at 8th, respectively
for the population.
Progeny population : Highest BW at 8th week was recorded in progenies from red speckled white
pattern with 1155.90g with 16.77 % CV. It was significantly variable (P ≤ 0.05) among progenies
from different plumage pattern groups, suggesting that BW at 6th and 8th week was under
genetic control and that certain loci controlling plumage patterns also controls the early BW.
(Veerannagowda et al., 2018)
Mean and standard errors for body weights at different ages as per parental plumage groups

71. Effect of plumage colours on “conformation traits” of chicken
71
Shank length :
Parental population : Mean breast angle, shank length, keel length for population were 50.620,
6.27cm, 9.22cm.
Mean and standard errors for conformation traits as per parental plumage groups
(Veerannagowda et al., 2018)
Keel length :
Progeny population : Mean breast angle, shank and keel length were significantly variable (P ≤
0.05) among different plumage pattern groups.

72. 72
Nutritional stress affects the expression of melanin- and structurally
based ornamental plumage
(McGraw et al., 2002)
Hue
Influence of stress on the expression of
structurally based plumage in male brown headed
cowbird
Effect of food deprivation on brightness and size of
melanin based ornamental coloration in male
brown headed cow bird
Structural coloration : Acurate signal for heath
condition in birds

73. 73
Under same gentics background, white plumage hens showed significantly
higher aggressiveness compared to red plumage hens in chasing, attacking,
pecking, and threatening behaviour traits.
Distinct behavioural findings observed is due to association between
phenotype and behaviour in chickens. Mixing red and white chickens together
might reduce the occurrence of aggressive behaviours.
Aggression in chickens is a serious economic and animal welfare issue in
poultry farming. Pigmentation traits are associated with animal behaviour.
Chicken pecking behaviour found to be related to feather colour, with
premelanosome protein 17 (PMEL17) being one of the candidate genes.
Feather colour affects aggressive behaviour of chickens
(Nie et al., 2019 )

74. A new study reveals that variation in climate can affect the colours
of birds
74
(Delhey et al., 2019)
In regions with high rainfall and cold
temperatures, most birds have dark
plumage colours.
One rule predicts that animals are
more pigmented in warmer and wetter
regions as the darker colours provide
better camouflage.
The other rule predicts darker animals in colder regions to support
thermoregulation.
Understanding the geographical differences in coloration may be important to
predict how animals adapt to climate change.

75. 75

76. Melanin determines the plumage colours and patterns in poultry.
76
Expression of plumage colour is a polygenic trait, which includes gene
interactions like dominance, incomplete dominance and epistasis that
culminate in the final phenotype.
Plumage colour in chicken is controlled by “E locus” which enhances the
distribution of melanin. Every E locus allele influence the adult female
phenotye.
Variation in the feather structure, shape and colour are directly correlated
with diverse functions of plumage in the life of chicken.

77. 77
Early body weight, breast angle, shank and keel length, egg shell qualities,
semen volume and sperm concentration in chicken may be controlled by
certain loci associated with plumage colours and patterns.
Distribution of eumelanin and pheomelanin is controlled by genetically
determined competitive advantage of one type of pigment over the other.
Distribution of melanin is complexed by differences in feather form and
structure associated with age, sex as well as structural variation between and
within feather tract and individual feather.
Plumage colours have significant effect on feather pecking and
aggressiveness.

78. 78
Potential interest of further research has to be stressed to understand
the basis of various plumage colour in indigenous native fowl.
Selection, conservation and development of chicken on the basis of
plumage colours and patterns for improving production potential of
indigenous genotype has to be studied in detail

79. 79
Bird species that uses feathers to carry
water -male sandgrouse (Africa)
Longest tail feathers belong to onagadori
cocks-domestic chicken bred in Japan (32 ft)
Bird species sings with its wings-
Male clubwinged manakins (violin like sound)
Flamingos get their pink color from eating
algae and crustaceans that contain
carotenoids
Smallest bird on earth bee hummingbird
(Mellisuga helenae) of Cuba (1.6g)
Golden Pheasant : Most
beautiful bird on earth